iTank Cascade Systems of Sri Lanka: Resilient Rural Landscapes for People, Food and Nature Tank Cascade Systems of Sri Lanka: Resilient Rural Landscapes for People, Food and Nature The Alliance of Bioversity International and the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) delivers research-based solutions that harness agricultural biodiversity and sustainably transform food systems to improve people’s lives. Alliance solutions address the global crises of malnutrition, climate change, biodiversity loss, and environmental degradation. The Alliance is part of CGIAR, a global research partnership for a food-secure future. https://alliancebioversityciat.org www.cgiar.org The Ministry of Environment of Sri Lanka remains committed for the management of the environment and natural resources of the country, maintaining the equilibrium between the trends in rapid economic development and use of natural resource base. The Ministry has framed key policies for adoption in management of environment and natural resources of the country. https://env.gov.lk/web/index.php/en/ © Bioversity International and Ministry of Environment of Sri Lanka 2024. Some rights reserved. This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/ September 2024 Recommended Citation: Mendonce, S; Ratnayake, S; Borelli, T; Hunter, D; Silva, K.A.I.D; Cutrin, A. 2024. Tank Cascade Systems of Sri Lanka: Resilient rural landscapes for people, food and nature. Bioversity International and Ministry of Environment of Sri Lanka. Rome, Italy. 69 p. ISBN: 978-92-9255-327-2 Cover photos: Top photo: Healthy Landscapes Project/W.Kaluarachchi; Bottom photos (left to right): Bioversity International/S.Landersz, S.Mendonce and T.Borelli Alliance Headquarters Via di San Domenico, 1 00153 Rome (RM), Italy Phone: (+39) 0661181 Fax: (+39) 066197966 https://alliancebioversityciat.org Editorial Staff: Sharon Mendonce Sujith Ratnayake Teresa Borelli Danny Hunter K.A.I.D. Silva Agnese Cutrin National Project Management Unit: K.A.I.D. Silva - National Project Manager Chamalie Abeysekara - Administrative Assistant W.S.U. Gunarathna - Administrative Assistant D.M.T.S. Dissanayake - Project Field Coordinator P.M.M.S. Pananwala - Project Field Coordinator K.M.J.B. Kulathunga - Assistant Field Coordinator Thejana Bandara - Former Administrative Assistant G.K.D. Kavindi - Former Administrative Assistant S.M.M. Seneviratne - Former Field Coordinator Anuradha Paranavitharana - Former Field Coordinator Design and Layout: Luca Pierotti- Graphic Design Consultant, Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT Pablo Gallo- Figures 1, 3, 4 and 6, Graphic Designer, Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT https://alliancebioversityciat.org www.cgiar.org https://env.gov.lk/web/index.php/en/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/ https://alliancebioversityciat.org Tank Cascade Systems of Sri Lanka: Resilient Rural Landscapes for People, Food and Nature iv Tank Cascade Systems of Sri Lanka: Resilient Rural Landscapes for People, Food and Nature Credit: Bioversity International/ S.Mendonce v Acknowledgements This legacy product would not have been possible without the hard work and dedication of the many individuals and partners who supported the ‘Healthy Landscapes: Managing Agricultural Landscapes in Socio-ecologically Sensitive Areas to Promote Food Security, Well-being and Ecosystem Health’ Project (HLP). Their dedication and commitment to the planning and implementation of the project and to the realization of this legacy product is gratefully recognized and appreciated. The editorial staff would like to acknowledge and express their most sincere gratitude to: Global Environment Facility (GEF) Ministry of Environment, Sri Lanka (MoE) Central Environmental Authority United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT South Asia Co-operative Environment Programme (SACEP) Ministry of Forest and Wildlife, Sri Lanka Forest Department (FD) Department of Wildlife Conservation Ministry of Agriculture, Sri Lanka Department of Agriculture (DOA) Natural Resources Management Centre (NRMC) Plant Genetic Resources Centre (PGRC) Seed Certification and Plant Protection Centre (SCPPC) National Agriculture Information and Communication Centre Office of the Registrar of Pesticides Department of Agrarian Development (DAD) Department of Animal Production and Health (DAPH) Ministry of Health, Nutrition and Indigenous Medicine, Sri Lanka Department of Ayurveda and Bandaranaike Ayurveda Research Institute (BMARI) Health Promotion Service Office, Department of Ayurveda – Thirappane and Palugasweva Ministry of Tourism and Lands, Sri Lanka Land Use Policy Planning Department (LUPPD) Ministry of Irrigation and Water Resources, Sri Lanka Department of Irrigation (DOI) Ministry of Home Affairs, Sri Lanka District Secretary - Anuradhapura, Divisional Secretaries - Palugasweva and Thirappane and respective Grama Niladharies (GNs) Ministry of Education, Sri Lanka Ministry of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources Development, Sri Lanka National Aquatic Development Authority Ministry of Buddhasasana, Religious and Cultural Affairs, Sri Lanka Department of Archeology Ministry of Provincial Councils and Local Governments Affairs, Sri Lanka North Central Provincial Department of Agriculture North Central Provincial Department of Education Universities and Research Institutes University of Peradeniya Wayamba University of Sri Lanka Rajarata University of Sri Lanka Sabaragamuwa University of Sri Lanka Gampaha Wickramaarachchi Indigenous Medicine University of Sri Lanka International Non-Governmental Organizations International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) International Water Management Institute (IWMI) Local Non-Governmental Organizations Green Movement Sri Lanka CropLife Sri Lanka Community- based Organizations Sithamu Women’s Organization affiliated to the Department of Agrarian Development Farm Women Organization affiliated to North Central Province - Department of Agriculture Kekulandara Young Mushroom Development Group Sanshavi Bimmal Samithiya, Palugasweva Hiriwadunna Eco-tourism Development Group vi Forewords Tank Cascade Systems (TCSs) have played a critical role in supporting life, livelihood, and nature in the arid landscapes of Sri Lanka for centuries. Believed to be over 2000 years old, these systems embody the symbiotic relationship between humans and nature. In a world increasingly marked by climate change and biodiversity loss, TCSs demonstrate resilience and humanity’s deep connection with nature. Tank Cascade Systems cover an impressive 22.5% of Sri Lanka’s land and occur in dry zones of the country. Several of these tanks have either been abandoned, are in a state of disrepair, or are under pressure from land use changes, agricultural intensification, and aquatic invasive species. The GEF-funded Healthy Landscapes Project, through restoring TCSs, building capacity, and raising awareness, demonstrates that restoration of these systems is not only possible, but can also contribute to delivering multiple benefits for nature and people. These include improvements in biodiversity in and around TCSs to support and provide alternative livelihoods such as flower picking, fishing, beekeeping, and ecotourism opportunities. Other indirect benefits include a reduction in human-wildlife conflicts by providing water sources for elephants outside village areas. Owing to project interventions, farmers have started their own seed banks, saving important cultivars, sharing them, and improving their income. When visiting these sites, I met a chili farmer who gave a handful of receipts to the project team, which I assumed were bills in need of reimbursement from the project. Instead, they were sales receipts from selling her produce, and she was proudly showing off. The ‘Tank Cascade Systems of Sri Lanka: Resilient Rural Landscapes for People, Food, and Nature’ is a synthesis of the project’s interventions, and present a compelling story of how these systems are interconnected and fit into the wider social, ecological, and economic landscape of Sri Lanka. The book draws our attention to the global significance of TCSs and brings together an evidence base of how the restoration of these systems can contribute to the achievement of multiple SDGs and to the targets set out in the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework. This book also draws attention to the task at hand. Although tremendous progress has been made in understanding, raising awareness, and restoring these systems, much more remains to be done. There is a need for stronger policies and integrated governance support for TCSs. Tank Cascade Systems extend well beyond their physical borders. Policies are needed at the landscape level, taking account of the complex and dynamic interlinkages between different tanks, upstream forest health and downstream ecosystem services, and strengthening the landscapes to deliver nutrition and food security for local communities. The United Nations Environment Programme is a proud partner to the Government of Sri Lanka, the Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT, South Asia Co-operative Environment, and several other Sri Lankan partners in the Healthy Landscapes Project, and we look forwarding to further supporting the restoration and protection of these critical systems. Kavita Sharma Task Manager UNEP GEF Biodiversity Land Degradation Unit Thailand vii It is with great pleasure and pride that I introduce this book on Sri Lanka’s Tank Cascade System (TCS). As someone who has spent years working in the field of environment, I have witnessed the vital role our ancient water management systems play in the resilience of our rural communities and ecosystems. The TCS, a sophisticated network of interconnected tanks, has been a cornerstone of Sri Lanka’s agricultural heritage for centuries. Despite its age, the TCS remains remarkably relevant today, still providing water for agriculture, supporting biodiversity, and enabling rural livelihoods. Further, the system reminds us of the importance of balancing human needs and ecological health and demonstrates that sustainable practices can yield abundance without compromising the integrity of our natural resources. However, the sustainability of the TCS itself is threatened by multiple challenges. Climate variability poses a significant risk by altering rainfall patterns and intensifying droughts, thereby impacting water availability. Encroachment and land-use changes around the tanks are fueling land degradation within the cascade landscape. Additionally, socio-economic shifts and demographic changes are resulting in the erosion of traditional knowledge essential for maintaining the TCS effectively over time. The GEF- funded, ‘Healthy Landscapes: Managing Agricultural Landscapes in Socio-ecologically Sensitive Areas to Promote Food Security, Well-being and Ecosystem Health ‘Project which is led by Sri Lanka (through the Ministry of Environment) and the United Nations Environment Programme; and supported by the Alliance of Bioversity International & CIAT and South Asia Co-operative Environment Programme, plays a pivotal effort to address these pressing issues and many more. While this book is a product of the project, it is a valuable resource for anyone interested in the TCS, whether you are a student, researcher, policymaker, or simply a concerned citizen. It serves as a reminder of the brilliance of our ancestors and the importance of preserving and enhancing our heritage. I hope this book inspires and informs you, as it has me, and encourages a deeper appreciation and commitment to the sustainable management of our TCS. I extend my gratitude to all who have contributed to this project, especially the farmers and local communities. Your dedication ensures that the legacy of Sri Lanka’s TCS continues to enrich and sustain us all. B.K Prabath Chandrakeerthi Secretary Ministry of Environment Sri Lanka vii It is with great pleasure and pride that I introduce this book on Sri Lanka’s Tank Cascade System (TCS). As someone who has spent years working in the field of environment, I have witnessed the vital role our ancient water management systems play in the resilience of our rural communities and ecosystems. The TCS, a sophisticated network of interconnected tanks, has been a cornerstone of Sri Lanka’s agricultural heritage for centuries. Despite its age, the TCS remains remarkably relevant today, still providing water for agriculture, supporting biodiversity, and enabling rural livelihoods. Further, the system reminds us of the importance of balancing human needs and ecological health and demonstrates that sustainable practices can yield abundance without compromising the integrity of our natural resources. However, the sustainability of the TCS itself is threatened by multiple challenges. Climate variability poses a significant risk by altering rainfall patterns and intensifying droughts, thereby impacting water availability. Encroachment and land-use changes around the tanks are fueling land degradation within the cascade landscape. Additionally, socio-economic shifts and demographic changes are resulting in the erosion of traditional knowledge essential for maintaining the TCS effectively over time. The GEF- funded, ‘Healthy Landscapes: Managing Agricultural Landscapes in Socio-ecologically Sensitive Areas to Promote Food Security, Well-being and Ecosystem Health ‘Project which is led by Sri Lanka (through the Ministry of Environment) and the United Nations Environment Programme; and supported by the Alliance of Bioversity International & CIAT and South Asia Co-operative Environment Programme, plays a pivotal effort to address these pressing issues and many more. While this book is a product of the project, it is a valuable resource for anyone interested in the TCS, whether you are a student, researcher, policymaker, or simply a concerned citizen. It serves as a reminder of the brilliance of our ancestors and the importance of preserving and enhancing our heritage. I hope this book inspires and informs you, as it has me, and encourages a deeper appreciation and commitment to the sustainable management of our TCS. I extend my gratitude to all who have contributed to this project, especially the farmers and local communities. Your dedication ensures that the legacy of Sri Lanka’s TCS continues to enrich and sustain us all. B.K Prabath Chandrakeerthi Secretary Ministry of Environment Sri Lanka viii Tank Cascade Systems of Sri Lanka: Resilient Rural Landscapes for People, Food and Nature Credit: Bioversity International/ T.Borelli Contents Acknowledgements v Forewords vi Introduction 1 Sri Lanka’s Tank Cascade System 3 Land Use and Degradation in Cascade Landscapes 9 Cascade Landscape Biodiversity 19 Nutrition and Food Security in Cascade Landscapes 27 Sustainable Livelihoods in Cascade Landscapes 35 Climate Resilience and Adaptation in Cascade Landscapes 43 Policy, Programmes and Partnerships in Cascade Landscapes 51 Conclusion and Recommendations 57 Annexes 65 1Tank Cascade Systems of Sri Lanka: Resilient Rural Landscapes for People, Food and Nature Introduction Let not even a drop of water flow into the ocean without being made useful for the benefit of all Earth Sri Lankan King Parakramabahu I, who restored multiple tanks during his rule between 1153 to 1186 Sri Lanka’s Tank Cascade System (TCS) is a Globally Important Agricultural Heritage System that, for centuries, has supported the resilience of the country’s rural communities and food systems. It also provides habitats for several socio-ecologically significant species. Despite its importance, many challenges threaten the sustainability of the TCS. While this book uses the term ‘Tank Cascade System’, the system is known by many names, including Small Tank Cascade System, Cascaded Tank-Village System and Village Tank Cascade System. Much has already been written about the system—its history, technological and engineering achievements, and its cultural, social, and economic impacts. However, most of these publications are specialized and assume prior technical knowledge. This book aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of the TCS and the broader landscape (i.e., cascade landscape) they exist in. It is designed to be accessible to readers of all backgrounds, offering numerous resources for further exploration and making it a useful resource for anyone interested in this fascinating system. 2 Tank Cascade Systems of Sri Lanka: Resilient Rural Landscapes for People, Food and Nature Also featured in this book are research and project activities conducted under the Healthy Landscapes: Managing Agricultural Landscapes in Socio-ecologically Sensitive Areas to Promote Food Security, Well-being and Ecosystem Health Project (HLP). Between 2018-2024, this project rehabilitated and promoted the sustainable management of the TCS. This book is organized as follows: • Sri Lanka’s Tank Cascade System gives an overview of the Tank Cascade System- its components and functioning, ecosystem services and the challenges threatening its sustainability. It also gives an introduction to the Healthy Landscapes Project. The subsequent six sections focus on specific themes: • Land Use and Degradation in Cascade Landscapes; • Cascade Landscape Biodiversity; • Nutrition and Food Security in Cascade Landscapes; • Sustainable Livelihoods in Cascade Landscapes; • Climate Resilience and Adaptation in Cascade Landscapes and; • Policy, Programmes and Partnerships in Cascade Landscapes. Each of these sections include definitions of key terms; maps and figures to visualize the complexity and intricacies of the TCS; quotes from stakeholders; theme-specific baseline research findings and HLP activities (with icons indicating specific project action areas covered); as well as resources for further reading. The HLP research and project activities featured are not exhaustive but provide a glimpse into the scope of the project’s work. For complete findings from the HLP’s baseline research, see this report. For a full list of HLP resources, visit this website. For further details on HLP activities, including monitoring and evaluation reports, see this website. The final section, • Conclusion and Recommendations highlights the global significance of the TCS by highlighting how TCS restoration contributes to the achievement of multiple Sustainable Development Goals, Aichi Biodiversity Targets and targets of the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework. It concludes with a list of recommendations for cascade landscape restoration. http://www.sacep.org/pdf/Reports-Technical/2021.04.15-Baseline_Assessment_of_Biodiversity_Ecosystem_Services_Land_Degradation_Food_Security_and_Human_Health_in_Village_Tank_Cascade_Systems_of_Sri_Lanka.pdf https://www.healthylandscapesproject.org/resources https://www.thegef.org/projects-operations/projects/9409 Sri Lanka’s Tank Cascade System Water is essential for all life on Earth and its efficient management is crucial in areas such as Sri Lanka’s dry zone. Climatically speaking, this area receives the least amount of rainfall in the country. Mean annual rainfall is less than 1750 mm, compared to a maximum of 5,000mm in the wetter areas (see Map 1). The dry zone is also characterized by high evaporation rates, is largely covered by soil with a low water retention capacity and is prone to seasonal flooding and droughts- making it far from ideal for its earliest inhabitants. However, over 2000 years ago, ancient communities developed a new system that harnessed the dry zone’s characteristic conditions and features to ensure year-round water availability- the Tank Cascade System (TCS) or Ellangawa (from the Sinhala words ‘ellan’, meaning hanging and ‘gawa’, meaning one after the other. Still in use today, this system has been designated a Globally Important Agricultural Heritage System since 2017 due to its uniqueness and global significance. Legend80oE 82oE 9oN 7oN 9oN 7oN 80oE 82oE Dry Intermediate Wet District boundary Map 1: Climatic zones (dry, intermediate and wet zones) of Sri Lanka, arbitrarily demarcated based on the annual rainfall 1 1 This map is adapted from Karunaweera, N.D., Galappaththy, G.N. & Wirth, D.F. 2014. On the road to eliminate malaria in Sri Lanka: lessons from history, challenges, gaps in knowledge and research needs. Malaria Journal, 13, 59. https://doi.org/10.1186/1475-2875-13-59 3 Credit: Bioversity International/ S.Mendonce Tank Cascade Systems of Sri Lanka: Resilient Rural Landscapes for People, Food and Nature https://climateknowledgeportal.worldbank.org/country/sri-lanka/climate-data-historical https://climateknowledgeportal.worldbank.org/country/sri-lanka/climate-data-historical https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2212682113000322 https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2212682113000322 https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2212682113000322 https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2212682113000322 https://www.fao.org/giahs/giahsaroundtheworld/designated-sites/asia-and-the-pacific/the-cascaded-tank-village-system-ctvs-in-the-dry-zone-of-sri-lanka/en/ https://www.fao.org/giahs/giahsaroundtheworld/designated-sites/asia-and-the-pacific/the-cascaded-tank-village-system-ctvs-in-the-dry-zone-of-sri-lanka/en/ Tank Cascade System components and functioning Multiple TCSs are found across the dry zone, and each one consists of an intricate network of small to very large tanks (or reservoirs) positioned along a gradient and connected through a series of canals. In a fully functioning system, after rain events, excess water will spill from the more elevated smaller tanks towards the lower-lying larger tanks. Each of these tanks also has a specific purpose- for example trapping dirt, soil, or other sediment to prevent silt from clogging other provisioning tanks within a system. Furthermore, different land uses and habitats (e.g., paddy, forests etc.) coexist in each TCS and have served cascade landscape inhabitants-both people and wildlife- for centuries. Learn about the TCS’s components (i.e., tanks, canals, and other coexisting habitats) and their functioning in Figure 1 and this video. Tank Cascade Systems in numbers Sri Lanka’s average elevation is about 228 meters above sea level (masl). The highest mountain peak (Pidurutalagala) is at 2,524 masl. TCSs are found at an elevation range of 100-500 masl 1 Tank Cascade Systems occupy a vast 14,800 km2 (or 22.5%) 2 of Sri Lanka. one tank per 2.6 km2 3 in provinces with TCSs. Tanks are classified into major, medium, minor, and micro,4 depending on their water spread (water surface area of a tank) and command area (agricultural fields under irrigation). 1 https://bit.ly/45AUTwz 2 https://bit.ly/3KOOnbZ 3 https://bit.ly/3XrbrFr 4 https://doi.org/10.3390/w9030231 In general, the average tank density is 4 Credit: BBC StoryWorks Tank Cascade Systems of Sri Lanka: Resilient Rural Landscapes for People, Food and Nature Minor tanks are those having a command area of 80 ha or less. There are 15,373 such tanks in Sri Lanka, and many of these are organized in one of the 1,000 TCSs found in the country. Alarmingly, only half of the minor tanks (7,620) are still operating3, the rest have been abandoned. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PoaekQsp8W8 https://bit.ly/45AUTwz https://bit.ly/3KOOnbZ https://bit.ly/3XrbrFr https://doi.org/10.3390/w9030231 3 Source: EEA (2004). EEA Glossary- land use. https://bit.ly/3zi7sAU 4 Source: Davies, C. E., Moss, D. & Hill, M.O. (2004). EUNIS Habitat Classification Revised 2004. https://bit.ly/3VTWJ8y Ke y t er m sLand use3 corresponds to the socio-economic description (functional dimension) of areas, e.g., areas used for residential, industrial or commercial purposes, for farming or forestry, for recreational or conservation purposes, etc. A habitat4, in ecological terms, is a place where plants or animals normally live, characterized primarily by its physical features (e.g., soil characteristics, climate, water quality etc.) and secondarily by the species of plants and animals that live there. Figure 1: A schematic representation of a Tank Cascade System (Sinhala names in brackets)2 2 This figure is adapted from Paranage, K. 2018. Understanding the Relationship between Water Infrastructure and Socio-Political Configurations: A Case Study from Sri Lanka. Water,10. https://doi.org/10.3390/w10101402 , used under CC BY 4.0. 5Tank Cascade Systems of Sri Lanka: Resilient Rural Landscapes for People, Food and Nature https://bit.ly/3zi7sAU https://bit.ly/3VTWJ8y https://doi.org/10.3390/w10101402 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ 6 Tank Cascade Systems of Sri Lanka: Resilient Rural Landscapes for People, Food and Nature Ecosystem services Ecosystem goods and services, often shortened to ecosystem services (ESs), underpin almost every aspect of human well-being, including our health, security, and economy. TCSs provide multiple ESs, which can be classified into four distinct categories: Provisioning services- that people can directly use and need to survive (e.g., water for irrigation and drinking, fish for food and fuelwood); Regulating services- that are a product of the natural processes and functioning of ecosystems. They also allow nature to resist certain threats, thus protecting humans (e.g., crop pollination and flood mitigation); Cultural services- which are non-material benefits people gain from ecosystems. They are often related to lifestyle and wellness (e.g., nature-based tourism); Supporting services- that underpin all other ecosystem services and are essential for life on Earth (e.g., nutrient recycling). Read more about TCS ecosystem services in our blog. Water for drinking Nutrient recycling Habitat for wildlife Nature-based tourism Flood and drought mitigation Microclimate regulation Refuge for wild elephants Water for irrigation Nesting and feeding ground for aquatic birds Traditional medicines and biopesticides Fish for food Silt trap Water desalination Roofing and thatching Educational and recreational site Habitat for pollinators Indicator species and biological pest control Water for bathing and washing Feeding livestock Fruits and vegetables for a healthy diet Home gardens/commercial vegetable production Carbon sequestration Firewood and timber Supporting servicesRegulating services Cultural servicesProvisioning services Figure 2: Tank Cascade System ecosystem services (Adapted from Fig.3 (IUCN, 2018) in Dissanayake et al., 2021, Ecosystem Services from Cascade Tank Systems in Sri Lanka) https://alliancebioversityciat.org/stories/ecological-restoration-sri-lanka-cascade-systems 7Tank Cascade Systems of Sri Lanka: Resilient Rural Landscapes for People, Food and Nature Challenges threatening the sustainability of Tank Cascade Systems Tank Cascade Systems are an example of socio-ecological production landscape and seascapes (SEPLS). Commercial agricultural systems prioritize the maintenance and benefits received from provisioning services. In contrast, what sets SEPLS apart from commercial agricultural systems, is their integration of traditional knowledge and techniques, as well as cultural rules and norms. This approach promotes the sustainable use of natural resources, supports local biodiversity, and ensures the maintenance of all four categories of ecosystem services. Ke y t er m sEcosystem goods and services5 are the benefits people obtain from ecosystems. They can be divided into supporting, regulating, provisioning and cultural. Socio-ecological production landscapes and seascapes6 (SEPLS) are dynamic mosaics of habitats and land uses where the harmonious interaction between people and nature maintains biodiversity while providing humans with the goods and services needed for their livelihoods, survival and well-being in a sustainable manner. Unfortunately, today, the appreciation and sharing of traditional knowledge that underpins the proper functioning of TCSs is declining. Moreover, despite its importance to the lives of cascade landscape communities and local wildlife, TCS sustainability is being threatened by multiple other challenges (see Figure 3). Figure 3: Challenges to the sustainability of Tank Cascade Systems (Refer to Annex 1 for further information) POLICY AND PLANNING PEOPLE PLANET Lack of integrated policy for sustainable TCS management Low-priority and unclear roles for local communities in TCS management Isolated TCS rehabilitation projects focused solely on agricultural productivity Declining sharing and appreciation of traditional knowledge Declining rural livelihoods Increasing urban migration Rapid land use changes driven by population growth Increasing soil erosion, tank siltation and subsequent tank neglect Overuse of chemical inputs in agriculture damaging soil and tank water quality Biodiversity loss Rising rainfall variability and frequency of extreme weather events 5 Source: IPBES (2019).Global Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.3831673 6 Source: IPBES (2019). Global Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.3831673 https://satoyama-initiative.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/SEPL_in_Asia_report_2nd_Printing.web_.pdf https://satoyama-initiative.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/SEPL_in_Asia_report_2nd_Printing.web_.pdf https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Sampath-Goonatilake/publication/340037951_Traditional_Knowledge_use_in_Sri_Lankan_agroecosystems_for_livelihoods_and_adaptation_to_climate_change_English/links/5e73bfa492851c35875673e7/Traditional-Knowledge-use-in-Sri-Lankan-agroecosystems-for-livelihoods-and-adaptation-to-climate-change-English.pdf https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Sampath-Goonatilake/publication/340037951_Traditional_Knowledge_use_in_Sri_Lankan_agroecosystems_for_livelihoods_and_adaptation_to_climate_change_English/links/5e73bfa492851c35875673e7/Traditional-Knowledge-use-in-Sri-Lankan-agroecosystems-for-livelihoods-and-adaptation-to-climate-change-English.pdf https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.3831673 https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.3831673 The Healthy Landscapes Project The Healthy Landscapes: Managing Agricultural Landscapes in Socio-ecologically Sensitive Areas to Promote Food Security, Well-being and Ecosystem Health Project rehabilitated and promoted the sustainable management of the TCSs through four main actions: RENOVATING EXISTING TCSs Rehabilitating tanks to meet changing human needs while promoting greater integration of agrobiodiversity, minimizing pressure on the environment and securing the services of these tanks for both current and future generations. Fostering collaboration and building capacity among and across all levels of stakeholders to support the sustainable management of the TCSs. Establishing the concept of ‘cascade ecology’ among the project’s beneficiaries and stakeholders, as well as the broader global community as a basis to guide sustainable management of the TCSs. Engaging key local, national and global partners to build and strengthen the institutional arrangements that can guide the development of improved policies and actions to manage TCSs. BUILDING PARTNERSHIPS AND CAPACITY STRENGTHENING POLICY TO SUPPORT TCSs RAISING AWARENESS AND IMPROVING KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT 8 Credit: S.Landersz Tank Cascade Systems of Sri Lanka: Resilient Rural Landscapes for People, Food and Nature 9Tank Cascade Systems of Sri Lanka: Resilient Rural Landscapes for People, Food and Nature HLP activities were designed using an ecohealth approach. As a result, the project’s activities cut across themes such as land use, biodiversity, food security, nutrition and health, rural livelihoods, climate change and partnerships. This book delves deeper into each of these themes highlighting findings from baseline research; linking project activities to the four project action areas; celebrating the work of project stakeholders who were Ke y t er m sThe EcoHealth approach7 is committed to fostering the health of humans, animals, and ecosystems and to conducting research which recognizes the inextricable linkages between the health of all species and their environments. A basic tenet held is that health and well-being cannot be sustained in a resource depleted, polluted, and socially unstable planet. Districts Legend Cascade SystemHoriwila Tank Divisional Secretariat Sri Lanka District map Paddy Working Tank Scrub Forest Main Road Minor Road Jeep Track Bund Bellankadawala TCS Palugaswewa TCS Water Flow N Districts Divisional Secretariat Sri Lanka District map Legend N Cascade System Nachchaduwa Tank Paddy Working Tank Water Flow Scrub Forest Main Road Minor Road Bund Thirappane TCS Ulagalla TCS Mahakanumulla TCS Map 2: The Horiwila TCS complex in the Palugaswewa Divisional Secretariat Map 3: The Nachchaduwa TCS complex in the Thirappane Divisional Secretariat crucial in project implementation; and sharing resources and recommendations to guide future TCS restoration projects. Implemented between 2018-2024, the HLP targeted multiple TCSs in the Palugaswewa and Thirappane Divisional Secretariats of the Anuradhapura District (see Maps 2 and 3). 7 Source: Lerner, H. & Berg, C. (2017). A Comparison of Three Holistic Approaches to Health: One Health, EcoHealth, and Planetary Health. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2017.00163 https://iris.who.int/bitstream/handle/10665/174012/9789241508537_eng.pdf?sequence=1 https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2017.00163 Tank Cascade Systems of Sri Lanka: Resilient Rural Landscapes for People, Food and Nature Sources Bebermeier, W., Meister, J., Withanachchi, C.R., Middelhaufe, I. & Schütt, B. (2017). Tank Cascade Systems as a Sustainable Measure of Watershed Management in South Asia. https://doi.org/10.3390/w9030231 FAO (2017). A Proposal for Declaration as a GIAHS – The Cascaded Tank-Village System (CTVS) in the Dry Zone of Sri Lanka. https://bit.ly/45AUTwz FAO GIAHS (n.d.). The Cascaded Tank-Village System in the Dry Zone of Sri Lanka, Sri Lanka. https://bit.ly/3XOfgoi Geekiyanage, N. & Pushpakumara, D.K.N.G. (2013). Ecology of ancient Tank Cascade Systems in island Sri Lanka. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.imic.2013.11.001 Goonatilake, S. A. & Ekanayake, S.P. (2016). Traditional Knowledge use in Sri Lankan Agroecosystems for Livelihoods and Adaptation to Climate Change. https://bit.ly/3XQgwHz Panabokke, C.R., Sakthivadivel, R. & Weerasinghe, A.D. (2002). Evolution, present status and issues concerning small tank systems in Sri Lanka. https://bit.ly/3XrbrFr United Nations University Institute for the Advances Study of Sustainability (2018). Socio-ecological production landscapes in Asia. https://bit.ly/3xOxhIm WHO & CBD (2015). Connecting Global Priorities: Biodiversity and Human Health – A State of Knowledge Review. https://bit.ly/4cwBhwf World Bank (n.d.). Climate Change Knowledge Portal For Development Practitioners and Policy Makers-Sri Lanka. https://bit.ly/3zH37r2 HLP Resources Awareness-raising material: Mendonce, S.; Borelli, T.; Hunter, D.; Silva, A.; Bandara, T.; Ratnayake, S. (2022) Healthy landscapes: Managing agricultural landscapes in socio- ecologically sensitive areas to promote food security, well-being and ecosystem health. https://hdl.handle.net/10568/127661 Blogs: Mendonce, S. (2022). An Ancient Water Management System in Sri Lanka is Being Revived - Here’s Why. https://allbiociat.org/3xZR6fT Cutrin,A., Mendonce,S. & Echeverry, E.E.M. (2024). An Ancient Water Management System in Sri Lanka Comes Back to Life: Here’s Why (Spanish). https://allbiociat.org/4cyOHrA Publications: Dayarathne, G.N., Herath, H.M.L.K. & Kadupitiya, H.K. (2022). Synergies between Demand and Supply of Regulatory Services in Village Tank Cascade System (VTCS) in Sri Lanka. https://bit.ly/3AfFRko Dilrukshi,P.T., Bandara, A.L.J. & Herath, H.M.L.K. (2024). Economic Valuation of Provisioning Services of Village Tank Cascade in Palugaswewa Divisional Secretariat: A Discrete Choice Experiment. https://bit.ly/4dw7ILs HLP. (2024). Cost-Benefit Assessment of VTCS Restoration: Case-study on Ecological Restoration of Thumbikulama Tank. https://bit.ly/3WRwH6v HLP (2024). Dying Echoes, Thriving Ripples: Rescuing Village Tank Cascade Systems from Degradation. Way Forward to Revitalize Village Tank Cascade Systems in Sri Lanka- A Compendium of Policy Briefs. https://bit.ly/3LUHsi4 HLP (2024). Performance Parameters of VTCS in Mahakanumulla System. Way Forward to Revitalize Village Tank Cascade Systems in Sri Lanka- A Compendium of Policy Briefs. https://bit.ly/3LUHsi4 HLP (2024). Resilience to Threats: the Case of Ulagalla Cascade. Way Forward to Revitalize Village Tank Cascade Systems in Sri Lanka- A Compendium of Policy Briefs. https://bit.ly/3LUHsi4 Rathnayaka, R.M.C.M., Herath, H.M.L.K. & Kadupitiya, H.K. (2022). Identification of the Capacity of Provisional Services Arising from Village Tank Cascade Systems in Sri Lanka. https://bit.ly/3AfFRko SACEP (2021). Baseline Assessment of Biodiversity, Ecosystem Services, Land Degradation, Food Security and Human Health in Village Tank Cascade Systems of Sri Lanka. https://bit.ly/3KOOnbZ Videos: Bioversity International (2024). Rehabilitating Sri Lanka’s Ancient Tank Cascade System: Introducing The Healthy Landscapes Project. https://bit.ly/3XWdYru HLP (2020). Healthy Landscapes - Healthy People. https://bit.ly/4bzsSXB SACEP (2024). Functions of Sri Lanka’s Village Tank Cascade Systems. https://bit.ly/45STPo1 Website: HLP (2020). Healthy Landscapes Project Website. https://bit.ly/4cwJTmu 10 Tank Cascade Systems of Sri Lanka: Resilient Rural Landscapes for People, Food and Nature https://doi.org/10.3390/w9030231 https://bit.ly/45AUTwz https://bit.ly/3XOfgoi https://doi.org/10.1016/j.imic.2013.11.001 https://bit.ly/3XQgwHz https://bit.ly/3XrbrFr https://bit.ly/3xOxhIm https://bit.ly/4cwBhwf https://bit.ly/3zH37r2 https://hdl.handle.net/10568/127661 https://allbiociat.org/3xZR6fT https://allbiociat.org/4cyOHrA https://bit.ly/3AfFRko https://bit.ly/4dw7ILs https://bit.ly/3WRwH6v https://bit.ly/3LUHsi4 https://bit.ly/3LUHsi4 https://bit.ly/3LUHsi4 https://bit.ly/3AfFRko https://bit.ly/3KOOnbZ https://bit.ly/3XWdYru https://bit.ly/4bzsSXB https://bit.ly/45STPo1 https://bit.ly/4cwJTmu 11Tank Cascade Systems of Sri Lanka: Resilient Rural Landscapes for People, Food and Nature Land Use and Degradation in Cascade Landscapes Tank Cascade Systems occupy a vast 14,800 km2 (or 22.5%) of Sri Lanka. Different land uses and habitats coexist in each TCS (see Map 4 and Figure 4), functioning complementarily, and allowing cascade landscape communities and local wildlife to thrive. However, Sri Lanka has seen an exponential increase in land use changes and associated land degradation over the last few decades (especially in the country’s dry zone where most TCSs exist) with consequences of reduced land productivity, loss of biodiversity and declining ecosystem services. Ke y t er m sLand use change8 in the TCS refers to the process, whereby a specific area of land is converted from one use to another – including from natural to human centric uses. This describes the immediate, local, cause of the change (e.g. agricultural land replacing forest). Land degradation9 in the TCS refers to the reduction and loss of the ecological and/or economic productivity of land resources (which includes soil, vegetation and water resources) caused by negative impacts of land use changes. LegendN Dense Forest Open Forest Scrub Land Chena Land Paddy Home Garden Tank Seasonal Crops Main Road* Water Flow Residences are generally positioned along the roads Bund Minor Road* * Nachchaduwa Tank Thirappane TCS Ulagalla TCS Mahakanumulla TCS Horiwila Tank Bellankadawala TCS Palugaswewa TCS Map 4: Land Use Types in Horiwila and Nachchaduwa TCS Complexes 8 Adapted from: Lee-Gammage, S. (2018). What is land use and land use change? (Foodsource: building blocks). https://bit.ly/3zbgKP2 9 Adapted from: FAO (2011). Land Degradation Assessment in Drylands. https://bit.ly/4cCYRY6 Credit: Healthy Landscapes Project/W.Kaluarachchi https://www.sapsri.lk/tank-terminology/ https://www.sapsri.lk/tank-terminology/ https://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/14/16/10180#B21-sustainability-14-10180 https://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/14/16/10180#B21-sustainability-14-10180 https://salb.un.org/en/news/land-degradation-sri-lanka-disaggregated-administrative-units https://www.unccd.int/sites/default/files/ldn_targets/Sri Lanka LDN TSP Country Report.pdf https://www.unccd.int/sites/default/files/ldn_targets/Sri Lanka LDN TSP Country Report.pdf https://bit.ly/3zbgKP2 https://bit.ly/4cCYRY6 12 Tank Cascade Systems of Sri Lanka: Resilient Rural Landscapes for People, Food and Nature Figure 4: Tank Cascade System land use systems and land use types Tank Cascade Systems of Sri Lanka: Resilient Rural Landscapes for People, Food and Nature Land use changes and land degradation in cascade landscapes The expansion and intensification of agriculture in cascade landscapes, and the growth of residential areas and public infrastructure, have been fueling deforestation and encroachment of micro-land uses in TCSs for the past few decades. These land use changes in the cascade landscape have been driven by rapid population growth in TCS villages over the last century. As the population has increased, so has the demand for housing, infrastructure, food, and resources to support livelihoods. While these land use changes have sustained cascade landscape communities thus far, they have come at the expense of the TCS’s sustainability. Land use changes in the cascade landscape are associated with increased land degradation- for example, soil erosion, fragmentation and loss of habitats, loss of biodiversity, and hence a decline in ecosystem services provided by TCSs. Intensive agriculture in TCSs is also contributing to widespread land degradation, particularly due to the overuse of chemical fertilizers and pesticides, which has led to a decline in soil health. Further, soil particles from fields or exposed soil areas, washed away by heavy rain, can be carried into tanks, leading to the accumulation of silt (siltation). Siltation undermines the tanks’ primary functions of water storage and distribution; it also clouds tank water-reducing the amount of light reaching aquatic plants and harming fish. These soil particles can also carry toxic runoff that pollutes tank water. These factors are some of the most common reasons behind the neglect and subsequent abandonment of tanks. Today, the ancient attributes of the Tank Cascade System are seldom seen. Many tanks have either been depleted or are deteriorating due to neglect, making life more difficult for our community. Mr. R. M. Jayathialake, Farmer and Community Leader, Palugasweva Ke y t er m sAgricultural expansion10 is the conversion of non-agricultural land like natural forests, grasslands, scrublands and wetlands into crops or agricultural land. Agricultural intensification11 is the process of increasing the inputs of agricultural resources (e.g., labour, technology and agrochemicals) to increase the level of yield per unit of farmland or pasture. Public infrastructure12 can be characterized as the physical assets created by public investment that provide basic services for industry and households. These services can be classified as economic (e.g., roads, pipelines and power grids) or social (e.g., schools, hospitals and recreation centers). Runoff13 occurs when there is more water than land can absorb. The excess liquid flows across the surface of the land and into nearby streams or tanks. Runoff can come from both natural processes and human activity. Siltation14 refers to the buildup of silt (fine particles of soil, rock, mud, clay, dirt) that is suspended in rivers or other bodies of water. 10 Source: Qi, J. (2014). Agricultural Expansion and Abandonment. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-36699-9_5 11 Source: TABLE (n.d.). TABLE Glossary- Agricultural intensification. https://bit.ly/45HnkJo 12 Source: CEB (2017). Investing in Public Infrastructure in Europe - a local economy perspective. https://bit.ly/3KVUIm2 13 Source: National Geographic Society (2023). Encyclopedic Entry- Runoff. https://bit.ly/3VVbMPu 14 Source: UNESCWA (n.d.). Statistical Terms Glossary- Siltation. https://bit.ly/3ziAqRe 13Tank Cascade Systems of Sri Lanka: Resilient Rural Landscapes for People, Food and Nature https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0308521X2200110X https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0308521X2200110X https://www.fao.org/fileadmin/templates/nr/kagera/Documents/LADA_manuals/part1_b.pdf https://www.researchgate.net/publication/355185849_Present_Status_and_Impacts_of_Soil_Erosion_in_the_Low_Country_Dry_Zone https://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/14/16/10180 https://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/14/16/10180 https://www.sapsri.lk/tank-de-silting-is-possible/ https://publications.iwmi.org/pdf/H036586.pdf https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-36699-9_5 https://bit.ly/45HnkJo https://bit.ly/3KVUIm2 https://bit.ly/3VVbMPu https://bit.ly/3ziAqRe Tank Cascade Systems of Sri Lanka: Resilient Rural Landscapes for People, Food and Nature Healthy Landscapes Project activities RENOVATING EXISTING TCSs BUILDING PARTNERSHIPS AND CAPACITY STRENGTHENING POLICY TO SUPPORT TCSs RAISING AWARENESS AND IMPROVING KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT PARTIAL DESILTING OF THE THUMBIKULAMA, VIDANE AND BULUGAHA TANKS While complete desilting can improve tank capacity and function, it is an expensive undertaking. Partial desilting, however, can provide many of the same advantages and its cost can easily be justified by the many benefits it provides, including reduced tank water loss, improved tank water storage and the enhancement of a wide range of ecosystem services. Read more in this policy brief. Some of the integrated, sustainable land management (SLM) activities implemented by HLP include: PLANTING SAPLINGS OF NATIVE PLANT SPECIES TO RESTORE OVER 500 HA OF FORESTS AND MICRO-LAND USES- THE SAME SIZE AS ABOUT 940 SOCCER FIELDS This was an effort to reverse the negative impacts of deforestation and land degradation and regain the ecological and social benefits of TCS forests and micro-land uses such as kattakaduwa and gasgommana (see Figure 1). Read more in ‘Cascade Landscape Biodiversity ’. PROVIDING TRAINING TO OVER 300 FARMERS IN SUSTAINABLE LAND MANAGEMENT PRACTICES For example, soil erosion control through the division of fields into smaller plots and preparation of soil bunds; water management through mulching and drip irrigation, which minimize water loss from evaporation and runoff; and organic fertilizer (e.g., manure and compost) production and application. 14 Tank Cascade Systems of Sri Lanka: Resilient Rural Landscapes for People, Food and Nature Credit: Bioversity International/ S.Mendonce http://sacep.org/pdf/Reports-Technical/hls/Way_forwards_to_revitalize_VTCS_in_Sri_Lanka_-_A_Compendium_of_Policy_Briefs.pdf#page=64 15Tank Cascade Systems of Sri Lanka: Resilient Rural Landscapes for People, Food and Nature ENABLING 500 HA OF SOIL CONSERVATION IN TCS AGRICULTURAL LANDS Through the implementation of soil conservation practices (such as mulching and organic fertilizer application) by farmers who attended the previously mentioned training on SLM practices. STRENGTHENING THE EVIDENCE BASE FOR INTEGRATED SLM TECHNIQUES TO ENCOURAGE AND GUIDE POLICY MAKERS TO INTEGRATE THEM INTO NATIONAL POLICY Evidence was gathered from past TCS restoration project and covers three key themes: water management, sustainable land management and land use planning. Each theme was featured in a poster, leaflet and booklet (all available in Sinhala, Tamil and English) developed by an expert from the Land Use Policy Planning Department and validated by National District and Divisional level policymakers during a workshop. Ke y t er m sComplete desilting15 involves the complete removal of excess sediment or silt suspended or deposited in tanks to restore its original capacity and functionality. Partial desilting16 involves selectively removing sediment from specific parts of a tank that are most affected or critical to its function. Soil conservation17 is defined as activities at the local level which maintain or enhance the productive capacity of the land in areas affected by or prone to degradation. Sustainable land management18 (SLM) is the use of land resources, including soils, water, animals and plants, for the production of goods to meet changing human needs, while simultaneously ensuring the long-term productive potential of these resources and the maintenance of their environmental functions. Integrated landscape management19 (ILM) involves long-term collaboration among different groups of land managers and stakeholders to achieve their multiple objectives and expectations within the landscape for improved local livelihoods, health and well-being. 15 Source: Dayanandam D., Dilhari, W. A. D. S. & Weerahewa, J. 2022. An Assessment of economic and environmental benefits of desilting village tanks in Sri Lanka: An application of linear programming. https://bit.ly/4eExA9q 16 Source: Dharmasena, P.B. (2023). Technical Guideline for Partial Desilting and Ecosystem Restoration of Village Tanks. https://bit.ly/3VHapmc 17 Source: FAO Soils Portal (n.d.). Soil Conservation. https://bit.ly/4boFQYa 18 Source: FAO (n.d.). Land & Water-Sustainable Land Management. https:// bit.ly/4ccL1eY 19 Source: Landscapes for People, Food and Nature (n.d). Integrated Landscape Management. https://bit.ly/3XF3soq https://bit.ly/4dvusLy https://bit.ly/3WvWdga https://bit.ly/3WvWdga https://bit.ly/4fxR9k9 https://bit.ly/46Kbcrx https://bit.ly/3WEgTTm https://bit.ly/4eExA9q https://bit.ly/3VHapmc https://bit.ly/4boFQYa https://bit.ly/4ccL1eY https://bit.ly/4ccL1eY https://bit.ly/3XF3soq 16 Tank Cascade Systems of Sri Lanka: Resilient Rural Landscapes for People, Food and Nature The Way Forward Integrated SLM practices are crucial to halt and even reverse land degradation in the cascade landscape. One emerging SLM approach to improve soil health is the use of biochar- a charcoal-like substance that’s made by burning organic material from agricultural and forestry wastes (e.g., rice straw, coconut shells, wood chips) in a controlled process called pyrolysis. This policy brief highlights the potential of biochar to improve soil health and support climate change mitigation; the brief also shares policy recommendations to encourage the application of biochar by paddy farmers in the cascade landscape. In terms of water management, this brief explains the distribution and movement of water throughout the cascade landscape and provides recommendations for the efficient use of this precious resource, particularly in the agricultural context. However, insecure land rights undermine the extent to which farmers are willing to invest in sustainable land and water management practices. These policy recommendations can help secure the land rights of cascade landscape farmers- addressing land ownership issues, inheritance rights, and the importance of tackling gender disparities in both. Credit: Healthy Landscapes Project/W.Kaluarachchi https://openknowledge.fao.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/1de07363-c84f-4e25-b15d-b8d857333c21/content https://www.healthylandscapesproject.org/fileadmin/Hlp/Uploads/Documents/Annex_17_-_A_Compendium_of_Policy_Briefs_compressed.pdf#page=7 https://www.healthylandscapesproject.org/fileadmin/Hlp/Uploads/Documents/Annex_17_-_A_Compendium_of_Policy_Briefs_compressed.pdf#page=58 https://www.healthylandscapesproject.org/fileadmin/Hlp/Uploads/Documents/Annex_17_-_A_Compendium_of_Policy_Briefs_compressed.pdf#page=58 https://www.healthylandscapesproject.org/fileadmin/Hlp/Uploads/Documents/Annex_17_-_A_Compendium_of_Policy_Briefs_compressed.pdf#page=87 17Tank Cascade Systems of Sri Lanka: Resilient Rural Landscapes for People, Food and Nature Sources Dharmasena, P.B. (2001). Present Status and Impacts of Soil Erosion in the Low Country Dry Zone. https://bit.ly/3LfDCQh FAO (2023). Biochar in Sustainable Soil Management: Potential and Constraints. https://bit.ly/4cSmziZ FAO (2011). Manual for Local Level Assessment of Land Degradation and Sustainable Land Management- Part 1. https://bit.ly/45YUWCQ Kulasinghe, T.N. & Dharmakeerthi, R.S. (2022). Effects of land use type and tank components on soil properties and sustainability of tank cascade system in the Dry Zone of north central Sri Lanka. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agsy.2022.103474 Ministry of Mahaweli Development and Environment (2017). Final Country Report of the Land Degradation Neutrality Target Setting Programme in Sri Lanka. https://bit.ly/4cwM5KK Panabokke, C.R., Sakthivadivel, R. & Weerasinghe, A.D. (2002). Evolution, present status and issues concerning small tank systems in Sri Lanka. https://bit.ly/3XrbrFr South Asia Partnership Sri Lanka (n.d.). Tank Terminology. https://bit.ly/4eVFhIw South Asia Partnership Sri Lanka (n.d.). Tank de-silting is possible. https://bit.ly/45UI9Bg United Nations (2022). Land Degradation in Sri Lanka, disaggregated by administrative units. https://bit.ly/3XReS8n HLP Resources Awareness-raising material: HLP (2024). Sustainable Land Management Posters. https://bit.ly/46Kbcrx Ministry of Environment and HLP (2024). Good Land Use Practices, Environmentally friendly Tank Cascade Systems and Land Degradation Brochures. https://bit.ly/3WEgTTm; https://bit.ly/3WEgTTm Publications: HLP (2024). Agricultural Land Use, Tenure, Ownership, and Succession for Sustainable Landscapes. Way Forward to Revitalize Village Tank Cascade Systems in Sri Lanka- A Compendium of Policy Briefs. https://bit.ly/3LUHsi4 HLP (2024). Biochar: An Alternative Soil Management Technology for Farmers in Village Tank Cascade System in Sri Lanka. Way Forward to Revitalize Village Tank Cascade Systems in Sri Lanka- A Compendium of Policy Briefs. https://bit.ly/3LUHsi4 HLP (2024). Soil Analysis of the Thumbikulama Cascade. https://bit.ly/3SzJhVd HLP (2024). Water Quality Analysis of the Thumbikulama Cascade. https://bit.ly/3WU8b4C HLP (2024). Understanding the Hydrology of Village Tank Cascades. Way Forward to Revitalize Village Tank Cascade Systems in Sri Lanka- A Compendium of Policy Briefs. https://bit.ly/3LUHsi4 HLP (2024). Unlocking Value: The Economic Viability of Silt Removal from Tanks .Way Forward to Revitalize Village Tank Cascade Systems in Sri Lanka- A Compendium of Policy Briefs. https://bit.ly/3LUHsi4 Ministry of Environment and HLP (2024). Cascade Systems and Sustainable Land Management. https://bit.ly/3WvWdga Ministry of Environment and HLP (2024). Importance of Soil and Water Conservation in Sustainable Land Management. https://bit.ly/4dvusLy Ministry of Environment and HLP (2024). Integrated, Sustainable and Participatory Landscape Management for Village Tank Cascade Systems. https://bit.ly/4dCvZzH Ministry of Environment and HLP (2024). Review of Sustainable Land Management Related Policies- Special Reference to Management of Lands in Village Tank Cascade Systems. https://bit.ly/4fxR9k9 Ratnayake, S. S., Khan, A., Reid, M., Dharmasena, P. B., Hunter, D., Kumar, L., Herath, K., Kogo, B., Kadupitiya, H. K., Dammalage, T., & Kariyawasam, C. S. (2022). Land Use-Based Participatory Assessment of Ecosystem Services for Ecological Restoration in Village Tank Cascade Systems of Sri Lanka. https://doi.org/10.3390/su141610180 17Tank Cascade Systems of Sri Lanka: Resilient Rural Landscapes for People, Food and Nature https://bit.ly/3LfDCQh https://bit.ly/4cSmziZ https://bit.ly/45YUWCQ https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agsy.2022.103474 https://bit.ly/4cwM5KK https://bit.ly/3XrbrFr https://bit.ly/4eVFhIw https://bit.ly/45UI9Bg https://bit.ly/3XReS8n https://bit.ly/46Kbcrx https://bit.ly/3WEgTTm https://bit.ly/3WEgTTm https://bit.ly/3LUHsi4 https://bit.ly/3LUHsi4 https://bit.ly/3SzJhVd https://bit.ly/3WU8b4C https://bit.ly/3LUHsi4 https://bit.ly/3LUHsi4 https://bit.ly/3WvWdga https://bit.ly/4dvusLy https://bit.ly/4dCvZzH https://bit.ly/4fxR9k9 https://doi.org/10.3390/su141610180 18 Tank Cascade Systems of Sri Lanka: Resilient Rural Landscapes for People, Food and Nature Credit: Healthy Landscapes Project/W.Kaluarachchi Tank Cascade Systems of Sri Lanka: Resilient Rural Landscapes for People, Food and Nature Cascade Landscape Biodiversity In Tank Cascade Systems different land uses and habitats coexist, each with their own special and well adapted mix of plants and animals (See Figure 5). The forests are home to one of Asia’s largest elephant populations (estimated at 3,500 to 4,000 elephants); endangered species such as the Sri Lankan leopard (Panthera pardus kotiya) and over 270 species of birds. Many of these birds- such as the Red-faced Malkoha (Phaenicophaeus pyrrhocephalus)- are endemic. The kattakaduwa (the land area between the tank bund and the downstream paddy field) is an example of a micro-land use. It is characterized by trees such as Arjun tree (Terminalia arjuna) whose roots have the ability to purify water. Meanwhile, tanks are home to fish- such as Asian stinging catfish (Heteropneustes fossilis)- which are an important source of protein for local communities and for the livelihoods of fisherfolk. Agricultural lands commonly feature traditional agrobiodiversity which is integral to cultural identity and heritage, as it is linked to local traditions, cuisine, festivals, and rituals. Also found all across TCSs are Neglected and Underutilised Species (NUS) that are well- adapted to local climatic conditions and often nutrient rich. Read more about the importance of biodiversity in TCSs in our blog. Ke y t er m sEndemic species20 are species for which the entire global range is restricted to the site, the region or the country. Endangered species21 are species considered to be facing a very high risk of extinction in the wild. Agrobiodiversity22 or agricultural biodiversity is the variety and variability of animals, plants and microorganisms that are used directly or indirectly for food and agriculture, including crops, livestock, forestry and fisheries. Neglected and underutilized species23 are species which are marginalized, if not entirely ignored, by researchers, breeders and policy makers. They are non-commodity crops and belong to a large, biodiverse group of thousands of domesticated, semi- domesticated or wild species. 20 Source: UN-REDD programme (n.d.). Glossary- Endemic species. https:// bit.ly/3KYHaGj 21 Source: WWF (n.d.). What does “endangered species” mean?. https://bit.ly/4blN6UA 22 Source: FAO (1999). Building on Gender, Agrobiodiversity and Local Knowledge – A Training Manual. https://bit.ly/4ciCY0d 23 Source: Padulosi, S., Thompson, J. & Rudebjer P. (2013). Fighting Poverty, Hunger and Malnutrition with Neglected and Underutilized Species (NUS): needs, challenges, and the way forward. https://hdl.handle.net/10568/68927 19 Credit: Bioversity International/T.Borelli Tank Cascade Systems of Sri Lanka: Resilient Rural Landscapes for People, Food and Nature https://www.researchgate.net/publication/236117381_Biodiversity_and_Agrobiodiversity_in_Sri_Lanka_Village_Tank_Systems https://www.researchgate.net/publication/236117381_Biodiversity_and_Agrobiodiversity_in_Sri_Lanka_Village_Tank_Systems https://lk.chm-cbd.net/ecosystems/tropical-dry-monsoon-mixed-evergreen-forest#:~:text=Dry%20mixed%20evergreen%20forests%20are,forests%20and%20thorn%20scrub%20lands. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/303944396_KATTAKADUWA_A_POTENTIAL_LAND_FOR_AGRO-FORESTRY_SYSTEM_DEVELOPMENT_IN_SRI_LANKA https://www.researchgate.net/publication/236117381_Biodiversity_and_Agrobiodiversity_in_Sri_Lanka_Village_Tank_Systems https://www.lstlanka.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/AN-UNCERTAIN-FUTURE_ENGLISH.pdf https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-031-37077-9_8 https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-031-37077-9_8 https://alliancebioversityciat.org/stories/ecological-restoration-sri-lanka-cascade-systems https://bit.ly/3KYHaGj https://bit.ly/3KYHaGj https://bit.ly/4blN6UA https://bit.ly/4ciCY0d https://hdl.handle.net/10568/68927 20 Tank Cascade Systems of Sri Lanka: Resilient Rural Landscapes for People, Food and Nature Figure 5: Tank and forest biodiversity in cascade landscapes 21Tank Cascade Systems of Sri Lanka: Resilient Rural Landscapes for People, Food and Nature Healthy Landscapes Project sites’ baseline biodiversity 376 plant species. Among them 8 species are endemic (e.g., Cinnamomum verum or Ceylon cinnamon). Healthy Landscapes Project sites’ challenges • 22 plant species are threatened (e.g., Salacia chinensis or lolly berry which is used in Ayurvedic medicine). • Forest patches in the vicinity of settlements, cultivation or access roads are increasingly being cleared- especially due to the illegal logging of valuable timber trees such as Ceylon satinwood (Chloroxylon swietenia) • Water scarcity, soil erosion and weed infestations often prevent home gardens from reaching their full economic and ecological potential. • 30% of tank water area is occupied by invasive alien species (IAS) such as giant salvinia (Salvinia molesta) and water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes). • The threat of IAS and widespread agricultural development have critically endangered endemic fish such as the Red Fin Labeo (Labeo lankae). We bear a great responsibility to use biodiversity wisely, as the lives, livelihoods, and wellbeing of present and future generations depend on it. Mr.K. Susantha Kumara Rupasinghe, Nawa Govi Sanvidanaya (The New Farmer Society), Palugaswewa 22 are threatened (e.g., Salacia chinensis or lolly berry which is used in Ayurvedic medicine). 150 food crop species. While a majority of these are traditional varieties, commercial varieties such as improved white rice are cultivated over a larger area. 208 commonly used medicinal plant species are found in the dry zone area. 202 animal species including amphibians, birds, butterflies, dragonflies, land snails, mammals, and reptiles. Birds are the largest group of these with 70 species. Poultry farming, livestock farming and bee keeping occur but are uncommon. Tank Cascade Systems of Sri Lanka: Resilient Rural Landscapes for People, Food and Nature Healthy Landscapes Project activities RENOVATING EXISTING TCSs BUILDING PARTNERSHIPS AND CAPACITY PLANTING SAPLINGS OF NATIVE SPECIES TO RESTORE 500 HA OF FORESTS Plant species used included the previously mentioned Arjun tree (Terminalia arjuna) that is also used in Ayurvedic medicine; and butter tree (Madhuca longifolia), that produces an underutilized seed fat and is traditionally planted near paddy fields, as its fruits attract bats whose droppings fertilize the paddy fields. DISTRIBUTING 4.5 TONNES (T) OF COWPEA SEEDS, 4 T GREEN GRAM SEEDS, AND 15 KG OF FINGER MILLET SEEDS TO FARMERS IN PROJECT SITES All three crops have been recognized by local farmers as high potential underutilized crops (i.e., plant species that have significant potential for contributing to food security, nutrition, and rural livelihoods but are not widely cultivated or utilized). Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) and green gram (Vigna radiata) enhance soil fertility by fixing nitrogen in the soil. Meanwhile, finger millet (Eleusine coracana) is highly drought tolerant, can grow in degraded soils and is generally resistant to common pests and diseases. SAVING 2.5 T OF COWPEA SEEDS, 2 T OF GREEN GRAM SEEDS AND 15 KG OF FINGER MILLET SEED FOR THE NEXT PLANTING SEASON, IN COMMUNITY SEED BANKS Commercial seed companies generally market only modern varieties and hybrids of a limited number of crops. Alternatively, community seed banks (CSBs) are decentralized systems where local communities collect, store, and exchange seeds, especially (but not solely) those of local varieties. As a result, CSBs play a crucial role in maintaining traditional agrobiodiversity in the TCS. 22 Credit: BBC StoryWorks Tank Cascade Systems of Sri Lanka: Resilient Rural Landscapes for People, Food and Nature https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Arosh-Bandula/publication/341144998_Underutilized_Crops_in_the_Agricultural_Farms_of_Southeastern_Sri_Lanka_Farmers'_Knowledge_Preference_and_Contribution_to_Household_Economy/links/5ec1f79c458515626cb0a62b/Underutilized-Crops-in-the-Agricultural-Farms-of-Southeastern-Sri-Lanka-Farmers-Knowledge-Preference-and-Contribution-to-Household-Economy.pdf https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Arosh-Bandula/publication/341144998_Underutilized_Crops_in_the_Agricultural_Farms_of_Southeastern_Sri_Lanka_Farmers'_Knowledge_Preference_and_Contribution_to_Household_Economy/links/5ec1f79c458515626cb0a62b/Underutilized-Crops-in-the-Agricultural-Farms-of-Southeastern-Sri-Lanka-Farmers-Knowledge-Preference-and-Contribution-to-Household-Economy.pdf https://cgspace.cgiar.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/054600eb-144d-491e-b740-3d5a11de94a6/content https://cgspace.cgiar.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/054600eb-144d-491e-b740-3d5a11de94a6/content Tank Cascade Systems of Sri Lanka: Resilient Rural Landscapes for People, Food and Nature CLEARING INVASIVE ALIEN SPECIES FROM THE HIRIWADUNNA AND BELLANKADAWALA TANKS The project engaged the local community in collaborative efforts to clear invasive species from the tanks. The methods used were manual removal (i.e., pulling or digging out the plants) and mechanical removal (i.e., the use of machinery such as excavators). REINTRODUCING 3,200 JUVENILES OF REDFIN LABEO INTO THE THUMBIKULAMA TANK. HLP partnered with IUCN’s ‘Managing Together’ project team to reintroduce the critically endangered and endemic Redfin Labeo (Labeo lankae) back into its native habitat. Ke y t er m sInvasive alien species24 are plants, animals, pathogens and other organisms that are non-native to an ecosystem, and which may cause economic or environmental harm or adversely affect human health. Community seed banks25 are mainly informal institutions, locally governed and managed, whose core function is to preserve seeds for local use. They are known by a variety of names: community genebank, farmer seed house, seed hut, seed wealth centre, seed savers group, association or network, community seed reserve, seed library, and community seed bank. 24 Source: CBD (n.d). What are Invasive Alien Species?. https://bit.ly/3W1BeTC 25 Source: Vernooy, R., Sthapit, B., & Bessette, G. (2020). Community seed banks: concept and practice. Facilitator handbook (updated version). https://hdl.handle.net/10568/81286 23 Credit: Bioversity International/ T.Borelli Credit: Bioversity International/ T.Borelli Tank Cascade Systems of Sri Lanka: Resilient Rural Landscapes for People, Food and Nature https://www.iucn.org/story/202307/watershed-moment-reintroducing-30000-juveniles-endangered-redfin-labeo-sri-lanka https://www.iucn.org/story/202307/watershed-moment-reintroducing-30000-juveniles-endangered-redfin-labeo-sri-lanka https://bit.ly/3W1BeTC https://hdl.handle.net/10568/81286 24 Tank Cascade Systems of Sri Lanka: Resilient Rural Landscapes for People, Food and Nature The Way Forward To enhance biodiversity in any area, the first step is to assess and understand its current state of biodiversity. The HLP’s baseline assessment serves as a useful starting point to enhance cascade landscape biodiversity as it details the specific plants and animal species found in the cascade landscape. Another useful resource is this pictorial record and guide to biodiversity in the Thumbikulama TCS which can be used to identify the system’s wide variety of medicinal plants, insects and birds. This resource can also be used to increase public awareness and Credit: Bioversity International/ T.Borelli engagement around TCS biodiversity which can lead to greater support for conservation initiatives. When implementing measures to enhance TCS biodiversity, it is crucial to choose species that promote ecological balance, restore the system’s functionality, and do no harm to existing species or habitats. This policy brief highlights the importance of planting the right trees in specific components of the TCS, focusing on the integration of indigenous species, agroforestry practices, and community participation. HLP’s baseline assessment https://bit.ly/3SJlXVd https://www.healthylandscapesproject.org/fileadmin/Hlp/Uploads/Documents/Annex_17_-_A_Compendium_of_Policy_Briefs_compressed.pdf#page=11 25Tank Cascade Systems of Sri Lanka: Resilient Rural Landscapes for People, Food and Nature Sources Bandula, A. & Nath, T.K. (2020). Underutilized Crops in the Agricultural Farms of Southeastern Sri Lanka: Farmers’ Knowledge, Preference, and Contribution to Household Economy. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12231-020-09492 Dharmasena, P.B. (1995). Kattakaduwa; A potential land for agro-forestry system development in Sri Lanka. https://bit.ly/3zvoM5z IUCN (2023). A watershed moment: reintroducing 30,000 juveniles of endangered Redfin labeo in Sri Lanka. https://bit.ly/3xO3Bv0 Marambe, B., Pushpakumara, D.K.N.G. & Silva, P. (2012). Biodiversity and Agrobiodiversity in Sri Lanka: Village Tank Systems. https://bit.ly/3xO3Bv0 Ratnayake, S., Reid, M., Hunter, D., Larder, N., Silva, R., Kadupitiya, H., Pushpakumara, G., Borelli, T., Mendonce, S., Liyanage, A., Samarasinghe, G., Perera, T. & Kariyawasam, C. (2023). Exploring Social-Ecological Systems for Mainstreaming Neglected and Underutilised Plant Foods: Local Solutions to Food Security Challenges in Sri Lanka. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-37077-9_8 Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity(n.d.). Sri Lanka Biodiversity- Tropical dry monsoon (mixed evergreen) forest. https://bit.ly/4f85dRl The Law and Society Trust (2006). An uncertain future: Traditional Plant Varieties and their Crop Wild Relatives in Sri Lanka. https://bit.ly/3xDH1p3 Vernooy, R., Sthapit, B. & Bessette, G. (2020). Community seed banks: concept and practice – facilitator handbook (updated version). https://hdl.handle.net/10568/81286 HLP Resources Blog: Mendonce, S. & Silva, R. (2024). Building back better: the ecological restoration of Sri Lanka’s Village Tank Cascade Systems. https://allbiociat.org/4cal28a Publications: HLP (2024). Biodiversity Survey of Thumbikulama Tank, Anuradhapura District, Sri Lanka. https://bit.ly/3LTmZtY HLP (2024). Use of Right Trees for Right Components of Village Tank Cascade Systems. Way Forward to Revitalize Village Tank Cascade Systems in Sri Lanka- A Compendium of Policy Briefs. https://bit.ly/3LUHsi4 Kanuwana, N., Senewirathne, M. & Athukorala, M. (2024). Pictorial Guide of the Thumbikulama Cascade. https://bit.ly/3SJlXVd SACEP (2021). Baseline Assessment of Biodiversity, Ecosystem Services Land Degradation, Food Security and Human Health in Village Tank Cascade Systems of Sri Lanka. https://bit.ly/3KOOnbZ 25Tank Cascade Systems of Sri Lanka: Resilient Rural Landscapes for People, Food and Nature https://doi.org/10.1007/s12231-020-09492 https://bit.ly/3zvoM5z https://bit.ly/3xO3Bv0 https://bit.ly/3xO3Bv0 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-37077-9_8 https://bit.ly/4f85dRl https://bit.ly/3xDH1p3 https://hdl.handle.net/10568/81286 https://allbiociat.org/4cal28a https://bit.ly/3LTmZtY https://bit.ly/3LUHsi4 https://bit.ly/3SJlXVd https://bit.ly/3KOOnbZ 26 Tank Cascade Systems of Sri Lanka: Resilient Rural Landscapes for People, Food and Nature Credit: Bioversity International/ S.Mendonce 27Tank Cascade Systems of Sri Lanka: Resilient Rural Landscapes for People, Food and Nature Nutrition and Food Security in Cascade Landscapes Historical accounts suggest that past cascade landscape communities were food secure and further, self-sufficient. People had multiple food sources they could rely on, for example- rice from paddy fields, millets and legumes from Chena cultivation, fruits and vegetables from home gardens and surrounding forests, as well as fish from tanks (see Figure 6). Traditional surplus food management methods were also widely practiced (e.g., Dum Messa which is a rack set right above a kitchen’s cook stove, where produce was hung to dry and preserve). Today, despite a wide range of food crops still being available in TCSs, a large part of the cascade landscape community is malnourished and around 8% of households are severely food insecure- likely going to bed hungry. Figure 6: Model food plate for a healthy Sri Lankan adult and some of their food sources in cascade landscapes Credit: Bioversity International/ S.Mendonce * This figure is adapted from Ministry of Health. 2021. Food Based Dietary Guidelines for Sri Lankans- Practitioner’s Handbook. https://bit.ly/3zuNMK6. For examples of what constitutes a serving size, please refer to this publication. Recommended servings of nuts, oily seed and oils are not included in this figure. http://repository.rjt.ac.lk/handle/123456789/4001ù http://repository.rjt.ac.lk/handle/123456789/4001ù http://www.sacep.org/pdf/Reports-Technical/2021.04.15-Baseline_Assessment_of_Biodiversity_Ecosystem_Services_Land_Degradation_Food_Security_and_Human_Health_in_Village_Tank_Cascade_Systems_of_Sri_Lanka.pdf http://www.sacep.org/pdf/Reports-Technical/2021.04.15-Baseline_Assessment_of_Biodiversity_Ecosystem_Services_Land_Degradation_Food_Security_and_Human_Health_in_Village_Tank_Cascade_Systems_of_Sri_Lanka.pdf https://bit.ly/3zuNMK6 Tank Cascade Systems of Sri Lanka: Resilient Rural Landscapes for People, Food and Nature Healthy Landscapes Project sites’ baseline nutrition status and food security 43% of households experience food insecurity to varying degrees. Healthy Landscapes Project sites’ challenges • Since 2019, Sri Lanka’s multiple crises-the political, economic and fuel crises, as well as the COVID-19 pandemic and rising cost of food- have pushed multiple households in cascade landscapes into food insecurity. • Effects of climate variability (e.g., extreme weather events such as droughts), malfunctioning tanks due to widespread TCS neglect, and land tenure challenges faced by farmers are exacerbating current food insecurity levels. 17% of residents are underweight, 27% are overweight and 18% are obese. 41% of residents have an excess accumulation of fat in the abdominal area, which increases their risk of diabetes and cardiovascular disease. Vitamin A intake is the lowest among most residents, at only 28% of the daily recommended amount. Strong religious (mainly Buddhist) beliefs influence local dietary choices, with many older residents avoiding animal source foods such as fish. The intake of all vitamins and minerals are well below their recommended amounts. 28 Tank Cascade Systems of Sri Lanka: Resilient Rural Landscapes for People, Food and Nature Credit: Bioversity International/ T.Borelli https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/099052823154036369/pdf/P179559078517c0bd0bcc20748bed66c540.pdf Tank Cascade Systems of Sri Lanka: Resilient Rural Landscapes for People, Food and Nature • Recently, there has been a decline in the cultivation of traditional crops and consumption of edible wild foods. Infact, most households lack a diverse diet, consuming around 6-7 (out of 12) food groups daily and an average of 9-10 unique foods or ingredients across food groups (half of what the country’s upper class consumes). • In recent years, there has been a nutrition transition, especially among younger generations, towards widely available, ultra processed foods (e.g., instant noodles and sausages). Ke y t er m sFood security26 is a situation that exists when all people, at all times, have physical and economic access to sufficient safe and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life’. Malnutrition27 refers to deficiencies or excesses in nutrient intake, imbalance of essential nutrients or impaired nutrient utilization. Animal source foods28 (ASFs) are derived from animals and can broadly be categorized into fish (including all aquatic ASFs); eggs; dairy; meat; food from hunting and wildlife farming; insects and insect products. Nutrition transition29 is a term used to describe the shifts in diets, physical activity and causes of disease that accompany changes in economic development, lifestyle, urbanization, and demography. 26 Source: FAO (2001). The State of Food Insecurity in the World 2001. https://bit.ly/4cFL7f7 27 Source: WHO (n.d.). Health topics-Malnutrition. https://bit.ly/4bmFzFh 28 Source: Neumann, C. G., Bwibo, N. O., Gewa, C. A. & Drorbaugh, N. (2010). Animal source foods as a food-based approach to improve diet and nutrition outcomes. https://bit.ly/3KY1fMW 29 Source: Breewood, H. (2018). What is the nutrition transition? (Foodsource:building blocks). https://bit.ly/45I74HT 29Tank Cascade Systems of Sri Lanka: Resilient Rural Landscapes for People, Food and Nature https://alliancebioversityciat.org/stories/reviving-use-traditional-vegetables-rural-sri-lanka https://alliancebioversityciat.org/stories/reviving-use-traditional-vegetables-rural-sri-lanka https://www.researchgate.net/publication/326377906_Nutrition_Transition_and_Traditional_Food_Cultural_Changes_in_Sri_Lanka_during_Colonization_and_Post-Colonization https://www.researchgate.net/publication/326377906_Nutrition_Transition_and_Traditional_Food_Cultural_Changes_in_Sri_Lanka_during_Colonization_and_Post-Colonization https://bit.ly/4cFL7f7 https://bit.ly/4bmFzFh https://bit.ly/3KY1fMW https://bit.ly/45I74HT 30 Tank Cascade Systems of Sri Lanka: Resilient Rural Landscapes for People, Food and Nature Healthy Landscapes Project activities RENOVATING EXISTING TCSs RAISING AWARENESS AND IMPROVING KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT BUILDING PARTNERSHIPS AND CAPACITY STRENGTHENING RURAL LIVELIHOODS TO IMPROVE ECONOMIC ACCESS TO NUTRITIOUS FOOD Read more in ‘Sustainable Livelihoods in Cascade Landscapes’ ENHANCING LOCAL AGROBIODIVERSITY TO HELP DIVERSIFY THE DAILY DIETS OF LOCAL CASCADE LANDSCAPE COMMUNITIES Read more in ‘Cascade Landscape Biodiversity ’ RELEASING 225,000 TILAPIA FINGERLINGS INTO A RENOVATED TANK AND DISTRIBUTING OVER 1,100 LAYER CHICKS OF BOTH LOCAL AND COMMERCIAL BREEDS Fingerlings realeased were a combination of Nile tilapias (Tilapia nilotica) and Mozambique tilapias (Tilapia mossambica). Additionally, the Karandagolla variety was among the local breeds of chicks distributed. Through this Credit: Healthy Landscapes Project/W.Kaluarachchi 31Tank Cascade Systems of Sri Lanka: Resilient Rural Landscapes for People, Food and Nature activity, the project strived to strengthen the livelihoods of local fisherfolk and backyard poultry keepers; and improve physical access to locally produced animal source foods which can play a significant role in nutritious diets. CONDUCTING 24 HEALTH AND NUTRITION CAMPS These camps targeted vulnerable groups such as young children, pregnant women, and the elderly. Apart from health screenings, these camps raised awareness about foraging neglected and underutilized plant foods (NUPFs); their nutritional and medicinal significance; and preparation and cooking methods to enhance dietary diversity. One of the many NUPFs featured was Indian pennywort (Centella asiatica), an edible wild plant rich in vitamins B and C. We, as mothers, usually decide what the family eats, so it’s important for us to have the right information and learn how to improve our families’ diets with affordable and easily accessible ingredients. Mrs. T.B.Sriyani Senanayake, “SITHAMU” Farm Women Organization, Palugasweva ESTABLISHING ONE NEW HELA BOJUN A Hela bojun is a food outlet, which has shown to improve access to traditional, nutritious and safe meals at reasonable prices. Read more about Hela bojuns here. Credit: Bioversity International/ S.Mendonce https://cgspace.cgiar.org/items/f358a351-3782-4d31-a919-bf0cb62f3e6c https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Muhammad-Waseem-148/publication/374015398_Underutilized_Plant_Foods_of_Pakistan/links/6528c4e72e1ba453041e6ab0/Underutilized-Plant-Foods-of-Pakistan.pdf#page=184 https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Muhammad-Waseem-148/publication/374015398_Underutilized_Plant_Foods_of_Pakistan/links/6528c4e72e1ba453041e6ab0/Underutilized-Plant-Foods-of-Pakistan.pdf#page=184 http://www.b4fn.org/resources/species-database/detail/centella-asiatica/ http://www.b4fn.org/resources/species-database/detail/centella-asiatica/ https://www.researchgate.net/publication/339335377_Helabojun_-_a_successful_model_of_agri-food_business_in_Sri_Lanka 32 Tank Cascade Systems of Sri Lanka: Resilient Rural Landscapes for People, Food and Nature The Way Forward During the COVID-19 pandemic, and despite multiple lockdowns, the cascade landscape communities did not face a food shortage. Residents sourced food from their fields, home gardens and surrounding cascade landscape. This policy brief recognizes the potential of TCSs to be better utilized for improving local food security and highlights key policy recommendations for the same (e.g., the allocation of public and private resources to strengthen crop diversification efforts in the landscape). Overcoming malnutrition and strengthening household resilience to food insecurity in the cascade landscape requires collective action by stakeholders at various levels and across sectors. This policy brief outlines key policy recommendations to better integrate nutrition considerations into cascade landscape planning, management, and restoration (e.g., the establishment of a multisectoral coordination body); as well as complementary implementation strategies and monitoring and evaluation mechanisms. Ke y t er m sCrop diversification30 is defined by IPES-Food (2016) ) as the maintenance of multiple sources of production, and varying what is produced across farming landscapes (intercropping) and overtime (crop rotation). Through crop diversification, farming households can spread production and economic risk over a broader range of crops, thus reducing risks associated with crop failure or market shocks. 30 Source: IPES-Food (2016). From uniformity to diversity: a paradigm shift from industrial agriculture to diversified agroecological systems. https://bit.ly/3xyXvOW Credit: Healthy Landscapes Project/W.Kaluarachchi https://www.healthylandscapesproject.org/fileadmin/Hlp/Uploads/Documents/Annex_17_-_A_Compendium_of_Policy_Briefs_compressed.pdf#page=98 https://www.healthylandscapesproject.org/fileadmin/Hlp/Uploads/Documents/Annex_17_-_A_Compendium_of_Policy_Briefs_compressed.pdf#page=103 https://bit.ly/3xyXvOW 33Tank Cascade Systems of Sri Lanka: Resilient Rural Landscapes for People, Food and Nature Ke y t er m s Sources Biodiversity for Food and Nutrition Project (n.d.). Centella Asiatica. https://bit.ly/3XW4lsO Hunter, D. & Samarasinghe, G. (2017). Helabojun – a successful model of agri-food business in Sri Lanka. https://bit.ly/3XQuyJf lrangani, M.K.L & Shanthapriya, K.D.S.H. (2022). Role of Village Tank Cascade Systems in Establishing Food Security Status in Dry Zone of Sri Lanka - A Qualitative Exploratory Study from a Historical Perspective. https://bit.ly/4buIzzq Leroy, F., Abraini, F., Beal, T., Domínguez-Salas, P., Gregorini, P., Manzano, P., Rowntree, J. & Vliet, S.van (2022). Animal board invited review: Animal source foods in healthy, sustainable, and ethical diets - An argument against drastic limitation of livestock in the food system. https://hdl.handle.net/10568/118103 Ministry of Health (2021). Food Based Dietary Guidelines for Sri Lankans- Practitioner’s Handbook. https://bit.ly/3zuNMK6 Ratnayake, S., Reid, M., Hunter, D., Larder, N., Silva, R., Kadupitiya, H., Pushpakumara, G., Borelli, T., Mendonce, S., Liyanage, A., Samarasinghe, G., Perera, T. & Kariyawasam, C. (2023). Exploring Social-Ecological Systems for Mainstreaming Neglected and Underutilised Plant Foods: Local Solutions to Food Security Challenges in Sri Lanka. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-37077-9_8 Silva, K.D.R.R, Perera, O., Sitisekara, S.M.H.D., Madumali, K.A.C., Ratnayake, S., Chandrasekara, A., Dharmasena, P.B. & Hunter, D. (2021). Household Food Security, Dietary Intakes and Dietary Diversity of Adults Living in Cascaded Tank-Village System in the Dry Zone of Sri Lanka. https://bit.ly/3zA0CXL World Bank (2022). Sri Lanka Development Update: Protecting the Poor and Vulnerable in a Time of Crisis. https://bit.ly/46cYT73 Weerasekara, P., Withanachchi, C. R., Ginigaddara, S. & Ploeger, A. (2018). Nutrition Transition and Traditional Food Cultural Changes in Sri Lanka during Colonization and Post-Colonization. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods7070111 HLP Resources Blogs: Mendonce, S. & Silva, R. (2023). ‘Forget me not!’ - Reviving the use of traditional vegetables in rural Sri Lanka for delicious and nutritious meals. https://allbiociat.org/3RTp7Fl Publications: HLP (2024). Assessment of Ecosystem Services for Human Wellbeing. https://bit.ly/4cgiHrd HLP (2024). Food and Nutrition Policy for Nutrition. Way Forward to Revitalize Village Tank Cascade Systems in Sri Lanka- A Compendium of Policy Briefs. https://bit.ly/3LUHsi4 HLP (2024). Sustainable Utilization of Food Environments in VTCS for Local Food Security. Way Forward to Revitalize Village Tank Cascade Systems in Sri Lanka- A Compendium of Policy Briefs. https://bit.ly/3LUHsi4 Ratnayake, S., Reid, M., Larder, N. Kariyawasam, C. Hunter, C., Hunter, D. Dharmasena, P.B., Pushpakumara, G.& Kogo, B. (2024). Sustainability and Productivity of Village Tank Cascade Systems: A Bibliometric Analysis and Knowledge Mapping. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16083360 33Tank Cascade Systems of Sri Lanka: Resilient Rural Landscapes for People, Food and Nature https://bit.ly/3XW4lsO https://bit.ly/3XQuyJf https://bit.ly/4buIzzq https://hdl.handle.net/10568/118103 https://bit.ly/3zuNMK6 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-37077-9_8 https://bit.ly/3zA0CXL https://bit.ly/46cYT73 https://doi.org/10.3390/foods7070111 https://allbiociat.org/3RTp7Fl https://bit.ly/4cgiHrd https://bit.ly/3LUHsi4 https://bit.ly/3LUHsi4 https://doi.org/10.3390/su16083360 34 Tank Cascade Systems of Sri Lanka: Resilient Rural Landscapes for People, Food and Nature Credit: Bioversity International/ T.Borelli 35Tank Cascade Systems of Sri Lanka: Resilient Rural Landscapes for People, Food and Nature Sustainable Livelihoods in Cascade Landscapes Food crop production- specifically paddy cultivation, Chena cultivation and home gardens- provides livelihoods for most of the cascade landscape community. However, the diverse land uses, unique biodiversity, and associated ecosystems services of TCSs also enable a wide range of other, rural livelihood opportunities (see Figure 7). As habitats to many freshwater fish, brimming tanks sustain the livelihoods of fisherfolk. In the dry season, with the water levels of tanks lowering, clay is extracted for pottery. Meanwhile, reeds found along the tank bunds and paddy fields, cured palm leaves and rattan are traditionally woven into mats, hats and baskets by women. Scrublands allow the rearing of cattle and buffalo, with some farmers also practicing backyard poultry. Forests are an important source of medicinal plants for Ayurvedic practitioners. They are also a source of fuel wood, wild honey, and game meat (mainly wild boar). Forest reserves and protected areas within Anuradhapura are also emerging ecotourism sites, giving tourists an opportunity to appreciate both the district’s rich biodiversity and sacred history. Figure 7: Livelihood opportunities within a Tank Cascade System Credit: Healthy Landscapes Project/W.Kaluarachchi https://ayurveda.gov.lk/ayureda-documentry-01/ https://www.thecommonwealth-ilibrary.org/index.php/comsec/catalog/download/360/360/3123?inline=1 https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Pathmanandakumar-Vyddiyaratnam/publication/321648980_Ecotourism_as_a_Strategy_for_Sustainable_Natural_Resource_Management_in_Sri_Lanka/links/5b06284daca2725783d8a127/Ecotourism-as-a-Strategy-for-Sustainable-Natural-Resource-Management-in-Sri-Lanka.pdf Tank Cascade Systems of Sri Lanka: Resilient Rural Landscapes for People, Food and Nature Healthy Landscapes Project sites’ challenges • Effects of climate variability; malfunctioning tanks due to widespread TCS neglect; land tenure challenges; increasing human-wildlife conflicts; high costs of agricultural inputs (e.g., chemical fertilizers and pesticides), and limited access to markets are putting the livelihoods of the cascade landscape farmers at risk. Demographics of Healthy Landscapes Project sites There is a slightly higher population of women compared to men Agriculture is the main source of income for 87% of residents. Anuradhapura accounts for 52% of household incomes are less than LKR 20,000 or USD 67 per month. As of 2023, the poverty line of the district is set at LKR 13,446 or USD 4533. Anuradhapura’s unemployment rate33 is 4.6% 45% of residents have completed lower secondary education 15% of total rice production and significantly contributes to maize production in Sri Lanka31. The main cash crops cultivated in Chena and home gardens vary depending on the location of the TCS32. 36 Tank Cascade Systems of Sri Lanka: Resilient Rural Landscapes for People, Food and Nature Credit: Bioversity International/ S.Mendonce 31 https://bit.ly/4clRC6W 32 https://bit.ly/3xwknik 33 https://bit.ly/3zziH8o 34 https://bit.ly/4cME1pH https://bit.ly/3zziH8o https://bit.ly/4cME1pH 37Tank Cascade Systems of Sri Lanka: Resilient Rural Landscapes for People, Food and Nature Ke y t er m sCash crops35 are agricultural crops that are planted for the purpose of selling on the market or for export to make profit, as distinguished from subsistence crops planted for the purpose of self-supply of the farmer (like livestock feeding or food for the family). • 18,500 households in Anuradhapura District live in poverty. • Challenges in agricultural productivity, resilience and profitability are driving local youth away from the cascade landscape towards urban areas in search of better livelihood opportunities. • Similar to trends observed at the national level, there are significant gender disparities in the cascade landscape regarding access to and control over resources (e.g., land, water, and inputs), access to markets, and access to skills training. All of these are critical for agricultural production and sustainable livelihoods. 35 Source: Eurostat Statistics Explained (n.d). Glossary: Cash crops. https://bit.ly/4cD87LK http://www.statistics.gov.lk/Resource/en/Poverty/PovertyIndicators-2019.pdf https://openknowledge.fao.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/2adb028b-ed6b-40eb-ba68-4002d21032e6/content https://openknowledge.fao.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/2adb028b-ed6b-40eb-ba68-4002d21032e6/content https://bit.ly/4cD87LK Tank Cascade Systems of Sri Lanka: Resilient Rural Landscapes for People, Food and Nature Healthy Landscapes Project activities SET UP A TOTAL OF 36 KM OF ELECTRIC FENCE PATHS, PROTECTING OVER 12,000 HA OF CASCADE LANDSCAPE FROM ELEPHANT DAMAGE Since setting up this community-managed electric fence (which protects an area equivalent to little over 16,000 soccer fields!) and restoring the Thumbikulama tank, local communities have found that elephants have stopped entering their villages and fields in search of food and water. BUILDING PARTNERSHIPS AND CAPACITY DISTRIBUTING 571 KG OF BIG ONION SEEDS TO LOCAL FARMERS AND SAVING 571 KG OF THE SAME FOR THE NEXT PLANTING SEASON Big onion (Allium cepa L. var. cepa) is an important cash crop in Sri Lanka, but local production falls short of annual demand due to a scarcity of high-quality seeds. The project addressed this scarcity to improve the incomes of cascade landscapes farmers. ORGANIZING A TECHNICAL VISIT FOR 42 HIGH-LEVEL GOVERNMENT OFFICIALS TO RAISE AWARENESS AROUND LIVELIHOOD DIVERSIFICATION STRATEGIES FOR RURAL WOMEN The strategies included home garden improvements (e.g., using net house farming) and paper production from Guinea grass (Megathyrsus maximus) which is a highly invasive plant species. The project also 38 Credit: Healthy Landscapes Project/W.Kaluarachchi Tank Cascade Systems of Sri Lanka: Resilient Rural Landscapes for People, Food and Nature STRENGTHENING POLICY TO SUPPORT TCSs RAISING AWARENESS AND IMPROVING KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/897f/b285efd2b79501f0388bc4aa60ed3fae94b5.pdf Tank Cascade Systems of Sri Lanka: Resilient Rural Landscapes for People, Food and Nature organized 3 soap making workshops for 200 women to further encourage livelihood diversification; and collaborated with two women farmers organizations to strengthen the livelihoods of over 120 women farmers . ENHANCING THE CAPACITY OF LOCAL COMMUNITIES AND GOVERNMENT OFFICIALS TO CAPITALIZE ON ECOTOURISM OPPORTUNITIES In Hiriwadunna, many farmers offer village tours featuring bullock cart rides, boat trips, and traditional Sri Lankan lunches at village homes. The project organized a visit for 30 such farmers to the Gannoruwa agro technology park. The farmers learnt how to enhance their tours by linking their agricultural practices with tourism by growing traditional fruits, vegetables, and spices such as cinnamon and cloves, for which Sri Lanka is renowned. This could help farmers diversify their income by providing tourists with an authentic experience and the chance to buy and taste locally grown products. Read our recommendations for ecotourism in the cascade landscape here. ORGANIZING A WORKSHOP FOR 25 PARTICIPANTS FROM ACADEMIA (STUDENTS, LECTURERS, AND RESEARCHERS) AND GOVERNMENT ON ‘DRONE-ASSISTED DECISION-MAKING IN AGRICULTURE AND NATURAL RESOURCES’ The workshop raised awareness about the opportunities for rural youth in smart agriculture. Read more about this workshop in this blog. Find out more about how the Healthy Landscapes project is improving rural livelihoods in this blog. The Way Forward Ke y t er m sEcotourism36 is a type of nature-based tourism activity in which the visitor’s essential motivation is to observe, learn, discover, experience and appreciate biological and cultural diversity with a responsible attitude to protect the integrity of the ecosystem and enhance the well-being of the local community. Livelihoods diversification37 is defined as the process by which rural families construct a diverse portfolio of activities to improve their standards of living. In the context of TCSs, it includes on- farm (e.g., intercropping existing fields with new crops), off-farm (e.g., crop processing and packaging) and non-farm activities (e.g., paper production from weeds), which are undertaken to generate income additional to that from the existing, main household agricultural activities. 36 Source: UN Tourism (n.d.). Glossary of Tourism Terms. https://bit.ly/3XF8ctX 37 Adapted from: Hussein, K. & Nelson, J. (1998). Sustainable Livelihoods and Livelihood Diversification- IDS Working Paper 69. https://bit.ly/4czUUTH 39Tank Cascade Systems of Sri Lanka: Resilient Rural Landscapes for People, Food and Nature https://doa.gov.lk/naicc-agro-technology-park-gannoruwa/ https://doa.gov.lk/naicc-agro-technology-park-gannoruwa/ https://www.healthylandscapesproject.org/fileadmin/Hlp/Uploads/Documents/5._Assessment_and_valuation.pdf#page=54 https://alliancebioversityciat.org/stories/big-picture-can-drones-improve-farmer-livelihoods-sri-lanka https://alliancebioversityciat.org/stories/healthy-landscapes-project-rural-livelihoods https://bit.ly/3XF8ctX https://bit.ly/4czUUTH 40 Tank Cascade Systems of Sri Lanka: Resilient Rural Landscapes for People, Food and Nature The Way Forward The following policy briefs highlight key recommendations for economic development in the cascade landscapes. One recommendation is to promote livelihood diversification through fisheries and cattle farming. Another, is to create an enabling environment for sustainable value chain development (especially for neglected and underutilized plant foods). Both options can play an important role in reducing poverty and strengthening the sustainability of rural livelihoods in the dry zone. They are also an opportunity to encourage cascade landscape communities to shift away from the harmful exploitation and degradation of natural resources to ensure TCS sustainability. Credit: S.Landersz Natural resources like water, soil, and forests are the backbone of our livelihoods, giving us food and the essentials for a healthy life. Let’s use these resources wisely to secure our future. Mrs. T. B. Sriyani Senanayake, “SITHAMU” Farm Women Organization, Palugaswewa https://www.healthylandscapesproject.org/fileadmin/Hlp/Uploads/Documents/Annex_17_-_A_Compendium_of_Policy_Briefs_compressed.pdf#page=42 https://www.healthylandscapesproject.org/fileadmin/Hlp/Uploads/Documents/Annex_17_-_A_Compendium_of_Policy_Briefs_compressed.pdf#page=27 https://www.healthylandscapesproject.org/fileadmin/Hlp/Uploads/Documents/Annex_17_-_A_Compendium_of_Policy_Briefs_compressed.pdf#page=81 https://www.healthylandscapesproject.org/fileadmin/Hlp/Uploads/Documents/Annex_17_-_A_Compendium_of_Policy_Briefs_compressed.pdf#page=81 https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-031-37077-9_8 41Tank Cascade Systems of Sri Lanka: Resilient Rural Landscapes for People, Food and Nature Sources Baptist, B. A. (1976). Beekeeping development programmes in Sri Lanka. https://bit.ly/3zspVL6 National Agriculture Infor