Conservation of Indigenous Vegetables in the Philippines: A Scoping Study Oraye, C.D., de Chavez, H.D., Aguilar, C.H.M., Makiling, F.C., Ladia, V.A. Jr., Enicola, E.E., Maghirang, R.G., Anunciado, M.S., Monville-Oro, E., Gonsalves, J., Hunter, D., Borelli, T. Mendonce, S. July, 2023 Working Paper #01 The CGIAR Research Initiative on Fruit and Vegetables for Sustainable Healthy Diets (FRESH) aims to use an end-to-end approach to increase fruit and vegetable intake and in turn improve diet quality, nutrition and health outcomes while also improving livelihoods, empowering women and youth and mitigating negative environmental impacts. The FRESH Initiative activities are bundled into six packages, namely: - Work Package 1: Understanding and Influencing Consumer Behaviour - Work Package 2: Biodiversity, genetic innovation, and seed systems - Work Package 3: Safe and sustainable production systems - Work Package 4: Post-harvest and inclusive markets - Work Package 5: Food Environments - Work Package 6: Strengthening the enabling environment. To learn more about this Initiative, please visit: Fruit and Vegetables for Sustainable Healthy Diets (FRESH) - CGIAR Citation: Oraye, C.D., de Chavez, H.D., Aguilar, C.H.M., Makiling, F.C., Ladia, V.A. Jr., Enicola, E.E., Maghirang, R.G., Anunciado, M.S.,Monville-Oro, E., Gonsalves, J., Hunter, D., Borelli, T., Mendonce, S. 2023. Conservation of Indigenous Vegetables in the Philippines: A Scoping Study. Alliance of Bioversity International and International Center for Tropical Agriculture - CIAT. Rome, Italy. 92 pages. Cover photo credit: ©2023 University of the Philippines – Institute of Plant Breeding Copyright © 2023 Bioversity International and International Center for Tropical Agriculture - CIAT This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (CC BY 4.0). https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://www.cgiar.org/initiative/fruit-and-vegetables-for-sustainable-healthy-diets-fresh/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Conservation of indigenous vegetables in the Philippines: A Scoping Study. Authors Oraye, Claudette D.1, de Chavez, Hidelisa D.1, Aguilar, Catherine Hazel M.1, Makiling, Florisa C.1, Ladia, Villamor A. Jr.1, Enicola, Elmer E.1, Maghirang, Rodel G.1, Anunciado, Ma. Shiela2, Monville-Oro, Emilita2, Gonsalves, Julian2, Hunter, Danny3, Borelli, Teresa3, Mendonce, Sharon3 Organizations 1 Institute of Plant Breeding 2 International Institute of Rural Reconstruction 3 Bioversity International 4 Summary Seasonality and inconsistent vegetable supplies due to the impacts of climate change, i.e., varying rainfall patterns, and drought, are major factors contributing to the availability and affordability of vegetables. There is a need to increase access to a diverse range of high-quality, resilient, and nutritious species and cultivars that are aligned to consumer and farmers’ preferences. In addition, crop diversification can address the challenges brought on by seasonality, improve dietary diversity for better nutrition, and strengthen environmental resilience. There is growing interest in the Philippines on the promotion of indigenous vegetables (IVs) for food security and nutrition. IVs play a crucial role in food security, income generation, and food culture. Their adaptability, plasticity, and resilience to biotic and abiotic stresses provide farmers with the needed coping strategies to confront climate change. The Philippines is home to a wide range of indigenous fruits and vegetables that offer diversity in food options for overall health and well-being. This study examines past and ongoing research and development initiatives, including agencies involved in research on IVs via a scoping literature review. Online databases were used to search for published articles between 2012 to 2022. Unpublished literature was also considered as a valuable source of information. Initiatives on IVs throughout the value chain - from drivers to inputs, production, postharvest/processing to market and consumer demands were documented. Examining the data on nutritional quality and functional properties demonstrates that IVs could contribute to the overall health and wellness of Filipinos, while ethnobotanical studies conducted indicate the importance of these crops as part of the culture and traditions of different communities throughout the country. Promotion for the conservation and utilization of IVs was undertaken using IEC (Information, Education and Communication) materials, distribution of planting materials, capacity building, and establishment of school gardens, among others. As one of the drivers of the value chain, research and development studies on genetic resources conservation, including the seed system, was highlighted in this study and led to the identification of priority crops for collection, conservation, characterization, evaluation, and seed system improvement and diversification for climate resilience and nutrition. Current mechanisms and potential models for the collection, and monitoring of traditional and indigenous vegetable diversity in the Philippines were also identified. Based on their assessed availability in national collections, their nutritional quality, cultural importance, adaptability and vulnerability, this review recommends focusing further efforts on nine priority species for collection and characterization, regeneration, evaluation, seed distribution and exchange. These species are: moringa (Moringa oleifera), birch flower (Broussonetia luzonica), gnetum (Gnetum gnemon), slender carpetweed (Glinus oppositifolius), bagbagkong (Telosma procumbens), cowpea (Vigna unguiculata subsp. unguiculata), rice bean (Vigna umbellata), jute mallow (Corchorus olitorius) and amaranths (Amaranthus spp.). Keywords Indigenous vegetables, genetic resources conservation, nutrition, climate resilience. 5 Contents Summary ............................................................................................................................................... 4 Keywords .............................................................................................................................................. 4 1. Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 9 2. Methodology ............................................................................................................................... 10 2.1 Gathering data: literature search and selection criteria ................................................... 10 2.2 Gathering data: screening and article selection ................................................................ 11 2.3 Data compilation and analysis ............................................................................................ 11 2.4 Study Limitations .................................................................................................................. 14 3. Results and discussion ............................................................................................................... 14 3.1 Germplasm conservation .................................................................................................... 14 3.1.1 Genetic variation ............................................................................................................ 14 3.1.2 Community Seed Banking ............................................................................................. 18 3.1.3 Genebanks ...................................................................................................................... 19 3.1.4 Germplasm collection at the National Plant Genetic Resources Laboratory (NPGRL) 20 3.1.5 Priority species ............................................................................................................... 21 3.2 Seed system and varietal improvement ............................................................................ 24 3.3 Nutritional Value of Philippine Indigenous Vegetables .................................................... 26 3.3.1 Nutritional and phytochemical composition .............................................................. 26 3.3.1 Medicinal properties ..................................................................................................... 42 3.4 Production and processing .................................................................................................. 45 3.4.1 Vegetables gathered from the wild or natural vegetation ........................................ 45 3.4.2 Vegetables grown in home gardens ............................................................................ 45 3.4.3 Indigenous vegetables grown in large scale polyculture or monoculture ............... 46 3.4.4 Indigenous vegetable production trends in the past decade ................................... 46 3.5 Post-harvest handling and processing ............................................................................... 51 3.6 Socio-cultural and economic value ..................................................................................... 52 3.7 Policy and institutional frameworks ................................................................................... 53 3.8 Research and promotion activities ..................................................................................... 54 3.8.1 Agencies involved in research and promotion ........................................................... 54 6 3.8.2 Promotion ....................................................................................................................... 56 3.9 Challenges and opportunities ............................................................................................. 58 4. Conclusions ................................................................................................................................. 63 5. Recommendations...................................................................................................................... 63 References .......................................................................................................................................... 66 Annexes ............................................................................................................................................... 82 Annex 1 ............................................................................................................................................ 82 Annex 2 ............................................................................................................................................ 86 Tables Table 1: Ethnobotanical studies of indigenous vegetables in the Philippines ............................ 14 Table 2: Morphological and genetic diversity studies on selected Philippine indigenous vegetables and fruits ......................................................................................................................... 16 Table 3: Priority indigenous vegetables for collection, conservation, evaluation, and seed system development. ........................................................................................................................ 21 Table 4: Proposed research activities on identified priority indigenous vegetables. ................. 23 Table 5: Indigenous vegetable varieties released under IPB-GTRRO over the past 10 years. ... 26 Table 6: Medicinal value of some indigenous vegetables against known diseases ................... 42 Table 7: Indigenous vegetables for promotion based on nutritional quality, functional properties, multiple uses, wide adaptation, climate resilience, and economic potential. ......... 60 Figures Figure 1: Literature review process used in the scoping study on indigenous vegetables ....... 12 Figure 2: A breakdown of the indigenous vegetables’ supply chain ............................................ 12 Figure 3: Results from the data compilation and analysis ............................................................ 13 Figure 4: Energy content (kcal per 100g edible portion, raw) of different parts of indigenous vegetables compared with commercial crop equivalents. ............................................................ 28 Figure 5: Energy content (kcal per 100g edible portion) contained in different parts of indigenous vegetables compared with commercial crop equivalents. ........................................ 29 Figure 6: Protein content (g per 100g edible portion) contained in different parts of indigenous vegetables compared with commercial crops equivalents. ...................................... 30 Figure 7: Protein content (g per 100g edible portion) contained in different parts of indigenous vegetables compared with commercial crops equivalents. ...................................... 31 Figure 8: Calcium content (g per 100g edible portion) contained in different parts of indigenous vegetables compared with commercial crops equivalents. ...................................... 33 7 Figure 9: Iron content (g per 100g edible portion) contained in different parts of indigenous vegetables compared with commercial crops equivalents............................................................ 36 Figure 10: Retinol activity equivalent, RAE (μg per 100g edible portion) contained in different parts of indigenous vegetables compared with commercial crop equivalents. .......................... 37 Figure 11: Thiamine (Vitamin B1) (mg per 100g edible portion) contained in different parts of indigenous vegetables compared with commercial crop equivalents. ........................................ 39 Figure 12: Riboflavin (Vitamin B2) (mg per 100g edible portion) contained in different parts of indigenous vegetables compared with a commercial crop equivalent, sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas). .............................................................................................................................................. 40 Figure 13: Ascorbic acid, Vitamin C (mg per 100g edible portion) contained in different parts of indigenous vegetables compared with commercial crop equivalents. ........................................ 41 Figure 14: The production of indigenous vegetables per crop group: a) root crops, b) fruit vegetables, c) vegetable pods, d) fruits, e) legumes, f) pith/shoot, g) leafy vegetables, and h) flower vegetables from 2011 to 2021. ............................................................................................. 47 Figure 15: Distribution map showing percent initiatives per province in the Philippines based on the total available literature from 2012-2022. ........................................................................... 55 8 9 1. Introduction The Philippines is one of the countries with the highest biodiversity of plant species and endemism covering 25 unique plant genera that can be found nowhere else in the world. It is also home to economically important fruits and vegetables. Despite the richness of food biodiversity, nutrition-related problems such as malnutrition among children remains a challenge. In 2021, the rate of stunting among children under 5 years old reached 26.7% which is considered by the World Health Organization (WHO) of high public health significance. Moreover, prevalence of malnutrition was 16.8% and wasting was 5.5% in the same age group, a rate considered as medium public health significance (DOST-FNRI, 2021). In addition to stunting, underweight, and wasting; micronutrient deficiencies, or hidden hunger, is also prevalent in the country. Overall prevalence of anaemia was 10.4%- with pregnant women having the highest prevalence (23%), followed by the elderly (60 years old up) at 18.6%. About 15.5% of children aged 6 months to–5 years old suffer from vitamin A deficiency, with infants 6-11 months old having the highest prevalence (21.8%) (DOST-FNRI, 2022). The experts from the Department of Science and Technology-Food and Nutrition Research Institute (DOST-FNRI) recommend that a healthy food plate for Filipino adults must include 33% cereals and cereal products, 17% meat, 33% vegetables, and 17% fruits. However, a Food Consumption Survey carried out in 2021 on Filipino adults aged 19-59 years old indicates a much lower intake of fruits and vegetables compared to recommendations. The average Filipino consumes 51.1% cereals and cereal products; 19.5% fish, meat, and poultry; 9.5% vegetables, and 2.8% of fruits (DOST-FNRI, 2021). Land conversion, natural calamities, extreme weather events, increasing pressure of pests and diseases, and lifestyle changes all contribute to the loss of agricultural biodiversity. The diversity of plant species cultivated in the Philippines has decreased over the years with 27- 38% of food energy consumed being non-native to the region (www.croptrust.org). In a study by Mak et al. (2019), it was found that Filipino school age children (6-12 years old) have poor dietary diversity consuming only 4 out of 9 food groups- mostly refined rice, and non- nutritious food. Their diet is monotonous and lacks variety which causes nutrient inadequacy (Mak et al., 2019). The aggressive growth of fast-food chains in the country has also contributed to the increasing nutrient inadequacy of their diets. Adolescents and students prefer cheap and accessible food over traditional healthy meals (Bondoc et al., 2019). Current interventions must promote increasing diversity in diets to address national malnutrition problems. Indigenous vegetables (IVs), either endemic to the Philippines or introduced from other geographical areas, can be good sources of nutrients. IVs are locally important crops for the sustainability of economies, human nutrition and health, and social systems that do not have the same global recognition as other mainstream crops (Keatinge et al., 2015). 10 In the Philippines, IVs are grown small-scale in-home gardens and marginal lands through traditional production practices or simply gathered from the wild, cultivated fields, and fallow lands for household consumption. These IVs are preserved through the local culture and tradition of small communities. Their cultivation, collection, preparation, and consumption are deeply embedded in local cuisine, culture, folklore, and language. IVs are healthy and inexpensive food alternatives to major crops that are affected by seasonality and price fluctuations. They are often rich in micronutrients and when integrated into meals, they can increase the nutritional quality of diets for children and women, particularly in rural communities. The resilience of IVs to pests and diseases and their adaptability to low-input conditions make them suitable for sustainable agricultural production in financially constrained conditions. IVs are key to healthy diets and food security in times of food scarcity, and especially under a changing global climate. This study presents past and ongoing work on traditional and indigenous vegetables in the Philippines from 2012-2022. It identifies gaps in the collection and promotion of IVs and the different stakeholders involved. This review will serve as a basis for the improvement of crops and diversification of fields for improved climate resilience and nutrition in the country. 2. Methodology 2.1 Gathering data: literature search and selection criteria The research design consisted of a scoping literature review of academic and unpublished literature- providing an overview of the current state of knowledge and identifying gaps within the field of indigenous vegetables (IVs) research. Research articles on IVs were collected from online databases such as CABI, Google Scholar, Science Direct, Scopus, and PubMed. Keywords used in the article search include but are not limited to indigenous crops, indigenous plants, indigenous vegetables, traditional vegetables, endemic vegetables, and common names and/or scientific names of known indigenous vegetables in the country. Online library searches such as the Integrated Library System of the University of the Philippines and reference lists were used to maximize queries. The search included unpublished literature not readily discoverable in mainstream databases such as non-peer reviewed journals, conference proceedings, university theses manuscripts, government reports, websites, news articles, and magazines. Government and non- government institutions, state colleges and universities were contacted through emails, phone calls, and the Freedom of Information website (eFOI). Crop names (scientific, local/vernacular, English), complete citation, abstract/significant findings, type of publication, funding source, implementing and collaborating agencies, and species distribution/collecting sites were compiled in a Google Sheet database for screening. 11 2.2 Gathering data: screening and article selection Authors evaluated gathered literature and selected articles based on the following inclusion criteria for IVs: 1) plant species that are native or introduced and have become part of the culture, heritage, and tradition of a community (Maundu, 2009) 2) indigenous (traditional) vegetables that don’t have the same global recognition as the major crops (Keatinge et al., 2015) 3) native to or originating in the Southeast Asian region, as well as species that have been introduced to and naturalized through adaptation and gradual assimilation over many centuries (Engle & Altoveros, 2000). The selection included IVs that are gathered from the wild, or encouraged to grow, or cultivated. The primary use of these vegetables is consumption in combination with starchy staples. Sometimes they are also used in small quantities to complement the taste of other foods or to add flavour to a meal. The selection included species that have adapted to natural or on-farm conditions and have been continuously cultivated as part of traditional farming systems. Also included are vegetable species that have additional medicinal purposes, serve as fodder, and as botanical pesticides, among others. Studies included were strictly from 2012 to 2022. 2.3 Data compilation and analysis Literature was categorized and sorted according to the following types: (1) referred and non- refereed journal articles, (2) conference proceedings (including full papers and abstracts), (3) annual and technical reports, (4) newsletters and magazines, (5) IEC (Information, Education and Communication) materials in the form of pamphlets, flyers, primers, and (6) websites of known institutions. Literature on the value chain components was divided based on value chain drivers such as: input, consumers, production, post-harvest and processing, market, as well as socio-economic policy and other related sciences. The types of literature per crop and the agencies involved in research and development on IVs were analysed using graphs and charts. A synthesis of the existing community seed bank and community-based approaches based on the literature was included in this report. Production statistics and nutritional quality evaluations were retrieved from government websites where the data is publicly available. A summary of the methodology is illustrated in Figure 1. 12 Figure 1: Literature review process used in the scoping study on indigenous vegetables A total of 265 studies from 508 search hits were included in the analysis after thorough screening and evaluation of the database. The studies included journal articles (43%), conference proceedings (26%), IEC materials (14%), and 1% to 7% annual reports, technical reports, theses, newsletters, and websites. Unpublished studies were also considered and were treated as equally important sources of information. Publications were categorized based on the value chain components and drivers of the vegetables’ supply chains from input to policy (Figure 2). Particularly relevant on the input side are the Genetic Resources Conservation and Seed systems categories. Figure 2: A breakdown of the indigenous vegetables’ supply chain Of the total number of publications, about 27% fall under the Input category including variety selection and development carried out by breeding institutions (Figure 3). Seed production and distribution of planting materials are carried out by government agencies and non-government 13 organizations. Sixty-seven percent (67%) of the reviewed publications include studies on genetic resources and conservation that directly affect IVs’ quality improvement and productivity. Initiatives on germplasm collection, conservation, and diversity analysis by different institutions are also present. Community seed banking efforts were noted as an important component for the continuous supply of seeds within communities. Production components make up 15% of the total publications in which most studies include recommendations on appropriate cultural management practices and the development of control measures to mitigate the incidence of pests and diseases in IVs. The post-harvest and processing component makes up 24% of the literature assessed. It includes studies on product development and value addition such as wine, dried powder, starch, and extracts for food preparations. Physical and physico-chemical profiling of food products, nutritional and functional properties of products and storage optimization were also considered. The least studied component is marketing, constituting only about 2% of the total literature included in this report. Most studies include value chain analysis and profitability studies carried out to support crop potential to improve livelihoods in rural and poor areas. Lastly, 27% of literature falls under the consumption component where most studies involve nutritional quality assessment for health and wellbeing. Studies include phytochemical, antioxidant, and antimicrobial properties, ethnobotanical/ethnopharmacological surveys, screening for nutraceutical properties, and clinical trials to provide information for consumers. Efforts on integrated nutrition programs and supplementary feeding among Filipino children were also noted. Figure 3: Results from the data compilation and analysis 14 Six percent (6%) of the literature includes other drivers of the IV supply chain such as socio- economic and agricultural policies and other relevant sciences such as engineering, animal science, and chemistry, which directly affect the IV value chain. 2.4 Study Limitations Literature collection was limited to 2 months from October to November 2022. Access to full- text papers was also limited in some cases due to copyright restrictions. Abstracts were only available for most scientific conference proceedings like the Crop Science Society of the Philippines conference and the National Academy of Science and Technology conference. 3. Results and discussion 3.1 Germplasm conservation Indigenous vegetables (IVs) play an integral role in socio-agricultural systems in the Philippines, especially at the community level (Capuno et. al., 2015). IVs can be gathered from the wild, grown in home gardens, or cultivated in comparatively large areas either as an intercrop or in monoculture. However, much like other biodiversity, IVs are threatened by commercial exploitation (such as logging and mining), population growth, urbanization, land degradation, extreme weather, pests and diseases (https://www.cbd.int). Due to these threats, germplasm conservation efforts must be strengthened (Dapar and Amoroso, 2022; Bernadas and Peralta, et. al., 2017; Capuno et.al., 2015; Ebert et. al., 2015; Chua-Barcelo, 2014). 3.1.1 Genetic variation Several ethnobotanical studies indicate high IVs’ diversity in a wide range of ecological niches. Surveys conducted in different provinces identified several species belonging to different plant families. These studies revealed a wide range of uses of indigenous species such as food and medicine (Table 1). Table 1: Ethnobotanical studies of indigenous vegetables in the Philippines Study site No. of identified species/family and usage References Calayan, Cagayan 70 species in 41 families; used as medicine and food (did not specify if used as vegetables) Docot et al., 2022 Ilocos Sur, Ilocos Norte, Quezon, La Union, Camarines Sur, Iloilo, Capiz, Bohol, Davao del Sur, South Cotabato 118 IVs from 35 families in 10 provinces, 20 municipalities, 40 barangays or villages de Chavez et al, 2019 Ilocos, Palawan and 27 species from 18 families identified in Ilocos Norte; 28 Maghirang et al., 2018 15 South-Central Mindanao species from 23 families in Palawan; 20 species from 15 families in South Central Mindanao Pala’wan tribe in Southern Palawan 63 species use as vegetables Bernadas and Peralta 2017 Agusan del Sur 53 species of wild edible plants from 46 families Arquion et al., 2015 Benguet 36 species from 27 genera and 20 families (did not indicate the number of species used as vegetables and were only specified as snacks, forage, religious offerings, processed/preserved, ingredients for cooking, source of dye or ink, food garnish, and medicine) Chua-Barcelo, 2014 Ilocos Norte 46 indigenous food plants from 27 plant families where 33 species were consumed mainly as vegetables Antonio et al., 2013; Antonio et al., 2011 Genetic diversity studies on IVs employed modern techniques in the morphological and molecular levels including nutritional and protein analysis (Table 2). Diversity analysis using morphological traits was carried out in Amaranthus spp., pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan), winged bean (Psophocarpus tetragonolobus), Indian nightshade known locally as balbalosa (Solanum lasiocarpum), cocoyam (Xanthosoma sagittifolium), jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus) and other related species. Other techniques used to identify diversity include the use of molecular markers in taro (Colocasia esculenta) and jackfruit (A. heterophyllus) and relatives; seed and leaf protein analysis in sickle senna known locally as mani-mani (Senna tora); and nutritional quality in cocoyam (X. sagittifolium). Only a few species were selected for genetic diversity studies despite the vast number of species used as IVs. Also, studies used a very limited number of samples while it is recommended (in diversity assessment) to evaluate a larger sample size for a better estimate of the allelic richness of populations (Muli et al., 2022). 16 Table 2: Morphological and genetic diversity studies on selected Philippine indigenous vegetables and fruits Indigenous vegetables species Level of Diversity Analysis No. of respondents in the consumer survey Market vendor sites No. of respondent s in the market survey Xanthosoma sagittifolium Nutritional analysis 51 accessions from 27 provinces Proximate, starch and oxalate (antinutrient) content vary across accessions. Mateo et al., 2019 Artocarpus spp. Molecular analysis using SSR markers 16 A. heterophyllus and 5 related species No. of alleles per marker from 6 to 17 with a PIC per marker from 0.73 to 0.89. Timog et al., 2019 Psophocarpus tetragonolobus Morphological analysis 33 accessions from Ilocos Norte Qualitative (H’=0.88) and quantitative characters (H’=0.83) showed high variability; some accessions have potential for commercialization Batara et al., 2018 Cajanus cajan Morphological analysis 38 accessions Diversity ranged from 0.14 (flower main colour) to 0.84 (leafiness) for qualitative traits and 0.30 (number of seeds per pod) to 0.88 (cotyledonous leaf width) for quantitative traits. de Chavez et al., 2017a P. tetragonolobus Morphological analysis 25 accessions 32% of quantitative traits observed have low to medium diversity while 27% have high diversity. de Chavez et al., 2017b 17 Indigenous vegetables species Level of Diversity Analysis No. of respondents in the consumer survey Market vendor sites No. of respondent s in the market survey Solanum lasiocarpum Morphological analysis 30 accessions from Adams, Ilocos Norte Moderate variability in qualitative and quantitative traits (mean H’=0.47). Abian et al., 2017 Amaranthus spp. Morphological analysis 18 accessions from 10 provinces Based on the Shannon-Weaver Diversity Index, 17 out of 34 traits (50%) have high diversity (>0.67). Gueco et al., 2016 Colocasia esculenta Molecular analysis using SSR markers 46 accessions PIC of banding patterns ranged from 0.69 to 0.96, indicating high genetic diversity. Rasco et al., 2016 X. sagittifolium Morphological analysis 148 accessions from 32 provinces 15 traits have high index values (H’ from 0.67–0.96); shape of corm (H’=0.96) and lamina length: breadth ratio (H’=0.90) with highest diversity. Villavicencio et al., 2015 Artocarpus heterophyllus Morphological analysis 20 accessions from Batangas, Laguna, Mindoro and Cavite Highest variation in fruit width (H’=0.80) and fruit length (H’=0.75); a promising accession from Batangas with favorable traits was selected. Valencia & Alcasid, 2015 Senna tora Leaf and seed protein analysis Number not indicated, collected from 13 municipalities in Bukidnon Diversity of seeds (H’=0.93), young leaves (H’=0.79) and mature leaves (H’=0.81) in terms of % crude protein was high Jamago et al., 2014 18 3.1.2 Community Seed Banking The initiatives on germplasm conservation of IVs documented in this study include activities by community seed banks and community-managed germplasm centres. Community seed banks (CSBs), in the Philippines are controlled and operated by farmer groups, farmer associations and non-government organizations. Sometimes they are facilitated by a government institution. This informal system aims to encourage seed conservation, production, and exchange among farmers within communities, between communities and public breeding institutions. CSBs also ensure the availability of quality planting materials in times of natural and man-made disasters. In some instances, participatory plant breeding and participatory varietal selection are included. CSBs are called by different names by different institutions. Below are some of the more notable CSBs initiatives undertaken in the Philippines in the past decade: A seed school and seed library were established by the non-profit organization Global Seed Savers (GSS) in partnership with the Benguet Association of Seed Savers (BASS) in Cebu. The goal of the seed school was to equip local farmers with knowledge on seed conservation and encourage them to use traditional varieties. By cooperating with other farmers, the intervention helped farmers save as much as PhP 5,000 (USD 90) per year. The organization aims to establish seed libraries in every province to provide a good source of seeds during emergencies such as the pandemic (Tan, 18 June 2018). The non-government organization Magsasaka at Siyentipiko para sa Pag-unlad ng Agrikultura (MASIPAG), literally translating to “industrious”, has implemented participatory breeding and seed banking for rice and several vegetable species. MASIPAG is a farmer-led network of people’s organizations, NGOs and scientists working towards the sustainable use and management of biodiversity through farmers’ control of genetic and biological resources, agricultural production and associated knowledge. Recently, MASIPAG collaborated with scientists from Right Seeds on vegetable seed production, selection and breeding of Malabar spinach (Basella alba), moringa (Moringa olefeira), and jute mallow (Corchorus olitorius) in Mindanao (Bachmann & Ortiz, 2022). The promotion of genetic resources conservation is also done at the school level via the initiative of the International Institute for Rural Reconstruction (IIRR) in collaboration with the Department of Education. School gardens are established to stimulate behavioural changes towards greater appreciation of vegetables and fruits and to promote healthy diets among school children. IIRR has established Crop Museums to serve as conservation sites and production sites of planting materials of assorted crops to be able to supply school gardens and nearby communities. Requirements for the establishment of a Crop Museum include a 200 m2 garden area, that receives at least 6 hours of sunlight per day and has a good water source and drainage system (Oro et al., 2018). 19 3.1.3 Genebanks Ex situ germplasm centres are established to safeguard the genetic diversity of agriculturally important crops in the country. They serve as the source of genetic variability for crop improvement and continuously share materials with breeding institutions as well as with the international community, farmers and other interested individuals or parties. A number of indigenous vegetables in Eastern Visayas was conserved ex situ through a collaborative effort between state universities. Indigenous vegetables such as Malabar spinach (B. alba), pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan), gnetum (Gnetum gnemon), water spinach (Ipomoea aquatica), winged bean (Psophocarpus tetragonolobus), vegetable hummingbird (Sesbania grandiflora), snake gourd (Trichosanthes cucumerina), and cowpea (Vigna unguiculata subsp. unguiculata) were collected and propagated at the germplasm conservation site of the Department of Horticulture, Visayas State University (VSU), Leyte through the Philippine Higher Education Research Network (PHERNet) project to be available as a source of planting materials in the upland marginal areas in the province (Capuno et al., 2015). The Northern Philippine Root Crops Research and Training Center (NPRCRTC) of the Benguet State University holds and maintains a germplasm collection of root crops to serve as parent materials for varietal development (www.bsu.edu.ph). Meanwhile, the Philippine Root Crops Research and Training Center (PhilRootcrops), also based at the VSU, coordinates the network of state universities and the Department of Agriculture (DA) experiment stations for varietal development of root crops in the country. The centre holds the largest collection of root crops and tubers with 304 accessions of cassava, 969 accessions of sweet potato, 370 accessions of 6 yam species, and 467 accessions of taro. Thirty-one (31) accessions of cassava were lost due to typhoon Yolanda in 2013 (www.philrootcrops.vsu.edu.ph). The Natural Resources Conservation and Management Centers (NRCMC) based in Mariano Marcos State University (MMSU) led the plant genetics characterization and utilization in the Ilocos Region. The project “Development of Propagation Management Technology for the Wild Vegetable Alokon (Broussonetia luzonica)” was initiated by the centre to utilize accessions and identify the proper propagation technique for this crop. The institute also initiated the propagation studies for gấc (Momordica cochinchinensis) and T. procumbens. It launched a catalogue of indigenous food plants that documented 46 species collected from 7 towns in the region (www.research.mmsu.edu.ph). The Bureau of Plant Industry (BPI) Research Center in La Granja, Negros Occidental and Crop Research Production and Support Division in Malate, Manila holds collections of landraces, wild relatives, and traditional/farmer’s varieties of legumes and IVs including mungbean, lima bean, cowpea, ricebean, winged bean, and hyacinth bean (www.buplant.da.gov.ph). The National Plant Genetic Resources Laboratory (NPGRL) of the Institute of Plant Breeding at the University of the Philippines Los Baños (UPLB) serves as the national http://www.philrootcrops.vsu.edu.ph/ 20 repository and maintains the largest collection of IVs in the country. Funding support to operate the centre comes from national and international institutions like the DA-Bureau of Agricultural Research (DA-BAR), the Philippine Council for Agriculture, Aquatic and Natural Resources Research and Development (DOST-PCAARRD), Department of Health (DOH), The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), Global Crop Diversity Trust (GCDT), the Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT, the World Vegetable Center (WorldVeg) , and the Rural Development Administration (RDA), South Korea. These supports are mainly on a project basis. Regular funding for the maintenance of existing collections comes from the UPLB but additional resources are very much needed to regenerate, multiply, characterize, evaluate and maintain existing collections. 3.1.4 Germplasm collection at the National Plant Genetic Resources Laboratory (NPGRL) A total of 4,901 accessions from more than 78 different species of IVs are maintained at the NPGRL (Annex 1). Most of the collection is made up of root crops (e.g., taro, cocoyam) and legumes (e.g., cowpea, lima bean), which are also utilized as vegetables. These germplasm collections are important in maintaining the diversity of vegetable crops. This is especially true for IVs, which are continuously threatened by habitat destruction, crop replacement in farmers’ fields by modern and high yielding varieties, changing consumer preferences, and adverse weather conditions. For example, rice bean (Vigna umbellata), a crop endemic to South East Asia, is slowly being replaced by the more popular mung bean (Vigna radiata) due to the longer cooking times and lower productivity of the former (Sister et al., 2019). Research and development related to conservation of IVs have received less funding support than mainstream crops. At the NPGRL, the most recent projects usually involve IVs complemented with major crops, but only a few are dedicated to IVs only like the project on “Conserving the diversity of Vigna species (cowpea, mung bean) and pigeon pea germplasm of the Philippines” funded by the DA-BAR and the Asian Food and Agriculture Cooperation Initiative (AFACI) in 2015 to 2018. Major crops receive more funding support from national or international institutions despite higher costs associated with field maintenance or tissue culture activities. For example, cassava received significant funding from DA-BAR; taro from DOST-PCAARRD, FAO and the GCDT; sweet potato, yam and taro from the GCDT, legumes and solanaceous crops from the Asian Food and Agriculture Cooperation Initiative (AFACI) Program of the Rural Development Authority of South Korea, DA-BAR, PCAARRD-DOST, GCDT and the World Vegetable Center (formerly AVRDC); cocoyam (Xanthosoma sagittifolium) from the Emerging Interdisciplinary Development Research of the University of the Philippines (EIDR); corn (Zea mays) from the DA; and the medicinal plants (some of which are also used as vegetables and spices) from the Philippine Institute for Traditional and Alternative Health Care of the Department of Health (PITAHC-DOH) and DOST-PCAARRD. Support from funding institutions like the DOST-PCAARRD are driven by 31 specific commodities that are classified into major and minor based on the regional interest and 21 product niches. A commodity is recognized as major when six or more consortia show support to carry out research and development activities on the commodity (www.dost.gov.ph). Also, support and funding are most likely given to projects that can deliver products and services to maximize productivity. 3.1.5 Priority species The NPGRL, being the national repository, has a large collection of IVs species that require regeneration, characterization and evaluation. Given this large number, prioritization of IVs species is needed to ensure resources are used efficiently. Thus, priority species in this paper were selected based on their nutritional quality, functional properties, and wide adaptability. The absence or the very limited number of accessions available in existing collections, their cultural importance, and their potential as sustainable food sources were also considered. One of the priority crops is moringa (Moringa oleifera), known locally as malunggay, which is one of the most commonly consumed IVs in the country (DOST-FNRI, 2021). A considerable amount of basic research exists describing the plant’s potential in contributing to health and wellbeing, yet, the crop’s diversity has not been assessed. No comprehensive collection exists and product development is not associated with a specific variety to ensure standardization. Other identified priority species for conservation, reasons for conservation and development of the seed system and target areas for collection are presented in Table 3. Table 3: Priority indigenous vegetables for collection, conservation, evaluation, and seed system development. Crop (Scientific name) Reason for Conservation Target collecti on area Moringa (Moringa oleifera) High nutritional value. An excellent source of calcium, potassium, beta-carotene, riboflavin, niacin, and sodium. Wide adaptability, culturally important. Potential for national varietal recommendation. Leaves and fruits are eaten as vegetables. Future collections for nutritional analysis, limited accessions available at NPGRL. Throughout the country Birch flower (Broussonetia luzonica) Endemic to the Philippines. Culturally important for the Ilocanos ethnolinguistic group. Decreasing consumption. Leaves and flowers eaten as vegetables. Production technologies/guidelines exist. Anti-cancer, anti-obesity, and wound healing properties. Flowers are a good source of protein, potassium, and zinc while leaves are sources of calcium, iron, and riboflavin. No NPGRL collection. Luzon, Mindanao http://www.dost.gov.ph/ 22 Crop (Scientific name) Reason for Conservation Target collecti on area Gnetum (Gnetum gnemon) Culturally important for the Bisaya ethnolinguistic group. Decreasing population and popularity as an indigenous vegetable. Excellent source of protein, fibre, and ascorbic acid. No NPGRL collection. Visayas, Mindanao Glinus (Glinus oppositifolius) Easy to multiply as seeds. Large potential as medicinal plant. Eaten as a vegetable, it is an excellent source of sodium and zinc, and has anti-diabetic properties. No NPGRL collection. Luzon Bagbagkong (Telosma procumbens) Present in the wild but decreasing population. Existing technology for propagation. Fruits and flowers can be eaten. Excellent source of potassium and niacin, culturally important especially in Northern Luzon. Only 1 accession in NPGRL collection. Luzon Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata subsp. unguiculata) Collections within NPGRL exist but need regenerating. Accession diversity assessment and evaluation are also needed. Seeds are rich in energy, protein, carbohydrates, fibre, phosphorus, thiamine, and niacin. Young leaves and shoots are also rich in thiamine. Short maturity, can be planted year-round. Drought tolerant, highly adaptable to a wide range of environments. Throughout the country1/ Ricebean (Vigna umbellata) Several accessions are present in the NPGRL, but they need further characterization, regeneration, and evaluation. Additional accessions are also needed to increase collection diversity. Widely adapted. A rich source of energy, protein, carbohydrate, fibre, calcium, phosphorus, and thiamine. Luzon, Visayas1/ Jute mallow (Chorchorus olitorius) Leaves are high in calcium, phosphorus, potassium, zinc, beta-carotene, vitamin A, and riboflavin. Widely adaptable. Culturally important in many parts of the country. Easy to multiply through seeds. Throughout the country1/ Amaranths (Amaranthus spp.) Includes amaranth species such as A. viridis, A. tricolor, A. spinosus. Nutritious (e.g., A. viridis is rich in calcium, potassium, and riboflavin while A. spinosus is rich calcium, iron, beta-carotene, RAE, riboflavin. Easy to multiply through seeds. Short life cycle; widely adaptable. Throughout the country1/ Source: FNRI PhilFCT (http://enutrition.fnri.dost.gov.ph/site/index.php), de Chavez (2019) 1/less priority for collection since NPGRL already holds many accessions. Additional collection can be undertaken as needed. 23 Each of the proposed priority species has a recommended set of research activities associated with its conservation, ranging from additional collection and characterization to seed exchange with farmers and stakeholders (Table 4). Seed distribution and exchange is an important avenue to promote the utilization of genetic resources. Hence, it is important that activities should not stop after evaluation and selection and continue to reach farmers and consumers. Species like moringa (M. oleifera), birch flower (B. luzonica), gnetum (G. gnemon), Glinus (G. oppositifolius), and bagbagkong (T. procumbens) will start from collection since the NPGRL holds very few accessions of the species, if none at all. The remaining priority crops, which already have a great number of accessions, require further evaluation. For example, the genebank holds 300 accessions of cowpea (V. unguiculata subsp. unguiculata), but these need further evaluation to identify accessions that are highly nutritious, widely adaptable, and that may possess other favourable traits to be multiplied and promoted for distribution and consumption. Table 4: Proposed research activities on identified priority indigenous vegetables. Priority species (Scientific name) Timeline for research activities Collection / Characterization Regeneration /Multiplication Evaluation Seed distribution/ exchange Moringa (Moringa oleifera) Birch flower (Broussonetia luzonica) Gnetum (Gnetum gnemon) Glinus (Glinus oppositifolius) Bagbagkong (Telosma procumbens) Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata subsp. unguiculata) Rice bean (Vigna umbellata) 24 Priority species (Scientific name) Timeline for research activities Collection / Characterization Regeneration /Multiplication Evaluation Seed distribution/ exchange Jute mallow (Chorchorus olitorius) Amaranths (Amaranthus spp.) 3.2 Seed system and varietal improvement Seeds and planting materials are the basic inputs for crop production and food security. The seed system makes use of plant materials and knowledge that are all necessary for supplying seeds to farmers. There are two major types of seed supply systems that are operating in the Philippines - (1) formal, organized, commercial, and (2) informal, traditional, and local. The former involves the production and supply of seeds by large, specialized agencies or parastatal and private companies while the latter involves the traditional farmers’ practices for seed saving, bartering with neighbours or fellow farmers, and even purchasing seeds from the local store. Formal IV seed system initiatives in the country include initiatives organized by the DA offices and BPI stations that produce and distribute seeds to farmers. This is part of the government's efforts to promote the use of indigenous crops. Planting materials of jute mallow (Corchorus olitorius), Malabar spinach (Basella alba, B. rubra), amaranths (Amaranthus spp.), moringa (Moringa oleifera), waterleaf (Talinum fruticosum), assorted beans, and vegetable hummingbird (Sesbania grandiflora) are among the most commonly distributed crops in many parts of the country. Also, other research institutions such as the Institute of Plant Breeding at the University of the Philippines Los Baños (IPB-UPLB), through funding from DA-BAR, has initiatives on seed multiplication and distribution. The project “Varietal Evaluation, Promotion and Multiplication of Selected Indigenous Vegetables'' produced and distributed planting materials of several IVs in the form of seeds, seedlings, cuttings and rooted cuttings in the CALABARZON (Cavite, Laguna, Batangas, and Rizal) Region, Palawan and Ilocos Region. The distributed planting materials were species that underwent on-farm and on-station trials and were selected for favourable traits (e.g., high yielding, good eating quality). Another DA-BAR supported project, “Ensuring Farmers’ Access to Improved Varieties of Lowland Vegetables through Basic Seeds and Technical Support to DA Regional Field Offices Seed Production”, produced basic/breeder seeds (or other planting materials thereof) of IPB-developed varieties. This project focused on the production of lowland vegetables as well as some IVs like roselle (Hibiscus sabdariffa), aibika, known locally as lagikway (Abelmoschus manihot), bottle-gourd or upo (Lagenaria 25 siceraria), and angled luffa or patola (Luffa acutangula). Breeder seeds were produced at the breeding station and made available to the DA Regional Field Offices that will continue seed production and varietal propagation for local farmers nationwide. Efforts from the government sector and universities, however, are not enough to ensure seed security for farmers at the community level. The informal seed system must also be strengthened to complement these efforts. The community-based seed system or the informal seed system keeps many varieties available for farmers and the community, maintains seed security, conserves agrobiodiversity, encourages quality seed production for planting, and preserves and conserves traditional varieties with favourable characteristics (Manzanilla et al, 2014). For instance, a community-based seed system was established for promising IVs like jute mallow, cucumber, bottle gourd, eggplant, and ridged gourd in Camarines Sur. The project initiated by the World Vegetable Center (WorldVeg) focused on seed conservation and multiplication to ensure the availability of good quality seeds for home gardens and commercial production. Seeds of IVs were distributed to other agricultural research centres, farmers’ organizations, non-governmental organizations, and individual farmers for conservation. The system has been well received by the community since its implementation in 2009. The continuation and expansion of the seed system has been proposed under the Regional High Value Commercial Crops (HVCC) Program under the Department of Agriculture of Region 5 (FAO, 2014). In 2012, the regional office started to show support by offering initial materials such as vegetable seeds, planting materials, knapsack sprayers, carabao, greenhouse, pH meter, vegetable processing equipment, and PhP 50,000 (1,000USD) worth of inputs for those who are interested in establishing vegetable demonstration farms. The number of crops grew from five crops at the beginning of the project up to 24 crops by the end in 2011, increasing the valuable source of seeds for farmers and the community (Ebert et al., 2015). Consumer preferences are changing and the demand for healthy food options is increasing. The varietal development of nutritious IVs for storability, high yield, and seasonality is necessary for these species to be market competitive like other commercial crops. Some IVs are already registered under the Institute of Plant Breeding – Germplasm and Technology Registration and Release Office (IPB-GTRRO), University of the Philippines Los Baños (Table 5). These varieties have well-defined morphological and yield characteristics, selected from germplasm collections through a series of observational trials. Seed production of these varieties is ongoing and some are already commercialized through the National Seed Foundation of IPB. 26 Table 5: Indigenous vegetable varieties released under IPB-GTRRO over the past 10 years. Crop Scientific name No. of varieties Variety name Aibika or lagikway Abelmoschus manihot 2 ‘Glan’, ‘Sariaya’ Taro Colocasia esculenta 6 ‘Gabing Isabela’, ‘Sinibuyas 1 Nueva Ecija’, ‘Sinibuyas 2 Nueva Ecija’, ‘Quezon Gabi 9’, ‘Aba Benguet’, ‘Aba Ifugao’ Yam Dioscorea alata 2 ‘Dayang 1’, ‘Dayang 2’ Lesser yam Dioscorea esculenta 1 ‘Busilak’ Roselle Hibiscus sabdariffa 2 ‘Reina’, ‘Pasuquin’ Bottle gourd Lagenaria siceraria 1 ‘Leona’ Winged bean Psophocarpus tetragonolobus 1 ‘Gloria’ Lima bean Phaseolus lunatus 2 ‘Dadiangas’, ‘Aurora’ 3.3 Nutritional Value of Philippine Indigenous Vegetables Most consumer-related studies involve pharmacognostic evaluation, phytochemical screening, and toxicity studies of indigenous vegetables (61%). Others include ethnopharmacological/ethnomedicinal surveys (18%), ethnobotanical surveys (7%), proximate analysis (6%), feeding programs (3%), larvicide development, cooking contests, and promotion of nutritional analysis through websites (5%). 3.3.1 Nutritional and phytochemical composition The Food and Nutrition Research Institute (DOST-FNRI) of the Department of Science and Technology provides nutritional information on a variety of food and food items including indigenous vegetables. A nutritional database containing analysis of proximates, fibber, sugars, minerals, vitamins, and lipids of about 1,500 food items can be accessed through the Philippine Food Composition Tables Online Database (PhilFCT®). These data serve as a basis for dietary intake assessments, nutritional research, and nutritional http://i.fnri.dost.gov.ph/ 27 epidemiology. The information is incorporated in the Meal Eval Plus software that calculates the energy, nutrition, and percent contribution of recipes or meals for effective costing of balanced meals. Results from the 2021 Expanded National Nutrition Survey (ENNS) indicate that the food intake of Filipinos mostly consists of rice and other cereal products, fish and meat. Inadequacies of energy, protein, and micronutrient intakes- particularly Calcium, Iron, Vitamin A, Vitamin C, Thiamine (Vitamin B1) and Riboflavin (Vitamin B2)- were noted. About 94.7% of adolescents between 13-15- and 16-18-years of age did not meet the recommended energy intake of 2,435 kcal per day and 2,645 kcal per day, respectively. Lactating (88.7%) and pregnant mothers (91.5%) did not meet the daily protein requirement, while adolescents aged 16-18 years old (97%) and pregnant mothers (100%) did not meet their daily iron intake. Adults aged 19-59 years old (97.2%) and the elderly aged 60 years and above (95.5%) did not meet the daily requirement for calcium. About 83.5% of adolescents aged 16-18 years old did not meet the daily requirement for vitamin A while 99.2% among adolescents aged 16-18 years old did not meet their vitamin C requirement. The required daily thiamine and riboflavin is also not met for most Filipinos (DOST-FNRI, 2021). This review will focus on the limiting nutrients in the Filipino diet as described in the ENNS and will identify which of the IVs have the potential to contribute in addressing these deficiencies. Roots/tubers, fruits, seeds, leaves, and flowers are the different plant parts consumed as vegetables. The succeeding discussions on the nutritional quality of IVs are divided according to these plant parts. Fruit vegetables are divided into vegetable pods (refer to dehiscent fruits), tree vegetables (refer to fruit trees) and fruit vegetables (refer to other fruits). Pith (e.g., banana pith) or shoots (e.g., bamboo shoots, coconut, heart of palm) are also utilized as vegetables but data is not presented since there are only few representative species and their nutritional values are relatively lower compared to the other vegetables. Nutritional content of IVs are presented in a series of graphs in the sections below. The top 5-15 IVs are presented per crop group. A reference crop, or commercial crop, is also included in each graph to serve as comparison. All data included in the analysis are expressed for the raw ingredient. 28 Energy Beans and root crops are important sources of energy. Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata subsp. unguiculata) and rice bean (Vigna umbellata) have higher energy content (358 kcal and 356 kcal) than mung bean (Vigna radiata var. radiata) (348 kcal). Among the root crops, swamp taro (Cyrtosperma merkusii) has the highest energy content (153 kcal), just below that of cassava (Manihot esculenta) at 155 kcal. Coconut (Cocos nucifera) pulp also contains high energy at 319 kcal. Although botanically considered a fruit, coconut is an important part of the vegetable dishes called guinataan among Filipino households. The energy content of waterleaf (Talinum triangulare) leaves is exceptional. It has the highest energy content at 557 kcal per 100g edible portion among all the IVs recorded in the PhilFCT®. Tamarind (Tamarindus indica) flowers and moringa (Moringa oleifera) fruits are also good sources of energy (Figures 4 and 5). Figure 4: Energy content (kcal per 100g edible portion, raw) of different parts of indigenous vegetables compared with commercial crop equivalents. From top to bottom, comparisons with yardlong bean (Vigna unguiculata subsp. sesquipedalis) and unripe papaya (Carica papaya). Energy, calculated (kcal) in vegetable pods Energy, calculated (kcal) in tree vegetable Source: Philippine Food Composition Tables Online Database, PhilFCT® (i.fnri.dost.gov.ph) 93 68 51 45 38 33 0 20 40 60 80 100 Moringa oleifera Clitoria ternatea Vigna unguiculata subsp. unguiculata Lablab purpureus Vigna unguiculata subsp. sesquipedalis* Raphanus sativus 319 102 93 77 74 27 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 Cocos nucifera Psidium guajava Pithecellobium dulce Tamarindus indica Mangifera altissima Carica papaya* 29 Figure 5: Energy content (kcal per 100g edible portion) contained in different parts of indigenous vegetables compared with commercial crop equivalents. From top to bottom, comparison with mung bean (Vigna radiata var. radiata), sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas), and banana (Musa x balbisiana). Energy, calculated (kcal) in seed legumes Energy, calculated (kcal) in leafy vegetables Energy, calculated (kcal) in flower vegetables Source: Philippine Food Composition Tables Online Database, PhilFCT® (i.fnri.dost.gov.ph). Protein Crops with the highest protein content are the dried legumes such as pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan) (21.2 g per 100 g edible portion), cowpea (Vigna unguiculata subsp. unguiculata) (20.4 g), 358 356 348 348 348 342 344 346 348 350 352 354 356 358 360 Vigna unguiculata subsp. unguiculata Vigna umbellata Phaseolus lunatus Vigna radiata var radiata* Cajanus cajan 557 131 111 108 108 69 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 Talinum triangulare Marsilea crenata Cymbopogon citratus Ipomoea triloba Moringa oleifera Ipomoea batatas* 86 68 58 49 39 33 0 20 40 60 80 100 Tamarindus indica Broussonetia luzonica Gliricidia sepium Telosma procumbens Musa x balbisiana* Cucurbita maxima 30 lima bean (Phaseolus lunatus) (19.8 g), and rice bean (Vigna umbellata) (18.4 g). These crops are incorporated in many dishes. For example, fresh or dried rice beans are cooked in coconut cream, with pork, in meat stews, or in vegetable stew and sautéed with other vegetables (Sister et al., 2018). Some leafy vegetables also have a considerable amount of protein. This includes the leaves of moringa (Moringa oleifera) (9.7 g), of the fern Marsilea crenata known locally as apat-apat (7.6 g), of cassava (Manihot esculenta) (7.10 g), gnetum (Gnetum gnemon) and of the vegetable hummingbird (Sesbania grandiflora) known locally as katuray (6.6 g). Cassava is known for its tubers and the tubers are widely utilized for food and industrial purposes. However, its leaves are also utilized as a vegetable and cooked with coconut cream in Panay Island, Southern Tagalog, and the Bicol Region (Sister et al., 2018). Birch flower (Broussonetia luzonica) and the leaves of Telosma procumbens known locally as bagbagkong or kapas-kapas also have 6.3 g and 4.1 g protein, respectively (Figure 6 and 7). Figure 6: Protein content (g per 100g edible portion) contained in different parts of indigenous vegetables compared with commercial crops equivalents. From top to bottom, comparison with cassava (Manihot esculenta), eggplant (Solanum melongena), yardlong bean (Vigna unguiculata subsp. sesquipedalis) and unripe papaya (Carica papaya). Protein (g) in root crops Protein (g) in fruit vegetables 3.10 2.50 2.30 2.30 1.70 0.60 0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50 Amorphophallus paeoniifolius Dioscorea luzonensis Colocasia esculenta Dioscorea hispida Dioscorea alata Manihot esculenta* 4.80 1.20 1.20 0.40 0.40 0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00 Capsicum frutescens Solanum melongena* Momordica charantia Lagenaria siceraria Benincasa hispida 31 Protein (g) in vegetables pods Protein (g) in tree vegetables Source: Philippine Food Composition Tables Online Database, PhilFCT® (i.fnri.dost.gov.ph). Figure 7: Protein content (g per 100g edible portion) contained in different parts of indigenous vegetables compared with commercial crops equivalents. From top to bottom, comparison with mung bean (Vigna radiata var. radiata), sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas), and banana (Musa x balbisiana). Protein (g) in seed legumes 3.80 3.40 2.70 2.60 2.50 0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50 4.00 Clitoria ternatea Vigna unguiculata subsp. unguiculata Vigna unguiculata subsp. sesquipedalis* Pachyrhizus erosus Lablab purpureus 3.90 3.20 2.50 2.40 2.00 1.00 0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 Cocos nucifera Pithecellobium dulce Artocarpus camansi Artocarpus altilis Artocarpus heterophyllus Carica papaya* 23.20 21.20 20.40 18.40 19.80 0.00 5.00 10.00 15.00 20.00 25.00 Vigna radiata var radiata* Cajanus cajan Vigna unguiculata subsp. unguiculata Vigna umbellata Phaseolus lunatus 32 Protein (g) in leafy vegetables Protein (g) in flower vegetables Source: Philippine Food Composition Tables Online Database, PhilFCT® (i.fnri.dost.gov.ph). Calcium Most leafy IVs have a high calcium content. The spiny amaranth leaves (Amaranthus spinosus) (888 mg per 100 g) contain eight times as much calcium as the commercial sweet potato (I. batatas) leaves. It has twice as much as the calcium content of dried legume rice bean (400 mg per 100 g) and other leafy greens such as the leaves of moringa (369 mg per 100 g), of slender amaranth (A. viridis) (358 mg per 100 g), and of himbabao (Broussonetia luzonica) (347 mg per 100 g) (Figure 8). The spiny amaranth and other leafy vegetables can be recommended for children aged 10-18 years old, the stage when calcium requirements fall below 1,000 mg per day for extensive growth and development in both genders (FNRI, 2018). These vegetables can be a good alternative to milk and dairy products especially in the rural areas where calcium inadequacy is more prevalent than in urban areas. Swamp taro (C. merkusii) had the highest calcium content among the root crops with 232 mg. Among vegetable pods, cowpea (V. unguiculata subsp. unguiculata) had the highest Ca content with 106 mg, while paho mango (Mangifera altissima) had the highest among tree vegetables with 95 mg. 9.70 7.60 7.10 6.60 6.60 4.70 0.00 2.00 4.00 6.00 8.00 10.00 12.00 Moringa oleifera Marsilea crenata Manihot esculenta Gnetum gnemon Sesbania grandiflora Ipomoea batatas* 0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00 7.00 Broussonetia luzonica Telosma procumbens Gliricidia sepium Tamarindus indica Cucurbita maxima Musa x balbisiana* 33 Figure 8: Calcium content (g per 100g edible portion) contained in different parts of indigenous vegetables compared with commercial crops equivalents. From top to bottom, comparison with sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas), eggplant (Solanum melongena), yardlong bean (Vigna unguiculata subsp. sesquipedalis) unripe papaya (Carica papaya) and banana (Musa x balbisiana). Calcium, Ca (mg) in root crops Calcium, Ca (mg) in fruit vegetables Calcium, Ca (mg) in vegetable pods 232 152 92 64 60 39 0 50 100 150 200 250 Cyrtosperma merkusii Ipomoea batatas* Dioscorea esculenta Amorphophallus paeoniifolius Dioscorea luzonensis Colocasia esculenta 65 32 19 12 11 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 Capsicum frutescens Benincasa hispida Momordica charantia Lagenaria siceraria Solanum melongena* 106 56 42 41 40 39 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 Vigna unguiculata subsp. unguiculata Raphanus sativus Clitoria ternatea Moringa oleifera Vigna unguiculata ssp. sesquipedalis* Lablab purpureus 34 Calcium, Ca (mg) in tree vegetables Calcium, Ca (mg) in seed legumes Calcium, Ca (mg) in leafy vegetables 95 90 68 60 56 40 0 20 40 60 80 100 Mangifera altissima Artocarpus heterophyllus Tamarindus indica Carica papaya* Artocarpus camansi Artocarpus altilis 400 214 131 100 64 0 100 200 300 400 500 Vigna umbellata Phaseolus lunatus Cajanus cajan Vigna radiata var radiata* Vigna unguiculata subsp. unguiculata 888 369 358 347 293 284 270 257 256 253 242 204 192 186 175 167 105 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 A m a ra n th u s sp in o su s M o ri n g a o le if e ra A m a ra n th u s vi ri d is B ro u ss o n e ti a l u zo n ic a S o la n u m a m e ri ca n u m C o rc h o ru s o li to ri u s Ip o m o e a t ri lo b a C o lo ca si a e sc u le n ta A lt e rn a n th e ra s e ss il is A b e lm o sc h u s m a n ih o t H ib is cu s sa b d a ri ff a N a st u rt iu m o ff ic in a le S y n e d re ll a n o d if lo ra S e sb a n ia g ra n d if lo ra M a n ih o t e sc u le n ta F ic u s p se u d o p a lm a Ip o m o e a b a ta ta s* 35 Calcium, Ca (mg) in flower vegetables Source: Philippine Food Composition Tables Online Database, PhilFCT® (i.fnri.dost.gov.ph). Iron Iron deficiency is the most prevalent micronutrient deficiency in the Philippines. About 98.99% of age groups ranging from adolescents (10-12 years old) to the elderly (60 years old and above) do not meet the required iron intake per day. In fact, almost all the lactating (99.9%) and pregnant mothers (100%) do not meet the recommended requirement. The majority of iron intake only comes from rice, chocolate flavored drinks, sausages/hotdogs, egg and bread (pandesal) (DOST-FNRI, 2021). These sources are not enough to supply the daily 30.3 mg iron requirements of pregnant mothers, or the daily 25 mg iron required by lactating mothers. The leaves of sissoo spinach (Alternanthera sessilis), known locally as racaba, and of the morning glory Ipomoea triloba are an excellent source of iron with 36.8 mg and 31.5 mg per 100 g edible portion, respectively (Figure 9). They can be good alternatives to cooked lean pork meat which has about 1.4 mg iron per 100 g portion. The DOST-FNRI recommends daily iron intake of 18.2 mg for adults (19-59 years old) and the elderly (60 years old and above) (DOST- FNRI, 2021). The iron requirements cannot be met by the usual diet so iron-rich foods should be supplemented for these age groups. 137 82 64 63 43 42 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 Broussonetia luzonica Cucurbita maxima Tamarindus indica Musa x balbisiana* Gliricidia sepium Telosma procumbens 36 Figure 9: Iron content (g per 100g edible portion) contained in different parts of indigenous vegetables compared with commercial crops equivalents. From top to bottom, comparison with cassava (Manihot esculenta), eggplant (Solanum melongena), yardlong bean (Vigna unguiculata subsp. sesquipedalis) and unripe papaya (Carica papaya). Iron, Fe (mg) in root crops Iron, Fe (mg) in fruit vegetables Iron, Fe (mg) in vegetable pods 2.1 1.8 1.5 1.5 1.2 1.1 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 Curcuma longa Cyrtosperma merkusii Dioscorea esculenta Xanthosoma sagittifolium Dioscorea hispida Manihot esculenta* 2.3 0.7 0.4 0.3 0.3 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 Capsicum frutescens Momordica charantia Abelmoschus esculentus Solanum melongena* Benincasa hispida 1.4 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.5 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 Vigna unguiculata Moringa oleifera Lablab purpureus Vigna unguiculata subsp. sesquipedalis* Raphanus sativus 37 Iron, Fe (mg) in tree vegetable Source: Philippine Food Composition Tables Online Database, PhilFCT® (i.fnri.dost.gov.ph). Vitamin A Vitamin A-rich foods must be incorporated into the Filipino diet because the deficiency is still a prevailing concern in the Philippines with about 83.5% prevalence among 16–18-year-olds and 82.1% prevalence among the elderly (DOST-FNRI, 2021). Vitamin A is measured as the retinol activity equivalents (RAE) to account for the activities of preformed vitamin A and provitamin A carotenoids. Most leafy vegetables are rich in RAE. The highest among IVs, lemon grass (Cymbopogon citratus), has RAE value (2,107 μg RAE) which is about 7 times higher than sweet potato leaves (324 μg RAE). Lemon grass is used as herb and spice in grilled or soup dishes. Other leafy vegetables that have high RAE include leaves of cassava (M. esculenta), of moringa (M. oleifera), of aibika (Abelmoschus manihot), of jute mallow (Corchorus olitorius), and amaranth (Amaranthus spp). The RAE of wild pepper (Capsicum frutescens) is also high compared to other fruit vegetables with 350 μg compared to the squash (Cucurbita maxima) containing 63 μg (Figure 10). Figure 10: Retinol activity equivalent, RAE (μg per 100g edible portion) contained in different parts of indigenous vegetables compared with commercial crop equivalents. From top to bottom, comparison with squash (Cucurbita maxima), yardlong bean (Vigna unguiculata subsp. sesquipedalis) unripe papaya (Carica papaya), sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas), and banana (Musa x balbisiana). Retinol Activity Equivalent, RAE (μg) in fruit vegetables 1.5 1.3 1.2 1.2 0.6 0.3 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 Cocos nucifera Artocarpus altilis Mangifera altissima Sandoricum koetjape Psidium guajava Carica papaya* 350 88 63 1 0 100 200 300 400 Capsicum frutescens Momordica charantia Cucurbita maxima* Lagenaria siceraria 38 Retinol Activity Equivalent, RAE (μg) in vegetable pods Retinol Activity Equivalent, RAE (μg) in flower vegetables Retinol Activity Equivalent, RAE (μg) in tree vegetables 56 49 26 13 8 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 Clitoria ternatea Vigna unguiculata subsp. unguiculata Vigna unguiculata subsp. sesquipedalis* Raphanus sativus Lablab purpureus 57 48 45 25 21 17 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 Cucurbita maxima Gliricidia sepium Broussonetia luzonica Musa x balbisiana* Telosma procumbens Tamarindus indica 7 5 5 2 2 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Mangifera altissima Artocarpus altilis Psidium guajava Artocarpus camansi Artocarpus heterophyllus Carica papaya* 39 Retinol Activity Equivalent, RAE (μg) in leafy vegetables Source: Philippine Food Composition Tables Online Database, PhilFCT® (i.fnri.dost.gov.ph). Vitamins B1 (Thiamine) and B2 (Riboflavin) The leaves of the vegetable hummingbird (Sesbania grandiflora), known locally as katuray, have the highest vitamin B1 (thiamine) content (0.66 mg per 100 g portion) among the leafy vegetables investigated. Per 100 g of raw portion, they contain 6 times as much thiamine as sweet potato leaves that contain only 0.11 mg. Dried seeds of cowpea (V. unguiculata subsp. unguiculata) and pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan) have values ranging between 0.65mg and 0.63mg, respectively comparable to those of mung bean (V. radiata var. radiata) (0.62 mg) (Figure 11). Moringa leaves are recommended for their remarkable vitamin B2 content at 0.63 mg per 100 g of raw portion. The vitamin B2 content of other leafy vegetables ranges between 0.21 and 0.38 mg as shown in Figure 12. Figure 11: Thiamine (Vitamin B1) (mg per 100g edible portion) contained in different parts of indigenous vegetables compared with commercial crop equivalents. From top to bottom, comparison with mung bean (Vigna radiata var. radiata) and sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas). Thiamin, Vitamin B1 (mg) in seed legumes 2017 1203 972 858 790 785 770 640 626 555 528 475 389 373 324 298 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 C y m b o p o g o n c it ra tu s M a n ih o t e sc u le n ta M o ri n g a o le if e ra A b e lm o sc h u s… C o rc h o ru s o li to ri u s A m a ra n th u s sp in o su s S e n n a t o ra P o rt u la ca o le ra ce a C o lo ca si a e sc u le n ta A m a ra n th u s vi ri d is M a rs il e a c re n a ta S e sb a n ia g ra n d if lo ra F ic u s p se u d o p a lm a A lt e rn a n th e ra s e ss il is Ip o m o e a b a ta ta s* Ip o m o e a t ri lo b a 0.65 0.63 0.62 0.54 0.24 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 Vigna unguiculata subsp. unguiculata Cajanus cajan Vigna radiata var radiata* Vigna umbellata Phaseolus lunatus 40 Thiamin, Vitamin B1 (mg) in leafy vegetables Source: Philippine Food Composition Tables Online Database, PhilFCT® (i.fnri.dost.gov.ph). Figure 12: Riboflavin (Vitamin B2) (mg per 100g edible portion) contained in different parts of indigenous vegetables compared with a commercial crop equivalent, sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas). Riboflavin, Vitamin B2 (mg) in leafy vegetables Source: Philippine Food Composition Tables Online Database, PhilFCT® (i.fnri.dost.gov.ph). Vitamin C Most vitamin C intake in adolescents, adults, and the elderly comes from consuming moringa leaves, ‘Saba’ banana, chocolate-flavored drinks, and unripe papaya (Carica papaya) (DOST- FNRI, 2021). However, these dietary sources are not enough to meet the daily requirement of 46.5 mg in 13–15-year-olds. The pods of Asian pigeonwings (Clitoria ternatea) are recommended because they contain 248 mg per 100g edible portion. These are used to prepare vegetable dishes like pinakbet and dinengdeng (sautéed mixed vegetables in fish or 0.66 0.28 0.25 0.2 0.19 0.11 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 Sesbania grandiflora Vigna unguiculata subsp. unguiculata Moringa oleifera Tamarindus indica Manihot esculenta Ipomoea batatas* 0.63 0.38 0.33 0.32 0.32 0.32 0.3 0.3 0.29 0.29 0.29 0.29 0.27 0.22 0.21 0.2 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 M o ri n g a o le if e ra S e sb a n ia g ra n d if lo ra B ro u ss o n e ti a l u zo n ic a Ip o m o e a t ri lo b a M a n ih o t e sc u le n ta A m a ra n th u s vi ri d is C o rc h o ru s o li to ri u s A m a ra n th u s sp in o su s M a rs il e a c re n a ta S e n n a t o ra F ic u s p se u d o p a lm a C o lo ca si a e sc u le n ta A lt e rn a n th e ra s e ss il is A b e lm o sc h u s m a n ih o t S y n e d re ll a n o d if lo ra Ip o m o e a b a ta ta s* 41 shrimp sauce). Other leafy vegetables with high vitamin C content are sickle senna (185 mg), vegetable hummingbird (148 mg), cassava (145 mg), moringa and taro (112 mg). Their vitamin C content is significantly higher compared to sweet potato leaves (36 mg). Guava fruits (Psidium guajava) also have high vitamin C content with 158 mg per 100 g portion and are commonly used as souring agents in a popular Filipino dish called sinigang (Figure 13). Figure 13: Ascorbic acid, Vitamin C (mg per 100g edible portion) contained in different parts of indigenous vegetables compared with commercial crop equivalents. From top to bottom, comparison with eggplant (Solanum melongena), yardlong bean (Vigna unguiculata subsp. sesquipedalis), calamansi (x Citrofortunella microcarpa), sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas), and banana (Musa x balbisiana). Source: Philippine Food Composition Tables Online Database, PhilFCT® (i.fnri.dost.gov.ph). 42 3.3.1 Medicinal properties The potential of some IVs to counteract several diseases like diabetes, cancer, liver and uric acid and kidney problems based on a literature review are summarized in Table 6. Some IVs have anti-obesity, wound healing, and anti-microbial properties. Ethnopharmacological surveys conducted in 10 provinces in the Philippines identified 27 indigenous vegetables that are used as medicinal plants. The top three IVs most used as medicinal plants are guava (Psidium guajava), soursop (Annona muricata), and moringa (Moringa oleifera). Table 6: Medicinal value of some indigenous vegetables against known diseases Pharmacognostic evaluation Indigenous vegetable Reference Diabetes Fresh and ethanolic leaf extracts administered to diabetic mice caused a significant reduction of blood glucose levels compared to untreated mice. Slender carpetweed or papait (Mollugo oppositifolia) Tanquilut et al., 2019 The plant has comparable blood glucose lowering activity as Metformin compared to creat or serpentina (Andrographis paniculata). Slender carpetweed or papait (Mollugo oppositifolia) Nicolas et al., 2016 The plant exhibited comparable degrees of potency in lowering blood glucose (BGL) levels in both sexes of white mice. Percentage reduction of BGL as affected by the papait leaf extract in all mice was comparable to percentage reduction caused by insulin. Slender carpetweed or papait (Mollugo oppositifolia) Guillermo and Estira, 2011 Administration of aqueous leaf extracts of water spinach (I. aquatica) improved the BGL of diabetic mice. Water spinach or kangkong (Ipomoea aquatica) Della et al., 2018 Study confirms that diabetics may derive additional benefits from the intake of moringa leaves by reducing hsCRP and by improving anti-inflammatory and hypoglycaemic response. Moringa (Moringa oleifera) Mozo and Caole-Ang, 2015 In diabetic mice, the maximum decrease in glycemia using high doses of the plant extract was obtained 1 hour (59%) after Bagbagkong (Telosma procumbens) Cajuday and Amparado, 2014) 43 Pharmacognostic evaluation Indigenous vegetable Reference treatment, comparable to the effect of insulin (65%). Cancer Plant extracts exhibit antioxidant and cytotoxic activities against cancer cells LC- MS. Soursop or guyabano (Annona muricata) Peña et al., 2022 Extract manifested more potent cytotoxic activity than the positive control, showing promising chemotherapeutic potential of the plant. Birch flower or himbabao (Broussonetia luzonica) Casuga et al., 2016 MTT assay of crude drug revealed that the three extracts did not exhibit cytotoxicity against normal cell lines compared to Doxorubin. Birch flower or himbabao (Broussonetia luzonica) Casuga et al., 2019 Tripetertenes 1,2, and 8 did not exhibit cytotoxic effect against a human cancer cell line colon. Pigeon pea or kadyos (Cajanus cajan) Bravoa et al., 2014 Extract has promising anticancer effects on melanoma, gastric and pancreatic cancer. Jute mallow or saluyot (Corchorus olitorius) Tosoc et al., 2021 Diuretic effect The formulated oral suspension at 500mg/kg showed a comparable diuretic effect to furosemide in rats. Malabar spinach or alugbati (Basella alba) Limjoco et al., 2019 Hyperuricemia or high uric acid levels Potential source of natural antioxidants and xanthine oxidase inhibitors, which may be used in hyperuricemia orally. Katmon (Dillenia philippinensis) Ansari et al., 2021 Hepatoprotective effect for healthy liver Liver function marker showed that there is a hepatoprotective effect of roselle fruit peel extract as revealed by the level of aspartate aminotransferase and Roselle (Hibiscus sabdariffa) Cajudoy and Blanco, 2014 44 Pharmacognostic evaluation Indigenous vegetable Reference histological examination Antimicrobial property Antimicrobial assays showed strong inhibition of Eschericia coli UPCC1195, Klebsiella pneumoniae UPCC1360, Salmonella typhimurium UPCC1368 and Staphylococcus aureus Wild leek or sibujing (Allium ampeloprasum) Añides et al., 2019 Malabar spinach recorded activity against E. coli and birch flower exhibited activity on S. aureus. Malabar spinach or alugbati (Basella rubra) Birch flower or himbabao (Broussonetia luzonica) Corpuz, 2020 The leaf extracts revealed antibacterial activities, inhibiting the growth of non- resistant and multidrug-resistant strains of the Gram-negative bacteria E. coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Acinetobacter baumanii. Slender carpetweed or papait (Mollugo oppositifolia) Martin-Puzon et al., 2015 Extract was effective against S. aureus. Philippine fig or niyog-niyogan (Ficus pseudopalma) Recuenco et al., 2020 Wound-healing properties Plant extract has high wound closure activity, which is comparable to the standard drug Diclofenac sodium. Birch flower or himbabao (Broussonetia luzonica) Choa et al., 2016 Anti-obesity properties Methanolic leaf extracts is as effective as Orlistat in decreasing adipocyte size which is related to anti-obesity activity. Birch flower or himbabao (Broussonetia luzonica) Choa et al., 2016 Potential source of hydroxycitric acid (a compound with anti-obesity properties). Batuan (Garcinia binucao) Bainto, 2018 Out of the 20 local fruits tested, hydroxycitric acid (HCA), an anti-obesity compound, was found only in the pulp of Tamarind (Tamarindus indica) and batuan Bagabaldo et al., 2021 45 Pharmacognostic evaluation Indigenous vegetable Reference tamarind and in batuan pulp and seeds. (Garcinia binucao) 3.4 Production and processing 3.4.1 Vegetables gathered from the wild or natural vegetation In many rural communities across the country, foraging for edible plants for use as vegetables in household food preparations is a common practice. These wild food plants (WFPs), which are mostly foraged and known either as weeds or are used outside of the culinary realm, are typically gathered from natural vegetation such as newly grown pastures, kaingin (slash and burn) areas, open grazing lands, roadsides, and forest areas (Ong and Kim, 2016; Chua- Barcelo, 2014). Examples of wild food plants include the fireweed or Crassocephalum crepidioides (Sister et. al., 2018a), Amaranthus spp. (Dapar et al., 2020; Sister et. al., 2019a; Baang et.al., 2015), elephant foot yam (Amorphophallus sp.) (Apiag 2017), Gnetum gnemon (Bernadas and Peralta, 2017; Capuno et. al., 2015), Philippine fig (Ficus pseudopalma) (Amoroso et. al., 2022; Santiago et. al., 2014); birch flower (Broussonetia luzonica) (Antonio et.al., 2019; Aguilar et. al., 2018; Antonio and Vivit, 2017), common purslane (Portulaca oleracea), and several bamboo species (Sister et.al., 2019b), rattan (Antonio et.al., 2013) and edible fern species (Amoroso et. al., 2017; Antonio et. al., 2013). While unevenly distributed, these WFPs have sustained local communities and indigenous peoples for generations, especially those living in marginal upland areas. These genetic resources are simply collected from the wild, and no effort is made to cultivate them. They are a reliable food source for marginalized groups when crop production is reduced or has failed (Capuno et. al., 2015). These famine foods help mitigate food shortages and improve nutrition during times of food scarcity. This review was able to document a considerable number of studies about the importance of wild and weedy vegetables in indigenous peoples’ food systems, particularly studies that underscore the influence of sociocultural and environmental factors on wild food consumption (Buenavista et. al., 2022; Dapar and Amoroso, 2022; Bernadas and Peralta, 2017; Ong and Kim, 2017; Taguiling, 2013; Antonio et. al., 2013). 3.4.2 Vegetables grown in home gardens Home gardens serve as repositories of plant genetic resources and are crucial in maintaining inter- and intra-genetic crop genetic diversity. In the Philippines, a significant proportion of consumed vegetables are harvested from home gardens. The cultivation of vegetables in small plots close to homes is a surviving form of agricultural production (Tobias et. al., 2021; Miura et. al., 2009). Home gardens, in fact, have been an integral component of family farming and local food systems in the Philippines. This mixed cropping system incorporates the 46 production of vegetables, fruits, plantation crops, spices, herbs, ornamental and medicinal plants as well as the raising of livestock that can serve as additional food and income (Matejowsky, 2013). Home gardens constitute subsistence crop production systems that significantly contribute to the socio-ecological resilience of marginalized communities, thereby reducing vulnerability and ensuring food security in these areas. Home gardens have been documented as an important supplemental source contributing to food and nutrition security and livelihoods. The most common IVs cultivated in home gardens are moringa (M. oleifera) (Patricio and Palada, 2017), snake gourd (Tricosanthes cucumerina) (Capuno et. al., 2015), Malabar spinach (Basella spp.) (Gonzaga et. al., 2014), taro (Colocasia esculenta) (Belonias et. al., 2014), winged bean (Psophocarpus tetragonolobus), sickle senna (Senna tora) (Jamago et. al., 2014), waterleaf (Talinum triangulare), and aibika (Abelmoschus manihot) (Maghirang et. al., 2021). 3.4.3 Indigenous vegetables grown in large scale polyculture or monoculture The production of market-bound IVs is through polyculture or monoculture. In Northern Luzon, particularly in the Ilocandia and Cordillera regions, traditional varieties of pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan), yardlong bean (Vigna unguiculata subsp. sesquipedalis), and other leguminous crops are grown in rotation with rice and corn (Bernabe, 2021). Malabar spinach (Basella spp.) (Gonzaga et. al., 2015), taro (Colocasia esculenta) (Onsay et. al., 2022), water spinach (Ipomoea aquatica), bittergourd (Momordica charantia), jute mallow (Corchorus olitorius), and sponge gourd (Luffa spp.) are among the most common economically important IVs that are grown in comparatively large areas. 3.4.4 Indigenous vegetable production trends in the past decade Production of IVs is small-scale in scattered areas, usually grown in home gardens, school gardens, and sometimes, community gardens for household consumption. The information on production volume from 2011 to 2021 by the Philippine Statistics Authority (PSA) is used to describe trends on indigenous vegetables (Figure 14). Utilization of these crops could be region-specific, with varying degrees of acceptability as food. Based on the official data, the production of IVs from 2011 to 2021 was lower compared to commercial vegetables (PSA, 2022). In 2021, the production of gấc (Momordica cochinchinensis), known locally as sugod-sugod, and og bagbagkong (Telosma procumbens) fruits were 0.20 and 0.01 metric tons, respectively. The production is almost negligible compared to the production of eggplant (Solanum melongena), which amounted to 207,994.01 metric tons in 2011 and 244,034.56 metric tons in 2021. The same is true for vegetable pods where the combined production of moringa (M. oleifera), cowpea (Vigna unguiculata subsp. unguiculata), winged beans (Psophocarpus tetragonolobus), and radish pods (Raphanus sativus) is lower than the production of commercial string beans or yardlong bean (Vigna unguiculata subsp. sesquipedalis). Also, the combined production volume of the indigenous root crops taro (Colocasia esculenta), greater yam (Dioscorea alata), cocoyam (Xanthosoma sagittifolium), white yam or camangeg (Dioscorea luzonensis) and Mexican turnip or 47 singkamas (Pachyrhizus erosus), is still lower than the combined production of cassava (Manihot esculenta) and sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas) despite high market demands. This is also the case for legumes, in which mung bean (Vigna radiata) and peanut (Arachis hypogaea) are in high demand compared to pigeon peas (Cajanus cajan), lima beans (Phaseolus lunatus), rice beans or tawri (Vigna umbellata), and cowpeas (V. unguiculata subsp. unguiculata). Figure 14: The production of indigenous vegetables per crop group: a) root crops, b) fruit vegetables, c) vegetable pods, d) fruits, e) legumes, f) pith/shoot, g) leafy vegetables, and h) flower vegetables from 2011 to 2021. 48 49 Regional preferences also limit the production of IVs in the country. For example, white yam or camangeg (Dioscorea luzonensis) is mainly produced for household consumption in Ilocos Norte. Its production has been increasing, from 24 metric tons in 2011 to 39 metric tons in 2021. Gấc or sugod-sugod (M. cochinchinensis) is produced only in Ilocos Norte while bagbagkong (T. procumbens) in La Union. However, the volume of production for these indigenous fruits and vegetables has declined since 2011. Moringa (M. oleifera), Malabar spinach (B. alba and B. rubra) and taro (C. esculenta) are overall the most produced IVs, but their production varies from region to region. Differences in the utilization of IVs also affect the volume of their production. Most people are unfamiliar with the different preparation methods of IVs. For example, banana pith production is well-known in Region VI and not in other provinces, so the highest volume of production is in the Province of Capiz. Similarly, a small, decreasing production (from 82.66 50 metric tons in 2011 to 16.70 metric tons in 2022) of rattan pith has been recorded in Surigao del Norte and Surigao del Sur where utilization is known. The production of indigenous flower vegetables including banana blossom (Musa spp.), and flowers of Madras thorn (Pithecellobium dulce), known locally as camachile, vegetable hummingbird or katuray (Sesbania grandiflora), birch flower or himbabao/alukon (B. luzonica), as well as inflorescences of tamarind (Tamarindus indica) and bagbagkong (Telosma procumbens) also varies from region to region. Banana blossoms had the highest production at 56,733.85 metric tons while bagbagkong (T. procumbens) flower production is the lowest with only 8.89 metric tons produced in 2021. The top producer of birch flower (B. luzonica) and tamarind (Tamarindus indica) flower was Cagayan Valley while the top producers for bagbagkong (T. procumbens) flowers were La Union and Bukidnon. State Universities and Colleges (SUCs) and government agencies have made efforts to study cultural management practices and recommend propagation techniques, as well as pest and disease management for IVs. ● Gấc (M. cochinchinensis) has the optimum fertilizer requirement of 3g urea (46-0-0), 0.75g solophos (0-18-0), and 1.5g muriate of potash (0-0-60) per plant every other week (Tayobong et al., 2019). ● The lesser yam (D. esculenta), locally known as tugui, has a recommended fertilizer application of 2 tons of organic fertilizer per hectare (Legaspi & Malab, 2014). ● Plastic mulch or crop cover instead of rice straw and rice hull results in a higher yield in Basella alba than Basella rubra (Gonzaga et al., 2014). ● Using 40-90 g setts (planting material) in yam produced a 138% increase in yield compared to farmers’ practice (i.e., use of smaller setts) (Legaspi & Malab, 2014), while the use of a 100g sett in elephant foot yam (Amorphophallus paeoniifolius) gave the highest seed yield and heaviest corm weight (Apiag, 2017). ● Difficult-to-propagate crops such as the katmon tree (Dillenia philippinensis) can be propagated using mature stem cuttings at 2-feet long with 0.75-1.0-inch in diameter and using the combination of MycoVAM and vermicompost as soil ameliorants (Wagan et al., 2017). ● The Mariano Marcos State University developed a package of technologies for gấc (M. cochinchinensis) (MMSU, 2020a) and bagbagkong (Telosma procumbens) (MMSU, 2020b) using honey incorporated in the rooting solution. ● 500-600 ppm IBA (indole-butyric acid) can be added to air-layered branches of gnetum (Gnetum gnemon) (Angeles et al., 2019). ● IEC (Information, Education and Communication) materials for production practices are available for waterleaf (Talinum triangulare), amaranth (Amaranthus spp.), birch flower (B. luzonica), Malabar spinach (B. alba and B. rubra), vegetable hummingbird (S. 51 grandiflora), jute mallow (C. olitorius), moringa (M. oleifera), bottle gourd (Lagenaria siceraria), lima bean (P. lunatus), yam (D. alata), taro (C. esculenta) (www.buplant.da.gov.ph), roselle (Hibiscus sabdariffa) (Maghirang et al., 2016a), aibika (Abelmoschus manihot) (Maghirang et al., 2016b), bagbagkong (T. procumbens) (Maghirang et al., 2016c), gấc (M. cochinchinensis) (Maghirang et al., 2016d), and slender carpetweed (Glinus oppositifolius) (Maghirang et al., 2018b). ● Roselle (H. sabdariffa) was found to be resistant to bacterial wilt caused by Ralstonia pseudosolanacerum and R. solanacearum (Balendres et al., 2020). ● The morphological and biological characteristics of aphids collected in taro at the National Abaca Research Center’s experimental area were assessed (Avelino and Ubaub, 2016). ● The application of moringa extract as a potential botanical fungicide