Climate-smart Aquaculture for 
Smallholder Fish Farmers: Integrated 
Fish and Small Livestock Farming
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Acknowledgement
Accelerating Impacts of CGIAR Climate Research for Africa (AICCRA) is a project that helps 
deliver a climate-smart African future driven by science and innovation in agriculture. It is 
led by the Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT and supported by a grant from the 
International Development Association (IDA) of the World Bank. Explore our work at aiccra.
cgiar.org. The work on climate-smart aquaculture is led by the WorldFish and aligns with 
the aims of CGIAR’s Initiative on Aquatic Food, also led by WorldFish. We also acknowledge 
participants from various stakeholder organizations, including smallholder farmers, small and 
medium enterprises, the Ministry of Fisheries and Livestock, Ministry of Agriculture and the 
Department of Fisheries in Zambia, who all participated in a workshop to validate the manual. 
Authors
Lundeba M, Mudege N.N, & Siamudaala, V. 2023. Climate-smart Aquaculture for smallholder 
fish farmers: Integrated fish and small livestock farming. Penang. WorldFish. 
Photo credits
Cover page, Henry Kanyembo and Mercy Sichone/ WorldFish (left) and Enock Chanda Chipwepwe/
National Agriculture Information Services (right); Plates 1, 17, 20, Mary Lundeba/WorldFish; 
Plate 2, Mercy Sichone/WorldFish; Plates 3, 4, Mercy Sichone and Henry Kanyembo/WorldFish; 
Plate 5-7, Nicholas Mukupa and Derrick Nasando/ Kalahari Media and Office Solutions; Plates 
8, 18, 19, Enock Chanda Chipwepwe/National Agriculture Information Services; Plates 9-16, 
Nicholas Mukupa and Derrick Nasando /Kalahari Media and Office Solutions.  
                      Climate-smart Aquaculture for Smallholder Fish Farmers: Integrated Fish and Small Livestock Farming 3
Contents
Acknowledgement          3
1. Introduction to climate-smart aquaculture    5
1.1 Barriers to climate change resilience among smallholder fish farmers  5
1.2 Alignment with national priorities        6
1.3 Expected results          6
2.1 Weather and climate         6
2.2 What is climate change?         7
2.3 Responding to climate change        8
3. Climate-smart aquaculture (CSA)      13
3.1 Climate-smart adaptation and mitigation strategies     13
4. Integrated aquaculture-agriculture systems as a 
    climate-smart aquaculture technology     14
4.1 What is integrated aquaculture-agriculture?      14
4.2 Why practice integrated aquaculture-agriculture?     14
4.3 Why integrate aquaculture and small livestock?     15
4.4 What are the links for integrated agriculture-aquaculture?    15
5. Using integrated agriculture-aquaculture to help farmers 
    mitigate and adapt to the effects of climate change   18
6. Integrating aquaculture with poultry     20
6.1 Chickens and ducks          20
6.2 Rearing chickens          22
6.3 Why integrate fish with poultry?        24
6.3.3.3.6.1 Perches          31
6.3.3.3.6.2 Laying nests          32
6.3.3.3.6.3 Feeders and drinkers        33
6.3.3.3.6.4 Maintaining a chicken house       33
6.4 Poultry health          34
7. Integrating aquaculture with goats      41
7.1 What is the importance of goat production by smallholder farmers?   41
7.2 Housing goats          43
7.3 Good management practices for goats       45
7.4 Feeding and nutrition for goats        45
7.5 Diseases and health management of goats      46
8. Gender inclusion in integrated agriculture-aquaculture  48
9. Conclusion           50
10. References          51
4 Climate-smart Aquaculture for Smallholder Fish Farmers: Integrated Fish and Small Livestock Farming
1. Introduction to climate-smart aquaculture 
Climate change and climate shocks are putting the most vulnerable people at risk, as extreme 
weather events are becoming more and more intense in many regions of the world. Extreme 
heat, drought, floods and unpredictable farming seasons are harming farmers and their 
production systems, threatening their livelihoods. In marginalized and vulnerable populations, 
aquaculture is a key means for sustaining livelihoods because of its contribution to food security 
and nutrition, but many fish farmers in Zambia endure unfavourable climates for sustainable 
fish farming.
In Zambia’s Northern and Luapula provinces, for example, aquaculture and fisheries are 
affected by extreme weather events, such as floods, rising temperatures and unpredictable 
rainfall patterns (Ministry of National Development 2017). These climatic hazards adversely 
impact food and water security, water quality, and people’s livelihoods, especially in rural 
communities that depend more on aquatic food systems. It is well known that the poorest 
people are vulnerable to extreme climate events, and Northern and Luapula are among the 
poorest provinces in Zambia, with 80.5% of people in the two provinces classified as poor 
and 64.5% as extremely poor as of 2010 (CSO 2010). Southern Zambia, in particular, is 
designated a climate hot spot. Over the past 30 years, it has experienced the lowest rainfall in 
the country, and it will continue to experience increased drought and flooding throughout the 
region, which will affect the aquaculture and the fisheries sector (Kalantary 2010). 
With the frequency and intensity of climate events expected to rise in the future, the negative 
impact on people’s livelihoods, food security, nutrition and household income generation are 
likely to deteriorate if no remediation interventions are proactively implemented. Therefore, 
it is important to collaborate with farmers to develop and disseminate relevant climate-smart 
adaptation and mitigation strategies. Such strategies will help farmers increase their resilience 
and adaptive capacity to climate variability.
1.1 Barriers to climate change resilience among smallholder fish    
farmers
Several factors hamper efforts to promote resilience to climate change among farmers and 
fishers:
• Lack of access to quality resilient seed
• Lack of access to quality and locally available nutritious feeds
• Poor management of water resources among farmers
• Lack of knowledge of better management practices (BMPs) in aquaculture that promote 
resilience to climate change
• Lack of access to meteorological data for farmers to use to make informed decision-making 
and for planning
• Non-use of climate-smart aquaculture (CSA) practices that promote high productivity and 
resilience
• Limited access to extension services to promote the skills and knowledge of farmers
• Lack of resources and information needed to adapt to the effects of climate change.
In Zambia, increased awareness and use of climate-smart approaches in aquaculture can 
enhance food security and ensure sustainable and better livelihoods for smallholder fish 
farmers. In light of climate change, then, this technical manual aims to help smallholder 
farmers and other actors get better access to resilience-enhancing knowledge and technologies 
in aquatic food systems (AFS).
The manual is a guide to aid facilitators in training smallholder farmers on the basics of 
climate change and CSA under the Accelerating the Impact of CGIAR Climate Research for 
Africa (AICCRA) project. Although there are many approaches to CSA, this manual focuses on 
integrated aquaculture-agriculture systems (IAAS). The manual is intended as a companion 
to the “Better management practices manual for smallholders farming tilapia in pond-based 
systems in Zambia,” because BMPs are key to climate resilience and adaptation. 
                      Climate-smart Aquaculture for Smallholder Fish Farmers: Integrated Fish and Small Livestock Farming 5
Interventions around seed, feed and climate-smart information are required to help smallholders 
increase their productivity and become more resilient to climate change and, ultimately, to 
improve food and nutritional security and income. 
1.2 Alignment with national priorities 
Under its intended nationally determined contribution (INDC), Zambia seeks to guarantee 
food security by diversifying and promoting climate-smart agricultural practices for crop, 
livestock and fisheries production, including the conservation of germplasm for landraces and 
their wild relatives. A key activity listed refers to promoting sustainable aquaculture practices 
through improved water management and feeding regimes and the use of appropriate stocks. 
Integrated aquaculture-agriculture (IAA) promotes efficient water management and improved 
feed regimes and increases farmer resilience to climate change, thus contributing significantly 
to Zambia’s INDC. 
However, IAA needs assessment for climate change adaptation for Zambia advocated for 
technologies that promote the sustainable use of land, water and fisheries (Zambia Intended 
Nationally Determined Contribution (INDC, 2015p:xiii). Under these technologies, proposed 
adaptation options for agriculture and food security include production systems that integrate 
small livestock, fish, poultry and vegetables (Zambia Intended Nationally Determined 
Contribution (INDC, p:xiv). The proposed IAAS technology contributes to the Zambia Climate 
Change Gender Action Plan (IUCN 2017), as well as to the management of wetlands that 
women and other poor people depend on for survival.
1.3 Expected results
Beneficiaries should know the following:
• The basics of climate change
• The adaptation and mitigation strategies in the face of climate change risks
• How they can build and maintain resilience of their farming systems
• What is involved in CSA and how they can apply CSA approaches
• How to access information on resilience-enhancing knowledge and technologies in AFS in 
light of climate change.
2.1 Weather and climate
Climate is often mistaken for weather. However, the two are very different.
Weather can change from day to day or year to year. It describes the current conditions in 
a specific area or place. For example, if it is currently windy or raining outside, this would 
describe the prevailing weather. As such, we could say the weather is rainy or windy today.
Climate describes the weather conditions that are expected in a region at a particular time of 
year, as determined by observing the region’s weather over many years. The climate of an 
area includes seasonal temperature and rainfall averages, as well as wind patterns. Different 
places have different climates.
The following are examples of climates:
• Desert is an arid climate because it experiences little rain or snow during the year.
• Temperate climates have warm summers and cooler winters.
• Tropical climates are hot and humid.
2.1.1 What is the climate like in Zambia?
Zambia’s climate is described as either tropical or subtropical, depending on the altitude of 
the place. Mid-November to March is Zambia’s rainy season, during which it is hot and humid, 
and April to November is the country’s dry season. From mid-May to mid-August, Zambia 
experiences cold temperatures, and between September to mid-November it is hot and dry.
6 Climate-smart Aquaculture for Smallholder Fish Farmers: Integrated Fish and Small Livestock Farming
2.2 What is climate change?
Climate change refers to shifts in average temperatures and weather patterns in a region that 
occur over a long period. Global climate change refers to the average long-term changes over 
the entire Earth. These include warming temperatures and changes in precipitation (rainfall 
or snow) and can be either natural or human-induced. The Earth’s climate has constantly 
been changing, long before humans came into the picture. However, scientists have observed 
unusual changes recently. For example, the Earth’s average temperature has increased much 
more quickly than expected over the past 150 years. According to the Royal Society, the 
Earth’s average surface air temperature has increased about 1°C since 1900.
Climate change can cause weather patterns to be less predictable. For instance, some areas can 
experience tropical cyclones that they never have before, leading to higher rainfall, flooding, 
damaging winds and loss of life. Other areas can become increasingly prone to drought and 
flooding.
When temperatures and rainfall patterns become unpredictable, it becomes challenging to 
plan and practice aquaculture and other forms of farming. This uncertainty calls for climate 
information services (CIS) to facilitate climate-smart innovations to address food security 
challenges as a result of climate change.
2.2.1 Climate change in Zambia
In Zambia, the alternating occurrences of drought and floods throughout the country will 
have several effects. They will increase the risks of drowning, climate-sensitive diseases, 
and outbreaks of infectious plant, zoonotic and human diseases. They will also destroy more 
agricultural crops, roads, housing, and power and water supply infrastructure, and disrupt the 
accessibility and delivery of health services and relief assistance, which will then result in food 
shortages and an increase in malnutrition or starvation. Climate change will likely also displace 
more of Zambia’s population, leading to anxiety, depression and overcrowding.
2.2.2 What causes climate change?
2.2.2.1 Human activities
These are human activities that emit large amounts of greenhouse gases (GHGs) and also 
those that reduce the amounts of carbon sinks. Many activities contribute to climate change. 
Here, we highlight only a few. Using fossil fuels (coal, oil and gas) for energy supplies, emits 
large amounts of greenhouse gases (GHGs) into the atmosphere, such as carbon dioxide and 
methane. These GHGs deplete the activities that reduce the amount of carbon absorbed from 
the atmosphere, resulting in a “greenhouse effect” (warming).
Deforestation and land degradation also reduce the amount of carbon sinks. For fisheries 
and aquaculture, the main pathways of the sector’s contribution to GHGs are power inputs, 
transportation and feed production. However, the sector’s contribution is relatively small.
2.2.2.2 Natural processes
These are natural variations that alter the composition of the global atmosphere over a long 
period. Here, we consider three such variations: in solar output, orbital changes and volcanic 
eruptions. The main source of heat for the Earth is the Sun. As such, fluctuations in solar 
output in terms of quantity and quality can impact the climate. If a high amount of radiation 
is emitted, the Earth’s temperatures will rise.
The Earth has natural warming and cooling periods caused by variations in the tilt and/or orbit 
of the Earth around the Sun. When the distance between the Earth and the Sun varies over a 
long period, there will be frequent variations in the total amount of solar energy reaching the 
planet, causing climate change.
                      Climate-smart Aquaculture for Smallholder Fish Farmers: Integrated Fish and Small Livestock Farming 7
Volcanoes have a mixed effect on the climate. Eruptions produce aerosol particles that cool 
the Earth, but they also release carbon dioxide, which warms it. Although volcanic eruptions 
cause short-term climate changes and contribute to natural climate variability, they are not 
the leading cause of global warming. Cooling is the dominant effect of volcanic eruptions, not 
warming.
2.3 Responding to climate change
2.3.1 Climate change adaptation
This refers to “altering our behavior, systems, and—in some cases—ways of life to protect our 
families, our economies, and the environment in which we live from the impacts of climate 
change” (WWF, nd). Although reducing GHG emissions can reduce the impacts of climate change 
in the future and help us adapt better, some climate changes that have already happened 
cannot be reversed, so it is necessary to adapt to them now. Adaptation entails changes 
in “processes, practices, and structures to moderate potential damages or to benefit from 
opportunities associated with climate change” (UNFCCC, nd). Adaptation promotes actions 
and solutions to address current and future climate change impacts. Cultivating improved fish 
breeds that are resilient to climate change is one example.
2.3.2 Climate change mitigation
This refers to “making the impacts of climate change less severe by preventing or reducing 
the emission of greenhouse gases (GHG) into the atmosphere” (EEA, nd). The more we reduce 
emissions right now, the easier it will be to adapt to the changes we can no longer avoid. If we 
reduce GHG emissions, we prevent or reduce the rate at which the Earth is warming and avoid 
extreme temperatures that could be detrimental to life on Earth. “Mitigation is achieved either 
by reducing the sources of these gases—e.g. by increasing the share of renewable energies, 
or establishing a cleaner mobility system—or by enhancing the storage of these gases—e.g. 
by increasing the size of forests. In short, mitigation is a human intervention that reduces the 
sources of GHG emissions and/or enhances the sinks” (EEA, nd).
As an example, planting trees and stopping deforestation are considered mitigation measures, 
because they allow trees to capture GHGs instead of them being released into the atmosphere.
Mitigation activities for aquaculture, meanwhile, can include environmentally friendly 
technologies and practices as well as the use of BMPs for aquaculture, including genetic 
improvement programs and also better water management, which would improve water use 
efficiency and minimize water pollution. 
2.3.3 Climate resilience
This refers to “the ability to prepare for, recover from, and adapt to the impacts of climate 
change” (C2ES 2019). To effectively plan for resilience, you need to understand the contexts 
and risks to develop effective resilience plans. A system that is not resilient is unable to 
recover from climate shocks. When individuals, households, communities and systems cannot 
address climate-related shocks and stresses, their development trajectory could cause them 
to sink deeper into poverty, as illustrated in Figure 1.
8 Climate-smart Aquaculture for Smallholder Fish Farmers: Integrated Fish and Small Livestock Farming
Figure 1. A system that is not resilient to shocks.
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Figure 2 illustrates what climate resilience could look like. Communities and households are 
able to bounce back or maintain and even increase their progress even when facing shocks 
and stresses.
Figure 2. A system that is resilient to shocks. 
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                      Climate-smart Aquaculture for Smallholder Fish Farmers: Integrated Fish and Small Livestock Farming 9
Wellbeing of a fish farmer after climate shocks
Wellbeing of a fish farmer after climate shocks
2.3.5 Impacts of climate change on aquaculture
The aquaculture value chain is vulnerable to the impacts of climate change, the effects and 
implications of which can be both negative and positive. For aquaculture, warmer temperatures 
within species tolerance would promote tilapia production and other warmer water species, 
while flooding of low areas could increase the land available for pond water aquaculture. 
Prolonged warmer periods could also promote longer growing seasons for some fish species, 
such as tilapia, as well as increase the demand for cultured fish as a result of the collapse of 
capture fisheries.
However, the negative effects of climate change far outweigh the positive ones for aquaculture. 
The higher costs of inputs would severely impact small-scale fish farmers because they have 
no support system, such as insurance products.
The following are direct impacts of climate change on aquaculture:
• Higher temperatures, beyond tolerance levels, could increase mortality for some fish 
species.
• Changes in temperature increase bacterial, parasitic, viral and fungal diseases (Maulu et 
al. 2021), so fish could become more susceptible to these diseases as temperatures rise. 
Higher temperatures could also lead to the emergence of epizootic diseases.
• Changes in temperature could increase algae blooms, which can be toxic to fish, resulting 
in poor growth and underperformance.
• Limited fish seeds from the wild could threaten fishmeal and fish oil supplies and hamper 
fish breeding programs. “Generally, the projected impact of climate change on agriculture 
and capture fisheries is expected to lower the availability and increase the cost of the 
inputs, such as fish seed and feed ingredients required for aquaculture production” (Maulu 
et al. 2021:8).
• Heavy rainfall and flooding is a production risk in low lying areas. This can damage ponds 
and lead to fish escaping from ponds, and unwanted fish species invading ponds. A flooding 
event on a fish farm can easily introduce an invasive fish species into the wild.
• Changes in rainfall patterns affect water availability, ranging from droughts and shortages 
to floods, thereby reducing water quality for aquaculture. Increased run-off could bring in 
nutrients from agricultural fertilizers and cause algal blooms. This would lead to reduced 
levels of dissolved oxygen, which can be lethal to fish (Plate 1). Rising temperatures also 
reduce the level of dissolved oxygen, with similar results.
• Indirect effects of climate change can occur because of alterations to primary and secondary 
productivity, which could affect the prices of input supplies. For example, if the price of 
fishmeal increases, this would translate into higher feed costs. 
• Increased occurrence of strong winds that force fish out of ponds would result in losses for 
aquaculture farmers.
The negative impacts of climate change are already being felt in form of more frequent extreme 
weather events. Plate 1 shows the negative effects of a shift in the 2021–2022 rainfall pattern 
in Mporokoso District, Northern Province, related to climate change, which resulted in lower 
fish production for smallholder farmers. Excessive rains promoted excessive inflow of nutrients 
into ponds, leading to greater algae bloom, which is harmful to fish.
10 Climate-smart Aquaculture for Smallholder Fish Farmers: Integrated Fish and Small Livestock Farming
Plate 1. Development of excessive algae bloom in Mporokoso District because of greater 
inflow of nutrients.
Changes in rainfall patterns also affect fish production in Northern and Luapula provinces, as 
farmers often abandon their ponds when they dry out during prolonged dry spells.
Plate 2. A drying pond in Samfya District (left) and a completely dried out and abandoned 
pond in Mpulungu District (right), both as a result of the late onset of rains.
                      Climate-smart Aquaculture for Smallholder Fish Farmers: Integrated Fish and Small Livestock Farming 11
Plate 3. Broken pond walls and fingerling holding tanks in Luwingu District because of excess 
water from the rains.
Damaged pond walls and tanks resulting in fish escaping
The vulnerability of aquaculture-based communities is primarily a function of their exposure to 
extreme weather events and the impact of climate change on the natural resources required 
to undertake aquaculture, such as good water, land, seed and feed.
2.3.6 Vulnerability
All smallholder farmers are vulnerable to the negative impacts of climate change. In Zambia, 
women depend on wetlands, which are also used for fish farming (IUCN 2017). When wetlands 
are mismanaged or become dry because of climate-related weather variability, this affects 
the women who depend on them. When water quality is affected, households become prone 
to waterborne diseases and suffer losses of income. Using water efficiently, such as adopting 
CSA technologies, will benefit women who depend on these wetlands. Such climate change 
mitigation and adaptation measures need to be mainstreamed to promote well-being. This 
includes better health through increased production of nutritious food (including fish) and 
higher incomes while at the same time reducing environmental risks.
Increases in feed prices also affect smallholder farmers, who often cannot afford feed. Climate-
smart approaches are those that reduce reliance on fishmeal and fish-oil inputs. According to 
the Food and Agriculture Organization, “Aquaculture systems, which are less or non-reliant on 
fishmeal and fish oil inputs (e.g. bivalves and macroalgae), have better scope for expansion 
than production systems dependent on capture fisheries commodities (such as fishmeal)” 
(2009:4).
Smallholder fish farmers face several challenges in this regard, including inadequate access 
to quality seed (fingerlings), resilient fish species, feed, and unpredictable weather patterns 
(Kakwasha and Mudege et al. 2020). As a result, these farmers often have low fish production 
levels. Overall, they make up 26% of total national fish supply/production, which puts 
pressure on capture fisheries. Interventions around seed, feed and climate-smart information 
are needed to help smallholders increase their productivity, become more resilient to climate 
change and, ultimately, increase their food and nutrition security and income. 
12 Climate-smart Aquaculture for Smallholder Fish Farmers: Integrated Fish and Small Livestock Farming
3. Climate-smart aquaculture (CSA)
CSA promotes efficient use of water as well as adaptation to climate change. It is an integrated 
approach that combines adaptation and mitigation in a way that enhances sustainable 
aquaculture production and food security in the face of climate change. CSA addresses the 
challenges of building synergies between the related objectives of climate change mitigation, 
adaptation and productivity, as well as increases in income. Climate-smart fisheries and 
aquaculture require improved efficiency when using natural resources to produce fish and 
aquatic foods. This maintains the resilience of aquatic systems and the communities that 
depend on them to allow the sector to continue contributing to sustainable development. CSA 
also requires gaining an understanding of the ways to effectively reduce the vulnerability of 
those most likely to be negatively impacted by climate change (Ahmed and Solomon 2017).
CSA encompasses various aquaculture practices and technologies. These includes integrating 
aquaculture and agriculture as a sustainable practice to adapt to climate change effects, 
enabling more efficient use of resources and improving farm productivity. The use of BMPs for 
aquaculture on farms is also an integral part of CSA.
3.1 Climate-smart adaptation and mitigation strategies
Climate-smart adaptation and mitigation strategies can help increase the resilience and adaptive 
capacity of smallholder farming communities as well as the ecosystems. CSA approaches and 
technologies include, but are not limited to, the following:
• Using IAA as an adaptive measure
• Digging boreholes or wells to supply water during dry weather
• Using tank ponds to reduce water infiltration during dry weather 
• Using pond liners to help retain water
• Reusing waste water to use water more efficiently as a scarce resource
• Adopting water harvesting technologies
• Adjusting stocking time in line with CIS delivery
• Building well-designed drainage systems and pond dikes or walls to guard against floods
• Using fish species that can better adapt to climate change impacts, such as catfish, which 
can tolerate low levels of water and dissolved oxygen
• Implementing BMPs for aquaculture in farming systems
• Using gas or electricity rather than charcoal during fish smoking
• Treating waste water from aquaculture.
In addition to technical adaptation strategies, other strategies call for institutional and policy 
changes to ensure that smallholder farmers are fully supported and are able to manage 
climate related shocks and recover. Such strategies include creating insurance products for 
smallholder fish farmers, ensuring the availability and accessibility of climate-smart information 
for decision-making, and investing in human capital and resources to support farmers with 
relevant extension services.
                      Climate-smart Aquaculture for Smallholder Fish Farmers: Integrated Fish and Small Livestock Farming 13
4. Integrated aquaculture-agriculture systems as 
a climate-smart aquaculture technology
This manual focuses on IAAS or fish farming as a CSA technology in the face of climate change 
related-risks. IAA is not a new strategy or technology. It was first developed in China over 
2000 years ago and has long been used in parts of Southeast Asia. IAA is common in both 
extensive and semi-intensive culture systems.
The manual focuses on integrating aquaculture with small livestock, such as chicken and goats. 
Most smallholder farmers are engaged in small-scale aquaculture, but the shortage and high 
cost of commercial feeds for their fishponds often hinders their operations. Most smallholder 
farmers traditionally raise chickens, but more and more of them are now raising goats because 
of the high demand for goat meat within Zambia and in neighboring countries, especially in the 
Democratic Republic of Congo. Smallholder farmers should, therefore, integrate aquaculture 
with livestock and crop production to establish a sustainable and resilient farming system that 
is aimed at maximizing profitability and minimizing operational costs.
4.1 What is integrated aquaculture-agriculture?
IAA is a system of producing fish and other aquatic organisms in combination with other 
agricultural activities, such as farming crops and rearing livestock, to promote synergistic 
effects. It is a circular approach that reduces waste and increases production and productivity.
Farmers can use manure from livestock to fertilize fishponds to propagate plankton, which 
is natural food for fish. They can also use farm residues as supplemental feed for livestock, 
and some species of fish, such as redbreast tilapia (Coptodon rendalli), can feed on crop by-
products. Farmers can use pond sediments as fertilizer for crops or orchards and use nutrient-
rich pond water to irrigate them. In addition, they can also use pond mud as fertilizer for crops 
on land.
Examples common types of aquaculture integration include poultry with fish (such as chickens 
or ducks), pigs with fish and rice with fish.
4.2 Why practice integrated aquaculture-agriculture?
There are many reasons to practice IAA:
• IAA is a sustainable and resilient strategy to increase food security and cash flow.
• It is a key livelihood strategy for smallholder farmers to diversify their income, spread the 
risk, stabilize production and increase resource efficiency.
• It increases production efficiency and investment profitability because of its capacity to 
generate synergies between farm enterprises.
• It conserves the environment since because it uses small amounts of land to produce a 
variety of aquatic and terrestrial products.
• Multiple uses of water and land make the overall system more stable and resilient than 
using water and land for one single purpose.
• It spreads out both biological and economic risks since several subsystems are involved, 
as opposed to one in a single commodity farming system.
• It uses an ecosystem-based management approach because of interconnected interactions 
within an ecosystem. One example is rice-fish integration, where nutrient-rich water from 
fish waste fertilizes rice plants in the same aquatic system.
• Adopting IAA as a strategy not only increases output productivity and efficiency in a 
sustainable manner, but it also plays a role in reducing the aquaculture sector’s vulnerability 
and in increasing its resilience to climate change. 
• It allows double cropping, leading to diversification and improved incomes and rural 
livelihoods.
14 Climate-smart Aquaculture for Smallholder Fish Farmers: Integrated Fish and Small Livestock Farming
4.3 Why integrate aquaculture and small livestock?
Small livestock play an important role in food and nutrition security and in the live livelihoods 
of many smallholder farmers, for the following reasons:
• Small livestock can help families diversify and be resilient in the event that one farm 
enterprise is adversely impacted by weather variability.
• Poultry droppings are good organic manure for pond fertilization. 
• Small livestock increases the consumption of meat, milk and eggs, which are a source of 
protein, vitamins and minerals. 
• Integrating chickens with aquaculture results in sustainable land management, food and 
nutrition security, resilience and poverty reduction.
• Household livelihoods improve, because small livestock give birth more frequently than 
large livestock and grow faster and reach maturity age earlier.
• Small livestock require less maintenance than large livestock and need less land, water 
and feed.
• They can use forage, foliage and crop residues.
• They tend to be more tolerant and resistant to diseases and drought conditions.
• They are easier to handle and transport.
• They can use a small area unsuitable for farming crops.
• Farmer can use their manure in home gardens and fishponds.
4.4 What are the links for integrated agriculture-aquaculture?
IAA links with plant crop and livestock farming systems in several ways.
4.4.1 Semi-integration
This is where farming activities are all integrated on the same farm but are set independently. 
For example, both crops and livestock (poultry, goats, pigs) houses are placed away from 
fishponds, but benefit from each other in several ways (Plate 4):
• Manure is collected from the livestock houses and used as fertilizer in fishponds to propagate 
natural food for fish and also on crop land to fertilize crops.
• Crop-by products are fed to livestock and herbivorous fish species. Banana stalks can also 
be used to feed pigs.
• After harvesting fish, the pond bottom, which is rich in nutrients, can be used as fertilizer 
in gardens and orchards and on other crop land.
• Depending on the layout of the farm, a furrow could water gardens with nutrient-rich pond 
water.
Plate 4. On-farm integration at Mr. Manfred Bwalya’s farm in Samfya District.
FISH PONDS
FRUIT TREES
BANANA ORCHARD
PIGGERY
CATTLE KRAAL
CHICKEN RUN 
                      Climate-smart Aquaculture for Smallholder Fish Farmers: Integrated Fish and Small Livestock Farming 15
In Plate 5, a farmer in Samfya District only brings his ducks to the ponds when he feeds them 
to allow their droppings to fertilize the water directly.
Plate 5. On-farm integration using poultry droppings. 
4.4.2 Complete integration
Complete integration, also known as vertical integration, is a system in which farmers build 
livestock houses on pond dikes or over the ponds to so that the droppings fall directly into the 
water.
4.4.2.1 Chicken and fish integration
Chickens can be integrated with fish to reduce the cost of fertilizer and fish feeds to maximize 
benefits. Chickens can be raised either over or adjacent to the ponds. 
Raising chickens over a pond has the following advantages:
• It maximizes the use of space.
• It saves labor in transporting manure from the poultry house to the ponds because it drops 
directly into the pond.
• It makes the poultry house more hygienic (for aesthetic purposes).
• There is no need to feed the fish because the feed that the chickens spill also falls directly 
into the pond for the fish to eat.
• No fertilizer is needed because the chicken manure fertilizes the pond.
When a plankton bloom occurs, pond water turns deep green and dissolved oxygen levels 
drop, resulting in fish deaths. When this happens, farmers must put mats or plastic sheets 
under the poultry house, or inside it, to catch the chicken droppings and leftover feed. They 
can then use this excess manure for other farming systems. 
16 Climate-smart Aquaculture for Smallholder Fish Farmers: Integrated Fish and Small Livestock Farming
To facilitate and maximize the collection of chicken manure, farmers raising local chickens 
should house their chickens instead of raising them free range. 
Plates 6 and 7 show the preparation of a poultry house over a fishpond for direct integration 
of fish and chickens.
Plate 6. Preparation of a poultry house over a fishpond.    Plate 7. Direct integration of fish 
and chickens.
Pigs can also be integrated with fish farming. Plate 8 shows direct integration of pigs and fish. 
The system uses pipes to wash pig droppings directly into the fishpond.
Plate 8. Direct integration of fish and pigs at Hopeways in Mansa District.
4.4.3 Indirect integration
Indirect integration uses off-farm by-products as inputs into aquaculture systems.
4.4.3.1 Goat-fish integration
In the northern region of Zambia, most smallholder farmers raise goats instead of cattle and 
pigs. With goat manure readily available in the region, there is great potential for goat-fish 
integration, as goat manure is an excellent fertilizer for fishponds. Using goat manure directly 
in fishponds is considered a good practice that increases the efficiency of both goat and fish 
production. 
                      Climate-smart Aquaculture for Smallholder Fish Farmers: Integrated Fish and Small Livestock Farming 17
5. Using integrated agriculture-aquaculture to 
help farmers mitigate and adapt to the effects of 
climate change
Diversifying food systems and integrated agriculture production systems can be important 
climate change adaptation measures (Mbow et al.2019). IAA can reduce some emissions. 
Traditional IAA systems are semi-intensive, with limited feed and nutrient inputs and minimal 
use of electricity, so their GHG emissions are negligible. Additionally, in livestock-fish systems, 
where the manure of farm animals, such as chickens, is converted into nutrients for fish, the 
methane and nitrous oxide emissions that decomposing animal waste produce are avoided.
Table 1. Examples of IAA methods and their potential for adaptation and mitigation. 
Method Description Adaptation Mitigation
Integrated fish, pond This is a traditional low- - The pond water can - The garden can add to 
and livestock input agricultural method be used for irrigation, carbon sinks, and using 
that consists of three making farms more animal waste as fertilizer 
integrated components: resilient to changes in and fish feed avoids 
a garden, a pond and a rainfall, and in situations emissions from the 
livestock pen. of water scarcity, making decomposing waste.
more efficient use of a 
limited resource. - It avoids emissions 
 associated with fertilizer 
- This method maximizes and fish feed production.
land use by enabling 
several production 
systems at the same 
time. 
Fish-livestock systems Individually, intensive - This method - Proper manure 
agriculture and recycles excess management can 
aquaculture systems can waste and provides decrease GHG 
create large amounts added nutrients, emissions. 
of waste, as well as particularly nitrogen 
pollution. and phosphorus, for fish - It avoids emissions 
For example, when production. associated with fish feed 
manure is used as production.
fertilizer on land, any - It reduces pressure 
excess can leach into on natural aquatic 
waterways. In integrated resources, making farm 
fish- systems more resilient.
livestock systems, farm 
effluents and wastes are 
recycled in fishponds 
and contribute to the 
production of animal 
protein.
Rice-fish systems Rice-fish systems - Rice-fish systems can - Certain species of fish 
maximize land and improve on-farm water can be fed with manure 
water resources while management and allow from livestock, which 
providing carbohydrates for diversification. avoids emissions from 
and protein. This method decomposed animal 
of rice production might - They can also increase waste. 
need cash investment, the outputs of both rice 
but the fish production and fish and reduce the - Emissions associated 
generates additional need for fertilizer. with fertilizer and fish 
income and reduces feed production are 
labor and material avoided.
inputs.
18 Climate-smart Aquaculture for Smallholder Fish Farmers: Integrated Fish and Small Livestock Farming
Method Description Adaptation Mitigation
Fish-vegetable/ This refers to the - Fish-vegetable/ - The vegetables, 
horticulture culture integration of fish horticulture systems can banana trees and other 
farming with vegetables, improve on-farm water fruit trees can add to 
horticultural crops and and land use and allow carbon sinks.
fruit trees, such as for diversification.
bananas. - Nutrient-rich water 
Vegetables can be - Pond water can be from the fishpond 
grown on pond dikes used for irrigation, and the mud from the 
using water from the making farms more bottom of the pond can 
fishpond to maximize resilient to changes in be used as fertilizer 
land and water sources. rainfall patterns. on vegetable and 
Vegetables can also horticultural crops.
be grown in separate - This method can 
fields, like fruit trees, deliver expected - Emissions associated 
and irrigated with pond products at a lower cost with fertilizer production 
water. of inputs because of are avoided.
the reduced need for 
fertilizer.
Aquaponics Aquaponics is a - Fish waste is Nutrients like nitrates 
hydroponics system converted into and oxygen are 
that uses aquaculture nutrients for vegetables recycled between fish 
to grow plants in a using bacteria. The and vegetables, which 
closed and controlled entire process is eliminates the need for 
system. It is suitable environmentally friendly, fertilizers.
for multiple species of saves water and creates 
fish and several types of no waste. - Emissions associated 
vegetables. - The system promotes with fertilizer production 
efficiency in the use of are avoided.
water, nutrients and 
space.
Integrated multitrophic This is similar to - Species at the lower - Nutrients are recycled 
aquaculture (IMTA polyculture, where trophic level use waste between fish and other 
different organisms from products such as feces aquatic organisms, 
different trophic levels and uneaten feed from eliminating the need for 
can be farmed together. the higher trophic fertilizer.
In IMTA, multiple aquatic species (typically fish) as 
species from different nutrients. - Emissions associated 
trophic levels are with fertilizer production 
farmed in an integrated - This system recycles are avoided.
fashion to improve wastes and provides 
efficiency, reduce waste nutrients for the lower 
and provide ecosystem trophic organisms.
services, such as bio-
remediation. Lower 
trophic fish species or 
aquatic plants should be 
able to absorb metabolic 
by-products of the main 
organisms and, in the 
case of fish, feed on 
natural food.
In summary, integrated systems reduce waste and increase productivity by using by-products 
from crops, livestock and fish systems, and also other waste as inputs for other subsystems. 
As such, IAAS make farmers less dependent on agro-industrial products such as commercial 
inorganic fertilizers and formulated pelleted feed, which contribute to emissions.
                      Climate-smart Aquaculture for Smallholder Fish Farmers: Integrated Fish and Small Livestock Farming 19
6. Integrating aquaculture with poultry
This involves integrating fish with poultry, such as chickens, ducks and geese. One can 
integrate broilers, layers or dual-purpose chickens. According to Agrifarming (nd), “The best 
suitable fishes for integrated fish and poultry farming are those fishes that can filter and feed 
on phytoplankton, zooplankton and bacteria. From pond water per ha”.
If a farmer does not keep many birds, integration might not be cost-effective. To be cost-
effective, a farm needs 500–6000 poultry birds for a 1 ha fishpond (Ramanathan et al. 2020). 
On average, 50 to 60 kg of manure is required daily per ha  (Agrifarming, nd).
6.1 Chickens and ducks
Fast-growing birds like broilers and layers are best for integrated chicken and fish farming. 
However, farmers can also use village or local chickens and ducks, which are the most common 
type of livestock in many rural areas of Zambia and the most common source of animal protein 
in Zambian villages, especially in the northern region. They are also resistant to disease and 
easier to feed.
In rural communities of Zambia, village chickens and ducks are mainly kept under an extensive 
low input-low output management systems where they are left to fend for themselves in terms 
of feeding and shelter (free range). To use village chickens and ducks in IAA, however, farmers 
need to change their management regime so that they provide enough of the best quality 
waste products for fishponds. 
Ducks, specifically, are hardy and resistant to most poultry diseases. They also produce 
reasonably well even when kept under low management. For people living in rural areas, 
ducks are easy to rear, and when kept intensively they can outpace chickens in both growth 
rate and egg production.
6.1.1 Village chickens
There are several types of village chickens in Zambia.
Table 2. Types of village chickens.
Type Characteristics
Naked neck • No feathers on the neck
• Normal to large in size
• Lay up to 18 eggs per batch
• Up to 100% of eggs can hatch
• Recommended for use in natural egg       
incubation and natural chick brooding
• Good resistance to diseases
Short-legged • Raised feathers on the head that look like a hat
• Good laying and hatching abilities 
• Lay 18 or more eggs per batch
• Generally large in size 
Guinea fowl • Black-and-white spotted feathers like a guinea 
fowl
• Brown and black spots
• Generally large in size 
• Lay about 10–14 eggs per batch
Frizzle • Frizzled feathers 
• High mortalities because low resistance to 
disease
20 Climate-smart Aquaculture for Smallholder Fish Farmers: Integrated Fish and Small Livestock Farming
Type Characteristics
Feathered shanks • Feathers on the shanks that make the chickens 
look like they are wearing pants
• Generally very small
Dwarf • Raised feathers on the head that look like a hat
• Good laying and hatching abilities 
• Lay 18 or more eggs per batch
• Generally large in size 
Guinea fowl • Generally very small 
• Tend to be resistant to diseases
• Low market value because of their small size
• Lay 12–18 eggs per batch
Source: Modified from MAL 2013.
6.1.2 Ducks
There are four main duck breeds in Zambia: Aylesbury, Pekin, Khaki Campbell and Muscovy, 
which is the most common breed in the country.
Table 3. Common duck breeds in Zambia.
Breed Characteristics
Muscovy • Males (drakes) weigh up to 7 kg and females 
(ducks) 3.6 kg
• Many colors, including black, white, black-and-
white
• Drakes have puffs of red skin around the eyes 
and on the bill
• Lays up to 80 eggs per year
• - Lays 8–16 eggs per batch, incubate eggs and 
look after their young for 10–12 weeks
• Non-broody
• 35-day incubation period
Aylesbury • Originated from England
• Large ducks raised for meat and appearance
• White plumage, pink bill, orange legs and feet
• Body parallel to the ground
• Fattens quickly to 2.3 kg at 8 weeks of age, 
large enough to eat but still young and 
extremely tender
• Males weigh 4.5–5.5 kg and females 4–5 kg
• Lays 40 to 100 eggs per year
• 28-day incubation period
Pekin • Originated from China
• Reared for egg and meat production
• Mature ducks weigh 3.5–5 kg
• White feathers, light-orange legs and beak
• Non-broody
• Lays up to 200 eggs per year
• 28-day incubation period
Source: Modified from MAL 2013.
                      Climate-smart Aquaculture for Smallholder Fish Farmers: Integrated Fish and Small Livestock Farming 21
Ducks typically begin to lay eggs at about 6 months of age. The females (ducks) mature at 5 
months and the males (drakes) at 8, with a mating ratio of one drake for every four ducks. 
Muscovies can cross with other breeds, but the offspring are sterile. Muscovies incubate eggs 
and look after their young, but other breeds are non-broody, so their eggs need to be incubated 
artificially. The incubation period is 4 weeks for most breeds, except for Muscovy, which is 5. 
Muscovy ducks can incubate and hatch up to 30, while other breeds usually hatch 15–20. Hens 
can be used to incubate duck eggs. 
In Zambia, smallholder and commercial farmers keep ducks for meat and eggs. Ducks are 
hardy and resistant to most poultry diseases, and they produce reasonably well even when 
kept under low management. For people living in rural areas, they are easy to rear and, when 
kept intensively, can beat chickens in both growth rate and egg production.
Ducks can be raised under intensive, semi-intensive and free-range management systems. In 
intensive systems, duck houses, which are similar to those used for chickens, are built over 
fishponds so that their droppings fertilize the water. The houses can also be built on pond 
dikes, where the ducks can graze on green forage around the pond and have easy access to 
the water. Plate 9 shows how to integrate ducks into fish farming.
In free-range systems, specifically, ducks can access dambo areas or recently cultivated rice 
fields and live on forage, small fish and insects. Under this system, ducks can take up to 6 
months to reach market weight.
Plate 9. Integrating ducks with fish.
6.2 Rearing chickens 
In Zambia, smallholder farmers commonly raise village chickens using an extensive system 
such as free range. Table 4 shows a comparison of the characteristics, advantages and 
disadvantages of the three rearing systems.
Table 4. Chicken rearing systems and their advantages and disadvantages.
Extensive (free range) Semi-intensive Intensive
Characteristics • Chickens have no fixed • Chickens have a fixed • - Chickens are 
house. house with an en- kept in poultry 
• Chickens move freely closed area around. houses.
everywhere on grass- • Chickens move • - Chicken 
land and around home- around on enclosed houses are fully 
steads. grassland during the equipped with 
• Chickens find their own day and housed at relevant facil-
food, such as grasshop- night. ities, such as 
pers, worms, termites feeders, drink-
and grain. ers, lights and 
nest boxes.
22 Climate-smart Aquaculture for Smallholder Fish Farmers: Integrated Fish and Small Livestock Farming
Extensive (free range) Semi-intensive Intensive
Characteristics • - Chickens get valuable • Chickens are provided • Chickens are fed 
minerals from the grass with feeders, drinkers complete feed 
and the soil. and laying nests. and watered.
• Chickens are provided • Chickens are provided • Chickens are 
with a shelter at night or with water and not allowed to 
a perch in trees. supplementary feed. brood, as eggs 
• Hens generally make • Hens and cocks run are collected 
their own nests to lay together. for artificial 
eggs incubation.
• Hens and cocks run • Alternatively, 
together all the time. chicks are 
• Brooding hens care for weaned at 2 
their chicks. weeks of age 
• Water is provided. and brooded 
artificially.
Advantages for • When a farmer wants • Chickens can be fed • Droppings are 
aquaculture to integrate chickens • Supplementary feeds, considered 
with fish, a free-range which can improve the high quality 
system is discouraged quality of droppings. for integration 
because it has limited or • More droppings can be into fishponds 
no advantages. collected than in free- because chickens 
range systems. are provided 
with complete 
feed and water.
• Droppings are 
easy to collect.
• A large amount 
of droppings can 
be collected with 
minimum waste.
Disadvantages • Less manure means less • Moderate labor is • Investment 
fertilizer for fish. required to collect costs, such as 
• The system is inefficient droppings, and it can housing and 
and not cost-effective take long to get the feeds, are high. 
to integrate with fish amount needed. •  It is labor-
farming. • Droppings can be of poor intensive in 
• Poor quality manure can quality, depending on the terms of taking 
be produced, especially quality of supplementary care of the 
during lean months of feeds. chickens.
the year, so fish fed on 
this manure will not be 
able to grow and thrive.
Source: Modified from MAL 2013.
                      Climate-smart Aquaculture for Smallholder Fish Farmers: Integrated Fish and Small Livestock Farming 23
Plate 10. A female farmer adopting a semi intensive chicken rearing system where she 
provides feed to her chickens.
6.3 Why integrate fish with poultry?
According to Agrifarming, “Poultry excreta is an excellent feed for fishes. The manure contains 
highly soluble organic salts, more ‘N’ and ‘P’. You can integrate both broilers, layer, or dual 
purpose chickens” (Agrifarming, nd). Poultry manure also has a better conversion rate in 
aquaculture than agriculture, and chicken manure, especially, helps with the development of 
zooplankton. Zooplankton also comes with bacteria that does well on the organic component 
of poultry dung and can be consumed by the chickens. As Agrifarming puts it, “There is a high 
production of detritus at the pond bottom, which provides the substance for colonization of 
micro-organism and other benthic fauna particularly the chironomid larvae” (Agrifarming, nd)
Integrated poultry-fish farming produces few effluents, and according to Little and Satapornvani, 
“one hectare of static water fish ponds can ‘process’ the wastes of up to 1500 poultry, producing 
fish in quantities of up to 10 MT/ha without other feeds or fertilizers” (1997:426).
Ducks use the pond for their daily intake of water and also aerate the pond (AQAI 2021). They 
also increase pond productivity by releasing nutrients from the pond bed and get 50%–75% 
of their total feed requirement from the pond itself in the form of aquatic weeds, insects, 
mollusks, etc., which do not form the food of the fish (AQAI 2021).
6.3.1 What are the ideal conditions for integrated poultry-fish farming and better 
management practices? 
According to Little and Satapornvani, integrated poultry-fish farming requires a “high water 
temperature and sunlight ensure year-round growth of both fish and natural
24 Climate-smart Aquaculture for Smallholder Fish Farmers: Integrated Fish and Small Livestock Farming
feeds” (1997:428). The authors also state that low temperatures reduce the amount of waste 
that can be processed by a given area of fishponds and that the ideal temperature for culturing 
fish with poultry waste products is 25°C (1997). The tolerance levels of fish to poultry manure 
also differs. Species that breathe air, such as catfish, can tolerate high input levels.
In Thailand, the optimal amount of poultry manure in ponds fertilized with high levels of 
inorganic fertilizer (5 kg of nitrogen/ha per day) is about 75 kg/ha per week for a monoculture 
of Nile tilapia (Knud-Hansen et al. 1991). These low levels reflect the subtle balance of 
dissolved oxygen and food production in a highly eutrophic pond (Edward et al. 1983). Green 
et al. (1994) recorded similar daily high yields of more than 20 kg/ha of Nile tilapia using 
higher levels of chicken manure in combination with inorganic fertilizer. According to Little and 
Satapornvani, “In contrast, the microphagous Nile tilapia is more sensitive to low dissolved 
oxygen in the early morning but thrives at numbers of poultry between 1000 and 1500 egg-
laying ducks/ha without other inputs. Using poultry manure alone, net extrapolated yields 
of up to 12 MT, or standing stocks of 5-6 MT/ha, appear possible in monocultures of tilapia” 
(1997:439)
6.3.2 How to integrate poultry in ponds?
There are two methods to integrate poultry into aquaculture: building a poultry house over the 
ponds (vertical integration) or confining the poultry closer to the pond.
6.3.2.1 Vertical integration
Vertical integration systems that house poultry directly over ponds are used for both broiler 
and layer chickens, while pens that give poultry access to ponds stocked with fish for drinking 
and/or bathing are generally used only for ducks and geese (Little and Satapornvani 1997). 
According to Little and Satapornvani, “Construction of the poultry house over the pond allows 
wastes to drop directly in, saving labour costs” (1997:438). When building a chicken house 
over a pond, use concrete pillars or posts that are 2.4 m long, with half in the ground and half 
above it so that they lift the cages above the pond to allow people to work under them. The 
bottom of the cage can be made with wire mesh to allow the poultry waste to fall directly into 
the pond (Ramanathan et al. 2020).
The main disadvantage of this system is that there is a danger of overloading the ponds 
with chicken waste, which could affect water quality and dissolved oxygen levels. However, 
overloading can be avoided by housing poultry over concrete or earthen floors rather than 
directly over ponds, and then regularly manually or mechanically add manure to the pond. 
This option can reduce construction costs considerably and also enables farmers to sell surplus 
manure to their requirements (Little and Satapornvani 1997). In addition, replacing the 
water regularly to reduce phytoplankton biomass can alleviate water quality problems from 
overloading. This is avoided in a well-designed system, as effluents reflect inefficient nutrient 
reuse and negative impacts on the surrounding environment (Little and Satapornvani 1997).
6.3.2.2 Confining poultry closer to ponds 
Farmers must collect manure from the poultry house and store it in a safe place. It should be 
applied to the pond every morning after sunrise at a rate of 50 to 60 kg per hectare. 
This system has two main advantages. Evaporative cooling can reduce heat stress in broilers 
(Theimsiri 1992; Little and Satapornvani 1997), and access to water improves the quality of 
feathers in ducks, though growth might suffer (Edwards 1986). 
The disadvantages are that having ducks free-range over ponds in large numbers can damage 
dikes and cause water quality problems, though restricting ducks to the water and pen prevents 
this problem (Edwards et al. 1983; Little and Satapornvani 1997). Edwards et al. (1983) also 
found that problems associated with marketing duck eggs, coupled with high feed costs, 
prevented small-scale farmers from maintaining even 30 ducks over small ponds (200 m2) as
                      Climate-smart Aquaculture for Smallholder Fish Farmers: Integrated Fish and Small Livestock Farming 25
feedlots. Farmers with limited numbers of poultry for their pond area need additional nutrient 
inputs to optimize productivity (Little and Satapornvani 1997)
6.3.2.3 Using poultry manure
Poultry manure can be used fresh, or after processing, to enhance the production of natural 
food production in sunlit tropical ponds (Little and Satapornvani 1997). It is necessary to 
monitor dissolved oxygen, because as Little and Satapornvani put it, “Input levels in excess 
of 75 kg DM/ha/ day typically ‘overload’ the system over a typical fish culture cycle (4-8 
months), causing early morning deficits of oxygen. Balancing the production of wastes from 
poultry and the requirement of the fishpond is a key aspect of management” (1997:448).
Generally, larger birds produce more waste than small birds. As a result, the waste production 
increases rapidly over the rearing period of modern broilers. Layers produce more calcium and 
phosphorus-rich excreta than broilers, and the waste of replacement birds fed restricted diets 
high in fiber is correspondingly poorer than laying birds (Little and Satapornvani 1997).
For example, using egg-laying poultry that are of constant weight and produce fairly constant 
levels of waste are easier to manage than broilers in which waste is cyclical (Hopkins and Cruz 
1982). The timely availability of replacement stock, veterinary support and market demand 
can be critical to maintaining poultry and the waste they produce (Little and Satapornvani 
1997).
6.3.2.3.1 Application rates for poultry manure
Example #1
If 50 kg of manure is required daily per hectare, how many birds would be needed?
Guideline: on average, a chicken produces 0.1 kg of excreta daily.
Answer: 
50 kg = 10,000 m2 (1 ha); how much manure would we need for 1 m2? 
50 kg = 10,000 m2
 х = 1 m2
10,000x = 50kg
10,000x/10,000 = 50/10,000
х = 50/10,000
= 0.005 kg/m2
To find the number of chickens for a particular pond, multiply the pond size (m2) by 0.005 
to find the kilograms of manure per day and then divide that by 0.1 kg of manure daily per 
chicken to get the number of chickens for that particular pond size.
Example #2
How much manure and how many chickens are needed for a 600 m2 pond?
Answer:
600 m2 * 0.005 = 3 kg manure daily
1 chicken = 0.1 kg manure daily
х chickens for 600 m2 = 3 kg/0.1kg = 30 chickens
6.3.3 Better management practices for integrating fish and chickens
Farmers should follow these BMPs to improve chicken and fish integration:
• Control algae blooms and sample fish frequently to check on their growth.
• Monitor the health of the fish frequently.
• Use an intensive poultry system that confines birds to a poultry house or a shed. 
• Select chickens that grow fast or are best at laying eggs.
26 Climate-smart Aquaculture for Smallholder Fish Farmers: Integrated Fish and Small Livestock Farming
• Note that poor quality supplementary feeds and lack of confinement results in “less and 
poorer quality manure being available for use in fish culture” (Little and Satapornvani 
1997:431).
• “Manure derived from maize-fed ducks was high in nitrogen, sorghum was intermediate and 
rice bran low, reflecting the composition of the feeds themselves” (Little and Satapornvani 
1997:431)
• “Poultry raised on a balanced ration produce a higher quality, more nutrient dense waste 
than those fed a supplementary feed” (Little and Satapornvani 1997:431).
• Use nutritional feeds for the chickens, as the type of feed affects the quality of droppings 
that the chickens produce. Poor quality waste results in poor fish growth.
6.3.3.1 Feeding regimes
Chickens need adequate feed to move around, renew their feathers, fight diseases, grow, and 
produce eggs. Like humans, their diet should have carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, 
minerals, crude fiber, and water. Properly fed chickens produce good quality droppings that 
can be integrated into aquaculture. 
Proper feed and nutrition increases meat and egg production and results in better chick growth 
rates and flock sizes. Without supplementary feed, chickens usually starve during certain 
periods of the year if left to find feed by scavenging or fed only leftovers. It also boosts their 
immune system and results in high quality droppings.
Nutrition plays an important role in the performance of chickens. It promotes good health, 
good reproduction, high-quality meat and eggs, fast growth rate and high-quality droppings
Table 5. Effects of nutrition on village chickens.
Effects of poor nutrition Effects of good nutrition
• Slow growth in young stock • Fast growth and early maturing of young stock
• Susceptibility to diseases and parasites • Bigger chickens means more droppings
• Low fertility in breeding cocks and hens • Increased resistance to diseases among healthy 
• Low production of meat or eggs chickens
• Sexually weak cocks and hens • Increased egg laying
• Increased mortalities • Increased egg hatchability
• Generally sexually active hens and cocks
• High-quality droppings that can be integrated 
into aquaculture 
It is good practice for a farmer to make sure their chickens have adequate nutrition. This 
enhances year-round production performance despite seasonal feed quantity and the variability 
in quality. As such, farmers should plan ahead to ensure feed is available throughout the year. 
They should save cereals, cassava and high protein seeds for supplementation, and use plants 
from their vegetable gardens (weeds or waste pruning) and along streams or wet areas, 
ensuring that only edible and nonpoisonous plants are fed to chickens. Feedstuffs must be 
pounded or ground coarsely so that the chickens can pick, eat and digest it easily.
6.3.3.2 Feed formulation
If rearing broilers and layers, farmers can buy commercial feeds that are available. However, 
as shown in Table 6–8, they can also make their own simple feed as a supplement. The feed 
formulation depends on the cost and availability of ingredients. However, 5 kg of formulated 
feed should produce 2.5 kg of chicken flesh.
                      Climate-smart Aquaculture for Smallholder Fish Farmers: Integrated Fish and Small Livestock Farming 27
Table 6. Feed ingredients that farmers can use to make their own feed.
Ingredients Nutrient
Maize/maize bran, millet, cassava, sorghum, rice Carbohydrates
bran
Sunflower, groundnut cake, soybean cake, fishmeal Protein
Vitamin premix Vitamins
Edible vegetables/weeds Vitamins (pounded and put in drinking water)
Mineral premix Minerals
Salt Minerals
Table 7. Simple feed ratio for raising village chickens.
Ingredient Quantity
Maize bran 1.485 kg
Soybean 495 g
Fishmeal 4 g
Salt 8 g
Source: Chazya 2009.
Table 8. Simple feed ratio for supplementing local chicks up to 6 weeks of age.
Ingredient Quantity
Crushed maize bran 1 kg
Wheat bran, sorghum bran or millet bran 1 kg
Sunflower oil cake 2 matchboxes
Seashell/bone meal/salt mix 1 matchbox (1 match box of salt to 13 match boxes 
of   bone meal)
Fish or blood meal 2 matchboxes
Sesbania leaves 2 matchboxes
Source: Chibinga 2016.
Methionine and lysine need to be supplemented because animals cannot get them in 
adequate amounts from soybeans, especially if they are not well treated. These elements 
are locked because of the inhibitor in soybeans makes them unavailable to animals. Chickens 
are monogastric, like humans, and untreated soybeans could be poisonous to them, so it is 
essential to roast or cook the soybeans to make sure they are bioavailable for better growth.
A good source of protein for chickens is maggots, such as soldier flies, which have a protein 
content of 40%. If soybeans are not available, feeding chickens maggots will give them all the 
protein they need.
The Zambia Agriculture Research Institute in Misamfu, Kasama, has a laboratory that offers 
services to farmers who would like to test their farm-made feed to know whether it is balanced.
6.3.3.2.1 Simple feed formulations
The following are other examples of simple feed formulations (MAL 2013):
• Formulation for chicks and laying hens: Mix one part (one Meda container) energy feedstuff 
to one part (one Meda container) protein feedstuff. This will have a 22% crude protein 
content.
28 Climate-smart Aquaculture for Smallholder Fish Farmers: Integrated Fish and Small Livestock Farming
• Formulation for growing birds: Mix two parts (two Meda containers) energy feedstuff to 
one part (one Meda container) protein feedstuff. Provide vitamins in drinking water in the 
form of pounded vegetables or edible weeds soaked in water. 
• Formulation for growing birds: Mix two parts (two Meda containers) energy feedstuff to 
one part (one Meda container) protein feedstuff. Provide vitamins in drinking water in the 
form of pounded vegetables or edible weeds soaked in water. 
6.3.3.2.2 Complete feed formulation
A good formulation for chickens must contain a good source of energy, mainly from cereal grains, 
as well as protein, as birds need high-quality protein from both animal and plant sources. It 
must also contain vital minerals and vitamins, especially calcium, salt and phosphorus. Putting 
chickens on grass or a high-quality pasture can provide them with most vitamins, especially 
vitamin A.
6.3.3.2.3 How much feed is needed to raise local chickens in a semi-intensive system?
Table 9 shows the amount of feed that local chickens need at different ages, the total amount 
that the average chicken eats at a particular age, and the combined amount from supplementary 
feed and scavenging.
Table 9. Feeding table for chickens according to age.
Age (weeks) Amount of supplementary feed Approximate total amount 
for each bird per day (grams eaten per bird per day (grams 
of dry weight) of dry weight)
1 10–15 g 12–15 g
2 15–20 g 15–21 g
3 21–30 g 21–35 g
4–6 30–40 g 35–50 g
8 30–40 g 55–60 g
16–27 (grower) 30–50 g 65–80 g
28 (adult) 30–50 g 100 g
Source: Chibinga 2016.
6.3.3.3 Village chicken housing and shelter
Rearing chickens requires housing, and the design and construction of chicken houses demands 
careful planning. Chicken houses allow farmers to carry out routine operations efficiently while 
giving chickens a favorable environment for them to grow and for hens to lay eggs. The design 
must meet the specific management needs of the three types of flocks: hens with chicks up to 
8 weeks old, young growing cockerels and pullets, and adult breeding hens and cocks.
Housing chickens protects them from rain, cold, theft and predators, such as rats, dogs and 
snakes. Housed birds are also easier to catch if you need to inspect them for signs of illness 
or injury or to vaccinate them against disease.
6.3.3.3.1 Siting the poultry house
A good chicken house must be built on well-drained, level land to avoid water logging around 
the house and dampness inside it, as this spreads diseases and parasites and weakens the 
foundation of the house. There must also be a good source of water nearby so that the chickens 
can drink clean water all the time, and the house must be clean as well. The chicken house 
should be constructed near the homestead for easier supervision and to ensure security, but 
it is important to leave enough space between the chicken house and the farmer’s home to 
avoid the spread of disease.
                      Climate-smart Aquaculture for Smallholder Fish Farmers: Integrated Fish and Small Livestock Farming 29
A good chicken house should have a good flow of fresh air at all times and allow for enough 
sunlight. It must be solid enough to protect the chickens from rain, cold weather, winds and 
excess heat and to keep out predators, such as cats, dogs and thieves. It should also provide 
them with sufficient space for comfort and rest and be easy to clean and disinfect.
6.3.3.3.2 Materials for construction
The materials required depend on the type of house being built.
A simple poultry house is made of debarked wooden poles, chicken wire, mud or burnt bricks, 
grass for thatching and anthill soil for floors. This type of house needs a lot of litter on the floor, 
and sanitation is a challenge. Depending on the stocking rate, the litter needs to be changed 
frequently.
A standard poultry house, meanwhile, uses burnt bricks or concrete blocks, chicken wire, 
treated timber or metal poles, iron sheets for the roof and cement for floors. However, it is 
also possible to convert an old garage into a good poultry house, as long as there is adequate 
ventilation and sufficient protection from bad weather and it is easy to clean. 
6.3.3.3.3. Night shelter
To build an ideal night shelter for growers and chickens, follow these steps:
• Construct a shelter with readily available local materials, such as wooden poles or bamboo.
• To collect the manure easily, make sure the shelter is built at least 1.5m above the ground, 
leaving gaps in the floor between the poles for droppings to fall to the ground.
• House no more than seven chickens per square meter to avoid overcrowding.
• If using iron for the roof, provide an overlap of 0.8m on all sides to keep out rainwater.
• Allow at least 0.5m between the roof and the perch on the slanted lower sides for good 
ventilation.
• If possible, construct a new structure on a new site at least every 3 years. Changing 
sites for chicken structures helps prevent the build-up of disease-causing organisms and 
parasites.
6.3.3.3.4 Types of housing
• Adult birds and growers are often provided with elevated night housing. Chicken houses 
built close to the ground are suitable for hens with young chicks that cannot enter an 
elevated house, but it might be necessary to dig a drain around the house or to raise the 
floor so that it will stay dry during the rainy season. A chicken house that is about 4m long, 
1 m wide and 1.5 m high can hold 8–10 adult birds if they are kept enclosed all day, or 
about 20 for overnight housing. The house can be completely covered with wooden slats 
or be left partly open with netting or woven bamboo.
6.3.3.3.5 Building a chicken house
• To construct a proper chicken house, follow these guidelines:
• Clear grass and bush about 3 m on all sides of the planned site of house to keep snakes 
and rats away from the chickens.
• To decrease costs, use local materials such as trees and bush branches or reeds and thatch 
grass.
• The size of the house depends on how many birds the farmer has (or plans to have) and if 
they are to be kept in the house overnight or for extended periods.
• Do not keep too many birds together because they will start to peck each other, which 
could lead to injury and disease.
• Always remove the bark from timber used to build the house so that pests and parasites, 
such as ticks and mites, have nowhere to hide.
• Ensure the house has enough protection from rain and wind but enough ventilation to 
provide birds with fresh, clean air.
• Make the opening wide enough so that it is easy to clean the inside of the house, and fit it 
30 Climate-smart Aquaculture for Smallholder Fish Farmers: Integrated Fish and Small Livestock Farming
 with a door or other means of closure.
• Because many infectious diseases affecting chickens are transmitted through their 
droppings, ensure the floor of the house has openings to allow the droppings to pass 
through to the ground.
• The spaces between the slats depend on the age and size of the chickens. They must be 
close enough to provide adequate foot support but wide enough that droppings can pass 
through them.
• If the chicken house is built on poles, it should be at least 1m above the ground but not so 
high that the farmer cannot reach inside.
Plate 11. A raised chicken house made from local materials.
Chicken house facilities
6.3.3.3.6.1 Perches
Chickens like perches, as they prefer to sleep above the floor. Roosting on perches minimizes 
contact between the birds and their droppings to help prevent diseases, as chickens kept on 
floors are prone to parasites. The roosts can be made from bamboo or straight tree branches, 
at about 3 cm in diameter, but be sure to remove the bark from the branches.
Each adult chicken requires about 20 cm of perch space. If more than one perch is needed, 
they should be about 50 cm apart and at the same level. If they are at different levels, the 
birds will fight to reach the highest perch when they come in to roost in the evening, causing 
them unnecessary stress.
ckeep away most external parasites.
                      Climate-smart Aquaculture for Smallholder Fish Farmers: Integrated Fish and Small Livestock Farming 31
Plate 12. Chicken house with perches
6.3.3.3.6.2 Laying nests
To ensure that eggs are laid and incubated safely, follow these nesting guidelines for brooding 
hens:
• Ensure that nests are free from germs and parasites. External parasites in nests can 
reduce egg hatchability, as infected hens tend to leave their nests and spend a lot of 
energy cleaning and scratching their body.
• Place laying nests in shady places.
• Use sun-sterilized, dry, clean and soft grass as nest bedding.
• Raise nests at least 1.5m above the ground for protection.
• Mix ash, tobacco leaves or other antiparasitic substances in the nest bedding to help keep 
away most external parasites.
Plate 13. Types of chicken nests
32 Climate-smart Aquaculture for Smallholder Fish Farmers: Integrated Fish and Small Livestock Farming
6.3.3.3.6.3 Feeders and drinkers
Chickens require clean drinking water all the time. There must be enough feeders and drinkers 
for chicks and chickens, and they should be made of plastic, wooden or metal.
Plate 14. An illustration of a drinker and a feeder.
6.3.3.3.6.4 Maintaining a chicken house
Cleaning the chicken house helps prevent and control diseases, especially external parasites 
such as fleas and mites. For proper cleaning, follow these guidelines:
• Remove droppings and litter from inside the house weekly or, if the house is portable, 
move it to a new area.
• To control external parasites, fumigate the chicken house every 6 months with smoke by 
lighting a fire under the house, which should be elevated. It might be necessary to remove 
the birds before fumigating the house.
• Keep the area around the house clear of grass and bush to keep out snakes and rats.
• Do not overcrowd the chicken house.
• If the house has any sick birds, empty the house and then either clean it or even burn it 
and build a new one.
• Remove the droppings from underneath the chicken house regularly.
• Place wood ash or lime on the floor and walls to repel external parasites and to make it 
easier to remove manure when cleaning.
• Tobacco leaves are also effective at controlling pests.
                      Climate-smart Aquaculture for Smallholder Fish Farmers: Integrated Fish and Small Livestock Farming 33
6.4 Poultry health
6.4.1 Disease and health management
6.4.1.1 Use of antibiotics in chickens
Antibiotics can control and treat diseases and bacterial infections in livestock. However, misuse 
and high usage of antibiotics must be avoided to reduce the occurrence of antimicrobial-
resistant bacteria. Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) means that the bacteria causing the infection 
become resistant to the antibiotic used to treat them. AMR is a global threat to public health. If 
there is high misuse of antibiotics on chickens integrated with fish when the chicken droppings 
enter into ponds and are consumed by fish, which humans then eat, it can also increase 
the occurrence of antimicrobial-resistant bacteria in human beings leading to diseases and 
death. Misuse of antibiotics in livestock rearing is one of the most significant causes of AMR 
development in humans (Okon et al., 2022). 
Farmers integrating chickens and fish should use antibiotics only where appropriate and 
should seek advice from their extension officers. Additionally, farmers must implement better 
management practices for livestock and maintain better farm biosecurity to prevent the 
emergence and spread of diseases that may require antibiotic treatment. Non-drug alternatives 
to preventing the occurrence and spread of diseases and infections are essential (Selaledi et 
al., 2020; Lojewska and Sakowicz, 2021) to stop the spread of AMR. Additionally, farmers that 
integrate chicken-fish farming may need to monitor their farms and routinely take samples of 
chicken droppings to the labs to test for AMR.
Table 10. Factors that influence the health of chicken.
Factor Causes/comments
Stress • Stress predisposes village chickens to New Castle Disease (NCD), especially 
during the cold months of June and July and the hot months of September 
and October.
• High or low temperatures, a prolonged rainy season, dampness and poor 
nutrition all induce the production of stress hormones in chickens that causes 
them to excessively break down body protein for energy for them to cope.
• - Stress reduces the immunity of chickens and the effectiveness of medicines 
used to treat diseases.
Poor nutrition Lack of nutrition from either underfeeding or poor quality feed weakens chickens, 
making them more susceptible and less resistant to disease.
Poor ventilation Lack of proper air circulation can spread respiratory diseases rapidly.
Overcrowding Too many chickens in a small area make the transfer of diseases, especially NCD, 
between birds much easier.
Source: Modified from MAL 2013.
34 Climate-smart Aquaculture for Smallholder Fish Farmers: Integrated Fish and Small Livestock Farming
6.4.2 Common diseases
Table 11. Diseases in village chickens.
Disease Symptoms/Cause Control and prevention
Newcastle disease • Birds that breathe through • Vaccinate all chickens, 
their mouth and make a including chicks, from 2 
rattling noise are having weeks of age.
difficulty breathing because • Remove dead birds from 
of the accumulation of mucus the house immediately and 
dripping from their mouth and dispose of them by either 
nostrils. burning them or burying them 
• Bird display signs of deep in the ground.
nervousness, such as twisting • During an outbreak, control 
their head, circling their neck, the movement of birds 
shivering and paralysis of legs between pens/areas.
and wings. Birds can become • NOTE: Specimens should be 
drowsy and sleep most of the sent for laboratory diagnosis.
time with their heads turned • After an outbreak, and before 
backward or drawn toward restocking birds:
their body. • Remove bedding from the 
• The crop (part of the bird’s house and burn it.
food pipe, at the base of the • Clean and disinfect the house 
neck) becomes swollen. and all equipment. 
• Birds have yellowish • Leave the house empty for 
diarrhoea. 3–4 weeks before introducing 
• Eggs shells are soft or rough. new stock.
• Birds eat less food but drink 
plenty of water.
• Egg production is low.
• Many birds die within a day. 
In severe cases, healthy 
birds die in the nest or on 
the floor before showing any 
symptoms. The mortality rate 
is between 90% and 100%.
Bumblefoot • Germs enter the feet of birds • Remove nails, sharp stones 
through wounds or bruises and coarse litter from the 
from sharp nails, thorns or house.
coarse litter, causing the feet • Put sufficient litter in the 
to swell. house so that birds do not 
scratch themselves on the 
floor, which could be rough.
• Treatment
• Open the wound with a clean, 
sharp knife or razor blade to 
remove the pus.
• Clean the inside of the wound 
after removing the pus.
• Disinfect the wound with 
iodine.
• Isolate the bird and confine 
it to a small space while it is 
being treated.
                      Climate-smart Aquaculture for Smallholder Fish Farmers: Integrated Fish and Small Livestock Farming 35
Chronic respiratory disease • CRD is one of the most • Do not put too many hens in 
(CRD) common diseases in a house.
poultry. It is caused by bad • Feed the birds well to keep 
management practices in the them healthy.
poultry house, including poor • Do not introduce diseased 
ventilation, overcrowding chickens into the flock.
and dust, as well as cold • Do not rear chicks with adult 
temperatures. birds.
• Keep the house well 
ventilated and free of dust to 
maintain hygienic conditions.
• Keep ammonia emissions 
at minimum levels by 
maintaining dry conditions in 
the house, as wet conditions 
encourage the decomposition 
of faeces. This releases 
ammonia gases that irritate 
the respiratory system and 
cause the eyes to itch.
• Maintain the correct 
temperature in the house.
Bumble foot • Germs enter the feet of birds • Remove nails, sharp stones 
through wounds or bruises and coarse litter from the 
from sharp nails, thorns or house.
coarse litter, causing the feet • Put sufficient litter in the 
to swell. house so that birds do not 
scratch themselves on the 
floor, which could be rough.
Treatment
• Open the wound with a clean, 
sharp knife or razor blade to 
remove the pus.
• Clean the inside of the wound 
after removing the pus.
• Disinfect the wound with 
iodine.
• Isolate the bird and confine 
it to a small space while it is 
being treated.
Chronic respiratory disease • CRD is one of the most • Do not put too many hens in 
(CRD) common diseases in a house.
poultry. It is caused by bad • Feed the birds well to keep 
management practices in the them healthy.
poultry house, including poor • Do not introduce diseased 
ventilation, overcrowding chickens into the flock.
and dust, as well as cold • Do not rear chicks with adult 
temperatures. birds.
• Keep the house well 
ventilated and free of dust to 
maintain hygienic conditions.
• Keep ammonia emissions 
at minimum levels by 
maintaining dry conditions in 
the house, as wet conditions 
encourage the decomposition 
of faeces. This releases 
ammonia gases that irritate 
the respiratory system and 
cause the eyes to itch.
36 Climate-smart Aquaculture for Smallholder Fish Farmers: Integrated Fish and Small Livestock Farming
• Maintain the correct 
temperature in the house.
Coccidiosis • Signs of coccidiosis include • Feed chicks mash containing a 
blood-stained diarrhea/feces, coccidiostat, a substance that 
• Droopy wings, ruffled feathers helps prevent the growth of 
and closed eyes. coccidiosis parasites.
• Chicks eat less and lose • Keep the litter dry at all time. 
weight. Remove wet patches.
• Most chicks die after 6–10 • Turn the litter regularly to 
days, and the death rate can keep it dry.
be very high. • Clean the house thoroughly 
 Spread of disease before placing chicks in it.
• Birds eat food or drink water • Do not reuse old litter.
contaminated with coccidiosis • Do not mix age groups in one 
germs, which often occurs house.
with dirty troughs. • Remove dead birds 
• Bedding is contaminated with immediately from the house.
coccidiosis germs. • Treat sick birds right away.
• Chicks are mixed with older 
chickens, which are often 
carriers disease.
Fowl cholera • Birds are drowsy and have • Vaccinate the birds.
ruffled feathers. • Remove dead birds from 
• Birds have yellowish or green house immediately and 
diarrhoea. dispose of them by either 
• Birds eat less food, but they burning them or burying them 
drink more water. deep in the ground.
• Egg production is low • During an outbreak, control 
• The mortality rate can reach the movement of birds 
80%. between pens/areas.
After an outbreak and before 
restocking:
• Remove the bedding from the 
house and burn it.
• Clean and disinfect the house 
and all equipment. 
• Wash the house, if possible.
• Leave the house empty for 
3–4 weeks before introducing 
new stock.
Fowl pox • There is a watery discharge 
from the eyes and later an 
accumulation of yellowish 
pus.
• There are many sores on the 
head, combs and wattles.
• Sometimes, the whole eye 
can become swollen and 
closed.
• Sores in the mouth cause the 
birds to eat less. They can 
also be found in the throat.
• Cheese-like, yellowish fluid 
can form from the sores in 
the mouth and throat and 
make breathing difficult if 
they accumulate.
                      Climate-smart Aquaculture for Smallholder Fish Farmers: Integrated Fish and Small Livestock Farming 37
Fowl paralysis • This disease causes paralysis • Rear chicks in clean houses. 
or lameness in the legs. • Do not rear chicks in houses 
• If one or both legs becomes previously used by adult 
completely paralyzed, birds birds.
cannot walk. If paralysis is • Remove affected birds and kill 
slight, birds walk unsteadily. them.
• - Paralyzed wings hang down.
• One or both eyes can change 
color, a condition that is often 
called “white eye” or “gray 
eye.”
• Egg production drops.
Source: Modified from MAL 2013.
6.4.3 Other diseases
6.4.3.1 Internal parasites
These are found inside the chicken and feed inside its body. The most serious internal parasites 
are those in the digestive system, the most common being roundworms and tapeworms. Most 
worms occur in the small intestine.
To control worms in chicken, follow these guidelines:
• Do not use old litter, because it can contain the eggs or larvae of the parasites.
• Clean and disinfect the chicken house regularly.
• Do not mix chicks with adult birds, which can infect chicks with worms.
• Feed the birds well.
6.4.3.2 External parasites
External parasites are mites, ticks and lice that are found on the body of a chicken and feed 
on the chicken intermittently. They can live on the chicken’s body throughout its entire life, or 
in cracks, perch joints and litter. 
To prevent external parasites, follow these guidelines:
• Clean and disinfect the chicken house regularly. Remove all birds from the house and spray 
it with a recommended insecticide.
• Remove the old litter and burn it to kill any external parasites that are in it. The litter can 
be used as manure in gardens, but the gardens must be far from the chicken house.
• Fix any cracks in the chicken house where insects can hide.
• Dust the birds with recommended dusting powder.
• Dust insecticides on the litter and in the nesting boxes.
• Apply recommended insecticides on the legs or bodies of hens to control mites.
6.4.4 How are diseases introduced into the flock?
There are many ways that diseases can be introduce into the flock:
• Buying chickens from unreliable sources
• Mixing chicks with adult birds, which can be disease carriers
• Allowing potentially disease-carrying chickens from other poultry farms to mix with healthy 
chickens
• Allowing rodents, flies and wild birds, which can be disease carriers, to mix with healthy 
chickens
• Allowing people, who carry germs on their feet, hands or clothes, to mix with healthy 
chickens
• Using contaminated equipment, especially feed and water troughs
• Using old litter, which contains germs
• Not cleaning or disinfecting the poultry
38 Climate-smart Aquaculture for Smallholder Fish Farmers: Integrated Fish and Small Livestock Farming
• Feeding contaminated and stale feed to chickens and giving them dirty water.
6.4.5 How can farmers control diseases on their farms?
Farmers can control diseases on their farms by taking the following measures:
• Feed the birds well with the right type of food.
• Give the birds plenty of clean, fresh water in clean troughs.
• Never feed stale food to birds.
• Do not mix chicks with older birds when brooding.
• Never buy chicks from unreliable sources.
• Clean and disinfect the poultry house.
• Clean the feed and water troughs regularly.
• Never use contaminated litter.
• Do not allow visitors into the poultry house.
• Control rodents in the poultry house.
• Carry out recommended vaccination programs.
6.4.6 How can a farmer minimize disease outbreaks? 
To minimize disease outbreaks, farmers should carry out the following general hygiene 
practices:
• Clean the night houses periodically to avoid excess accumulation of droppings.
• Wash drinkers and fill them with clean water every day to avoid microorganisms from 
developing in dirty water.
• Remove and burn nesting grass, and empty shells from the nests after every clutch has 
hatched.
• Check for pests and parasites and treat the chickens. If a laying cage or any other shelter 
is infested with external parasites, apply insecticides onto the chickens and on the cages 
or shelter.
• Wherever diseases or parasites are a persistent problem, all households in a village or 
settlement should burn old structures made of wood, grass and bamboo, and build new 
ones every 3 years.
• To kill parasites in mud structures, place a fire in the middle and maintain a very high 
temperature inside for at least 1 hour. Then put out the fire and allow it to smoke slowly. 
Chemical disinfectants can also be used. 
• Isolate sick chickens in a well-protected place, and provide them with feed (greens too) 
and water.
• Dispose of dead chickens properly by burning or burying them in a deep pit. If left exposed, 
carcasses will become sources of infection.
• Boil other equipment in water for 30 minutes and dry them in the sun. Turn the equipment 
periodically to make sure the sunlight reaches every part. The Sun’s rays act as a natural 
disinfectant.
Farmers should also vaccinate their chickens against NCD, as it is an infectious, highly 
contagious and destructive disease caused by viruses. Vaccinating chickens against diseases 
like NCD is recommended, and should be done every 3 months.
6.4.7 Monitoring chicken health
When checking their chickens every morning, farmers should pay attention to the following:
• Observe how quickly each bird leaves the house.
• Observe how active each bird is, as sick birds are usually inactive.
• Check whether or not the chickens are eating and drinking.
• Check for signs of weakness, discharge from the eyes and nose, coughing, diarrhea and 
other signs of illness.
• Check to see if hens are laying eggs consistently.
• If there is a health problem, examine the whole flock and, if necessary, report the matter 
to the nearest extension officer.
                      Climate-smart Aquaculture for Smallholder Fish Farmers: Integrated Fish and Small Livestock Farming 39
6.4.8 How safe is it to fertilize ponds with manure from sick animals?
If the animals are not on a treatment, farmers can treat the manure before using it in their 
ponds. In this case, the manure has primarily a prebiotic effect on the pond ecosystem rather 
than a direct probiotic effect on the fish. If the animals are on a treatment, the withdrawal 
period from the drug can be followed to avoid pond contamination through drug residues in 
fecal matter. 
Because more farmers are rearing improved breeds of chickens, new chicken diseases have 
been introduced to the region, so it is important for farmers to vaccinate their chickens against 
NCD, infectious bursa disease (IBD) (gumboro), coryza and fowl pox.
Table 12. Vaccination schedule.
Vaccine NCD IBD NCD IBD Coryza Fowl pox
type
Day 10 14 18 21 42 52
Afterward, chickens can be vaccinated against NCD every 3 months. Broilers are not vaccinated 
against coryza and fowlpox because they will be ready to be consumed by the time they are 
supposed to be vaccinated. 
For the NDC vaccine, chickens are given grade 1 maize bran to make them thirsty. Thirty 
minutes later, the vaccine is administered by mixing it with their drinking water. Because the 
bran makes the chickens thirsty, they will drink a lot of water and, in the process, increase the 
uptake of the vaccine from the water.
6.4.9 Biosecurity
To prevent disease on a farm, farmers can take several biosecurity measures: install a 
quarantine zone and a bath facility to disinfect feet and vehicles. Put up fencing and build 
proper housing with adequate ventilation. Maintaining hygienic conditions, including routine 
vaccinations and handwashing facilities. It is also important to restricting entry to the animal 
units/structures.
40 Climate-smart Aquaculture for Smallholder Fish Farmers: Integrated Fish and Small Livestock Farming
7. Integrating aquaculture with goats 
7.1 What is the importance of goat production by smallholder 
farmers?
According to Namonje-Kapembwa et al. (2022), goat production has many positive attributes 
smallholder farmers as a means of survival, such as the following:
• Goats are prolific.
• They require low inputs for a moderate level of production.
• They reach maturity early, which makes them profitable.
• They make a significant contribution to rural farmers and the stability of small farm systems 
under climate shocks, such as inadequate rainfall and high temperatures.
• They contribute to food and nutritional security.
• They have a liquid market, meaning goats have lots of buyers and are easy to sell, which 
allows smallholder farmers to cover their expenses.
• They are used for social events in the rural villages, such as weddings and traditional 
ceremonies, paying dowries, at funerals and to settle disputes.
According to the MFL, goats are a source of social security for the rural poor—a “Walking Savings 
Bank Account” (2015:1)—and with the increasing demand in both domestic and international 
markets, goats are no longer considered a poor man’s animal. Additionally, rearing goats 
creates employment opportunities and is an easy way to accumulate wealth through the sale 
of animals and their milk, as well as skins, which can be used for making various household 
goods, such as stools, drums and chairs. They also contribute to motivation and prestige in 
families, as goats are considered real assets.
Goat production can be integrated with fish farming, which can increase the efficiency of both 
forms of production. This will enhance the resilience of smallholder farmers against climatic 
risks. There are also several breeds of goats in Zambia for farmers to choose from, as shown 
in Table 13.
Table 13. Breeds of goats in Zambia and their characteristics.
BREED CHARACTERISTICS USE
Plateau goat • Found in the plateau areas of • Mostly for meat and skins
Zambia • Sometimes for milk 
• Medium-sized
• Mixed colors
• Adults males weigh 45 kg and 
females 25–30 kg 
Gwembe goat • Predominantly found in • Mostly meat and skins
Gwembe District of Southern 
Province 
• Small, hardy, compact
• Mixture of black, brown and 
white
• Prolific breeder
• Adult males weigh 25 kg and 
females 20 kg
• Poor milker (0.2 L/day)
Sinazongwe goat • Predominantly found in Sina- • Mostly meat and skins
zongwe District of Southern 
Province 
• Relatively larger than the 
Gwembe goat
• Has a long beard
• Small, hardy, compact
• Mix of black and white, or 
brown and white
                      Climate-smart Aquaculture for Smallholder Fish Farmers: Integrated Fish and Small Livestock Farming 41
BREED CHARACTERISTICS USE
Unidentified goat • Mainly found in Central • Meat and skins
strains Province
• Tuft of long hair on the 
forehead
Bantu goat (local) • Medium-sized • Meat and skins
• Mixed colors
• Adult males weigh 30 kg and 
females 25 kg
Boer goat (exotic) • South African origin • Meat, milk and skins
• White with brown spots or 
reddish-brown heads and 
neck
• Adult males weight 70 kg and 
females 50 kg
• Can produce 0.5–2 L of milk 
per day
• Large droopy ears
Saanen goat • Originally from Ireland • Milk
(exotic) • White
• Adult males weigh 75 kg and 
females 65 kg
• Can produce 3–5 L of milk per 
day
• Erect ears
Toggenburg • European breed, adopted in • Mainly for milk
(exotic) East Africa
• Brown with white lines on face
• Adult males weigh 80 kg and 
females 70 kg
• Can produce 3 L of milk per 
day
• Slightly forward-pointing, 
erect ears
Anglo-Nubian • Originally a cross of British, • Milk and meat
(Nubian) African and Indian goats 
• Roan and white
• Weighs 65–75 kg
• Long and pendulous udder
• Looks proud, graceful, with a 
roman nose
• Can produce 2.5 L of milk per 
day
• Long, dangling ears
Alpine • Hardy and adaptable • Milk
(French Alpine) • Various colors
• Adult males weigh 60 kg and 
females 65 kg
• Excellent milkers
• Forward-pointing erect ears
Source: Modified from MFL 2015.
42 Climate-smart Aquaculture for Smallholder Fish Farmers: Integrated Fish and Small Livestock Farming
Goat excreta is a good source of organic manure since it is made up of 60% organic carbon, 
2.88% potassium, 2.7% nitrogen and 1.78% phosphorus K-2.88%, and its urine is equally 
rich in both nitrogen and potassium (Farm Design 2021). To fertilize a 1 ha pond, at least 
50–60 goats are needed, which will yield of 1.502 t of manure. The goats should be provided 
with a dry, safe, comfortable house protected from excessive heat (Farm Design 2021). If 
done properly, goat farming can yield 500–600 kg of meat and 3000 L of milk per year, as well 
as providing skins and fiber such as mohair and cashmere  (Singh n.d.).
According to Kumar et al. (2012:208, “The solid excreta of goats are several times richer in 
nitrogen content and phosphoric acid than the excreta of other animals. Goat urine is equally 
rich in both nitrogen and potash.” The authors also state, “Goat droppings have the advantage 
of direct application into grow-out fish ponds as the size of droppings is around 6–7 mm pellet, 
coated with mucus and floats in a semi dried state. The droppings have been observed to be 
consumed by the fish. Goats can be kept under a house constructed on the elevated portion of 
the dyke for facilitating the waste disposal into the ponds” Goat manure can be applied weekly 
at a rate of 10 kg/100 m2 (Lundeba et al. 2021). The manure should be bagged and placed 
in the corners of the pond, with the bags hung on stakes so that they are easy to remove 
the manure if excessive algal blooms occur. The manure (pellets) can be bagged whole to 
allow only nutrients to leach out and fertilize the pond water. Alternatively, the pellets can be 
crushed to quickly unlock the nutrients into the water. (2012:208).
Plate 15. Direct integration of fish and goats.
7.2 Housing goats
Good housing is key to prevent unnecessary losses of goats from diseases, predatory attacks, 
thefts and unfavorable weather. Most health problems in goats are attributed to poor hygiene 
in their houses and premises. Kids, if not properly housed, will be attacked by predators such 
as dogs and will be exposed to parasites and diseases. This can lead to loss of animals in the 
flock and, ultimately, productivity and income. To minimize the cost of building a goat house 
and to maximize profits, farmers should use appropriate and locally available materials such 
as poles, grass thatch or iron roofing sheets (MFL 2015).
                      Climate-smart Aquaculture for Smallholder Fish Farmers: Integrated Fish and Small Livestock Farming 43
7.2.1 Siting a goat house
A goat house should be built within 100 m from the farmer’s own home. It should be sited on 
well-drained ground and on western side of the farmer’s house to avoid the smell of manure.
To build a good goat house, farmers should use the following guidelines:
• Keep construction simple, and use local materials, such as poles and grass thatch.
• Ensure that the house protects the goats against rain, sun, wind, predators and thieves.
• Have a raised slatted floor to prevent diseases and reduce attacks from predators and to
 make it easy to collect manure.
• Build it in such a way that it prevents the goats from damaging crops.
• Include feed and water troughs.
• Make sure the house has good ventilation to prevent respiratory infections, such as 
pneumonia.
• Create adequate space to avoid overcrowding, contamination and discomfort.
• Build strong doors to protect the goats from predators and thieves.
• Give the roof a good slope and an overhang of at least 0.5 m to allow efficient run-off  and 
to prevent water from draining inside.
• Make the slats on the floor no more than 1.5–2 cm apart (about the thickness of an adult 
thumb) to prevent injury to kids.
• Build the house at least 1.2 m above the ground to make it easy to remove the manure 
underneath.
• Fence off the goat house to contain the animals during bad weather.
• Partition the house for kids, sick animals, etc.
• Plant trees for shade on the site of the house or locate it under the shade of a tree.
44 Climate-smart Aquaculture for Smallholder Fish Farmers: Integrated Fish and Small Livestock Farming
Plate 16. Picking of goat pellets from a raised goat house
 
7.3 Good management practices for goats
The following are routine management practices that farmers should carried out to run a goat 
farm efficiently:
• Observe the health of the goats and check for any signs of illness.
• Feed the goats well to help them fight off diseases.
• Give the goats adequate clean water in drinking troughs within the fence or inside the goat 
house.
• Remove the goat manure regularly.
• Deworm the goats two or three times during the rainy season to help control internal 
parasites.
• Dip and spray the goats to help control external parasites, such as ticks, lice and mites.
• Castrate males to control breeding for desirable characteristics (traits).
7.4 Feeding and nutrition for goats
Maintaining good health among goats helps them fight off diseases. It also makes for faster 
growth rates, good reproduction and high milk yields.
The following are points to note for goat feeding and nutrition:
• Goats are more browsers than grazers and might not do well if denied access to bushes 
and trees.  Goats will eat a wide range of vegetation, including thorny bushes.
• Good quality pasture must have a balance of grasses and legumes. Grasses are rich in fiber 
and energy while legumes are rich in protein.
• Goats will do well if given access to carbohydrate- and protein-rich feeds like maize, millet, 
sorghum, cereal bran, sunflower cake, groundnut cake and soybeans. Soybeans must be 
boiled and crushed before being fed to goats.
• Goats prefer to eat tree leaves and tender green grass.
• Like any other animal, goats need regular water to drink for survival. Local goats  require 
an average of 2–10 L of water daily, depending on their size.
• Goats feeding on young, growing grass might appear to do well without water, but this 
would seriously affect their milk production and   growth rate.
• Other feedstuffs include crop residues, cereal stover/straw, stover and hulls of cowpeas, 
beans and   groundnuts.
• Adult goats can eat about 1–1.6 kg of dry grass or 4–6 kg of fresh grass every day.
• During the dry season, pastures   become old and tough and contain fewer nutrients, so 
goats require supplements.
                      Climate-smart Aquaculture for Smallholder Fish Farmers: Integrated Fish and Small Livestock Farming 45
7.5 Diseases and health management of goats
Generally, goats are highly resistant to many diseases. However, improper conditions, such 
as overcrowding, poor housing and sanitation, and inadequate ventilation, can lead to many 
diseases, which can result in low production and productivity. To avoid losses, it is important 
to follow proper health management that includes preventative measures. Table 14 lists some 
of the most common diseases among goats, as well as symptoms, prevention and treatment.
Disease Description/symptom/cause Control and Prevention
Worm infestation Parasites are found inside the • Change the grazing area 
goat’s body and can cause every 3 weeks to reduce 
reduced productivity or death. worm infestation.
Symptoms include anemia, • Avoid grazing goats in 
diarrhea, weight loss, rough coat, dambos and wetlands.
poor growth, swelling under the • Do not graze them early in 
jaw, potbelly and sudden death. the morning when the larvae 
are active until the dew has 
dried up.
• If worms are suspected, 
deworm the goats every 3 
months using albendazole or 
Nilzan. 
• Inject them with Ivermectin.
Foot rot This is a contagious disease, • Trim hoofs regularly.
common during the rainy season, • Avoid keeping goats in wet 
that causes decay (rotting) under and muddy areas.
the hoof producing a bad smell. • Provide goats with good 
Symptoms include lameness, loss housing.
of fitness and a smelly foot. • To treat the disease, walk 
or dip the goat in a footbath 
containing 10% copper sulfate 
or zinc sulfate.
Pneumonia This disease affects the lungs. • Avoid overcrowding.
Symptoms include high fever, • Improve ventilation.
coughing, breathing problems, • Supply clean water.
discharge from the nose, anorexia • Vaccinate the goats every 
(loss of appetite), weight loss. year.
• If caused by a bacterial 
infection, treat it with 
antibiotics such as penicillin 
or oxytetracycline and 
sulfonamides.
Diarrhoea This disease is common in kids • Ensure that kids drink a lot of 
and causes high mortality. water.
Symptoms include watery • Always provide enough clean 
and loose feces, depression, water.
dehydration and weakness. • Maintain a clean environment.
• Provide enough feed.
• Isolate sick animals.
• -or treatment, mix 1 L of 
clean water, a half teaspoon 
of salt and 4 tablespoons of 
sugar or honey.
• Use charcoal mixed with 
water or black tea.
• Keep kids warm.
• Use antibiotics such as 
penicillin or sulfonamides or 
oxytetracycline.
46 Climate-smart Aquaculture for Smallholder Fish Farmers: Integrated Fish and Small Livestock Farming
Disease Description/symptom/cause Control and Prevention
Brucellosis This disease causes abortion • Maintain good sanitation and 
during last stages of pregnancy. use nutritious food.
Symptoms include loss of fitness, • Vaccinate females with the 
coughing, lameness, abortion and S19 vaccine at 2–4 months of 
retention of placenta. age.
• Slaughter positive cases and 
destroy the meat.
• Report abortions to a 
veterinary health care 
provider.
• There is no treatment.
Tick-borne disease This disease is transmitted by • Dip the goats in 
ticks. Symptoms include anemia oxytetracycline, imizol, 
and paleness under the eyelid, doxycycline or berenil once 
fever, muscle tremors, dark red a week during the rainy 
urine, poor growth, skin damage,  season and once every 2 
sudden death, and signs of weeks during the dry season, 
nervousness such as paddling, especially when there are 
convulsions and going around many ticks on the body.
circles.
Poisoning This is caused by eating • Do not plant poisonous plants 
poisonous plants like lantana. near goat houses.
Symptoms include uncoordinated • To treat poisoning, mix 500 
movements, salivation and g of powdered charcoal and 
difficulty breathing. 500 g of powdered limestone 
(optional) in 10 L of cold black 
tea, and give an adult animal 
1 L of the antidote.
Bloating This is a condition where the goat • Regulate food consumption.
gets too much gas trapped in • Avoid feeding excess amounts 
the rumen (stomach) and cannot of maize and legumes, such 
burp. as soybeans.
Symptoms include swelling • To treat bloating, give the 
(budging) of the stomach on goat 250 ml of cooking oil 
the left side, loss of appetite, and walk it animal around to 
difficulty breathing, grinding teeth encourage belching. 
and grunting. • Do not give water because 
this will add to the 
fermentation of grains in the 
gut and cause them to further 
expand.
Mange Symptoms include loss of • Build good housing, with good 
appetite, loss of hair and ventilation and adequate 
scratching against hard surfaces space.
leading to wounds, which can get • Dip or spray the goats 
infected. If left untreated, lesions periodically.
can extend over the whole body, • Only bring healthy animals 
leading to loss of weight, general into the existing flock.
weakness and loss of appetite. • For treatment, scrub the skin 
Severe cases can result in death. and remove the scales and 
flakes until it bleeds. Then 
apply any of the following: 
sodium benzoate, used engine 
oil or castor oil liquid paraffin. 
Do this every 2–3 days until 
the condition clears
• Inject with Ivermectin.
                      Climate-smart Aquaculture for Smallholder Fish Farmers: Integrated Fish and Small Livestock Farming 47
8. Gender inclusion in integrated agriculture-
aquaculture
Gender equity is a vital component to realize the full potential of IAA systems for sustainable 
land management, food and nutrition security, resilience and poverty reduction. IAA is not a 
complicated system. It is easy to apply for smallholder farmers with a lower level of education 
and a limited resource-base—most of whom are vulnerable women. By adopting IAA systems, 
these women can strengthen their capacity to cope with social and economic stresses, such 
as food and nutrition security, raise their household income, increase their empowerment, 
improve their decision-making and diversify their livelihoods. The result is increased resilience 
of their rural livelihoods.
IAAS interventions must reflect local settings and the livelihood strategies of women farmers, 
and IAA must be integrated into their existing farming practices. Most women in rural areas 
traditionally raise chickens, which offers potential for chicken-fish integration. 
Plates 17–20 show several different farmers in Zambia using IAA.
Plate 17. A female farmer in Mpulungu District who owns chickens as her source of livelihood 
and is a decision-maker over her livestock.
Plate 18. A group of women farmers in Luwingu District who use chicken and goat manure 
to fertilize their ponds.
48 Climate-smart Aquaculture for Smallholder Fish Farmers: Integrated Fish and Small Livestock Farming
Plate 19. A fish farmer in Luwingu District explaining how he integrates his aquaculture farm 
with poultry.
Plate 20. Women fish farmers in Mbala District, who use manure from their chickens to 
fertilize their fishponds and gardens, tending to their chickens.
                      Climate-smart Aquaculture for Smallholder Fish Farmers: Integrated Fish and Small Livestock Farming 49
9. Conclusion
IAA is a suitable technology to use in the face of climate change. It is an adaptive measure 
that can help increase the resilience and adaptive capacity of communities and ecosystems. 
This system is environmentally friendly and uses water as a scarce resource responsibly. 
Through diversified food production, IAAS can enhance the livelihoods of smallholder farmers 
and reduce poverty in rural communities.
50 Climate-smart Aquaculture for Smallholder Fish Farmers: Integrated Fish and Small Livestock Farming
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