Ethiopia climate-smart agriculture roadmap 2020-2030 This document is prepared by Getachew Eshete, in Acknowledgments: collaboration with the Ministry of Agriculture (MoA): This work was produced as part of the CGIAR Research Berhanu Assefa, Esayas Lemma, Girma Kibret; CGIAR Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Security (CCAFS), which is carried out with generous Food Security (CCAFS): Dawit Solomon, Gebermedihin financial support from CGIAR Trust Fund and CGIAR Ambaw, Seble Samuel, Jemal Seid (EIAR/CCAFS); Donors through bilateral funding agreements. For details International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center please visit https://ccafs. cgiar.org/donors. The views (CIMMYT): Kindie Tesfaye; Alliance of Bioversity and expressed in this document cannot be taken to reflect the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT): the official opinions of these organizations. Lulseged Tamene; International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA): Aynalem Haile; This climate-smart agriculture roadmap is the result of Farm Africa: Asaye Asnake; Food and Agriculture contributions from several senior experts to whom the Organization of the United Nations (FAO): Amare consultant is grateful. The consultant is also thankful Mengiste; World Bank: Sisay Nune Hailemariam; for the technical and financial support provided by International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI): Polly the CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Ericksen, Kindu Mekonnen; International Crops Research Agriculture, and Food Security (CCAFS) towards this Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT): Tilahun exercise. Special thanks go to Dawit Solomon and his Amede; International Water Management Institute team for facilitating two presentations at national (IWMI): Amare Haileslassie; World Agroforestry (ICRAF): climate-smart agriculture platforms organized in May Kiros Hadgu, Endalkachew Woldemeskel. and November 2019, on which critical feedback was obtained from known experts in the field. Cover photo: CCAFS/Seble Samuel Contact: Correct citation: CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture Eshete G, Assefa B, Lemma E, Kibret G, Ambaw G, and Food Security (CCAFS), East Africa. Samuel S, Seid J, Tesfaye K, Tamene L, Haile A, Asnake P.O. Box 5689. A, Mengiste A, Hailemariam SN, Ericksen P, Mekonnen Addis Ababa, Ethiopia Phone: +251-11 617 2000 K, Amede T, Haileslassie A, Hadgu K, Woldemeskel E, Fax: +251-11 617 2001 Solomon D. 2020. Ethiopia climate-smart agriculture Email: ccafsea@cgiar.org roadmap. Available online at: www.ccafs.cgiar.org. Website: http://ccafs.cgiar.org/regions/east-africa rs: Creative Commons License: This document is licensed under a Creative Commons @CGIARclimate Attribution–NonCommercial–NoDerivs 3.0 Unported License. Articles appearing in this publication may be freely CGIARClimate quoted and reproduced provided the source is acknowledged. No use of this publication may be made for resale or other commercial purposes. CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS) ©2020 CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS) in East Africa. Ethiopia climate-smart agriculture roadmap 2020-2030 Preface Ethiopia is a country propelled by smallholder farmers who bolster more than half of the gross domestic product and dominate the national labor force. Ethiopia’s agricultural systems, however, are vulnerable to a warming climate and weather extremes including frequent water stress, droughts, floods, and unpredictable rains heralded by climate variability and change. These put into jeopardy the productivity and resilience of Ethiopia’s food systems and the quest for food and nutrition security. Climate-smart agriculture (CSA) is expected to play a key role in tackling these climate-related challenges to agricultural livelihoods and food systems by supporting the transformation of Ethiopia’s agricultural systems. The concept of CSA rests upon three foundational pillars of sustainably boosting agricultural productivity, building resilience and adaptive capacity to climate change, and reducing greenhouse gas emissions to mitigate climate change where possible. Such an approach will be critical in ensuring climate-resilient food systems that lay the framework for a food and nutrition secure Ethiopia. Ethiopia’s CSA Roadmap provides important insights into the foremost significance of agriculture for our country, key risks and vulnerabilities that our food systems and agricultural livelihoods face in a changing climate, as well as the national policy architecture of agricultural systems and climate change. The roadmap proposes key CSA actions that can be implemented at scale to ensure resilient food systems, build the enabling institutional environments that can promote such mainstreaming, promote the centrality of gender and social inclusion for our agricultural systems and develop capacity that can strengthen national efforts for adaptive, resilient and transformative food systems and agricultural livelihoods in Ethiopia. Minister of Agriculture of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia Acronyms ACSAA Africa Climate-Smart Agriculture Alliance ADLI Agricultural Development Led Industrialization AGP Agricultural Growth Program AGRA Alliance for a Green Revolution in Africa APACC Agriculture Sector Program of Plan on Adaptation to Climate Change CAADP Comprehensive Africa Agriculture Development Programme CALM Climate Action through Landscape Management CCAFS CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security CGIAR Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research CIMMYT International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center CRGE Climate Resilient Green Economy CSA Climate-smart agriculture DA Development agents DRSLP Drought Resilient and Sustainable Livelihoods Program DTMA Drought Tolerance Maize for Africa EPACC Ethiopian Program of Adaptation to Climate Change EthioSIS Ethiopian Soil Information System FACASI Mechanization and Conservation Agriculture for Sustainable Intensification FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations FEED Feed Enhancement for Ethiopian Development FMNR Farmer-managed natural regeneration FTC Farmer training center GDP Gross domestic product GGWSSI Great Green Wall for the Sahara and the Sahel Intitive GHG Greenhouse gas GTP Growth and Transformation Plan ICT Information and communications technology ILRI International Livestock Research Institute INDC Intended Nationally Determined Contribution LFSDP Livestock and Fisheries Sector Development Project LLRP Lowlands Livelihood Resilience Project MDGs Millennium Development Goals MERET Managing Environmental Resources to Enable Transitions MoA Ministry of Agriculture MRV Measurement, reporting and verification NAFSIPs National Agricultural Food Security and Investment Plans NAIPs National Agricultural Investment Plans NAP National Adaptation Plan NAPA National Adaptation Program of Action NEPAD New Partnership for Africa’s Development NGO Non-governmental organization PASDEP Plan for Accelerated and Sustained Development to End Poverty PCSL Program for Climate-Smart Livestock Systems PIF Policy and investment framework PRIME Pastoralist Areas Resilience Improvement through Market Expansion PSNP Productive Safety Net Program REDD+ Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation RLLP Resilient Landscapes and Livelihoods Project RPLRP Regional Pastoral Livelihoods Resilience Project SDPRP Sustainable Development and Poverty Reduction Program SIMLESA Sustainable Intensification of Maize-Legume Cropping Systems for Food Security in Eastern and Southern Africa SLMP Sustainable Land Management Program STMA Stress Tolerance Maize for Africa UNCCD United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change Contents Executive summary 1 1. Background 3 1.1. Highlights on the importance of agriculture in Ethiopia 3 1.2. Vulnerabilities of Ethiopian agriculture 4 1.3. Objectives and scope of the roadmap 6 1.4. Current policies on climate change and agriculture 6 2. Climate-smart agriculture 9 2.1. Gender and climate-smart agriculture 13 2.2. Existing and promising climate-smart agriculture practices and services 12 2.3. Opportunities and challenges of mainstreaming climate-smart agriculture in Ethiopia 17 2.4. Enabling institutional and policy environment related to climate-smart agriculture 19 2.5. Need for capacity building in climate-smart agriculture 20 3. Proposed roadmaps to enhance climate-smart agriculture implementation in Ethiopia 21 4. References 27 Executive summary Photo credit: CCAFS/Dawit Solomon This roadmap is developed based on a context The roadmap is presented in two main parts—farm analysis of Ethiopian agriculture. The roadmap and landscape levels. The farm level roadmap is aims to strengthen the role of the Ministry of focused mainly on farm management practices and Agriculture (MoA) in addressing vulnerabilities trade-offs of transitioning the agricultural sector facing the agriculture sector under changing to withstand the climate change challenge. The climatic conditions by institutionalizing landscape level roadmap aims at synergizing the opportunities of current soil and water conservation climate-smart agriculture. The roadmap is project-based standalone practices and trade-offs of largely informed by the overarching country integration across practices on land, water, energy Climate Resilient Green Economy (CRGE) and other livelihood areas. The roadmap is expected strategy; review of scientific literature; sectoral to guide actions on mainstreaming climate-smart documents on Ethiopian agriculture and agriculture at all levels of the sector including public, climate-smart agriculture; and related reports private and development partner interventions. from government, development partners, scientific publications, expert comments on the The roadmap is expected to: draft and inputs obtained from several senior experts on two presentations made during • Contribute to increasing productivity and growth climate-smart agriculture platform meetings of climate-smart agriculture related value chains conducted in May and November 2019. with nutrition and gender considerations. • To enhance resilience to climatic and weather The context analysis included highlights on shocks on the social, environmental, and the importance of agriculture in Ethiopia, the economic aspects of agriculture production and vulnerabilities of the sector, entry points for food systems; climate-smart agriculture interventions, review of policy documents related to agriculture and • Contribute to low carbon development through climate change, review of scientific literature efficient use of agriculture and agribusiness on climate-smart agriculture approaches and to reduce national emission intensity in the its practice in the Ethiopian agriculture, and agriculture production and food systems; opportunities and challenges of mainstreaming climate-smart agriculture. The roadmap document • Contribute to the strengthening of governance also incorporates practices and experiences from and institutional coordination for effective Ethiopia and beyond on reducing vulnerability, implementation of the climate-smart agriculture increasing adaptive capacity, addressing specific at the federal and regional levels. risks related to climate variability and climate change, exploring sector-specific opportunities in the context of a changing climate, enhancing sectoral coordination and cooperation, and promoting communication and research. Analysis of crosscutting issues such as enabling institutional and policy factors related to climate-smart agriculture and the gender dimension are also included in the review. 2 Ethiopia climate-smart agriculture roadmap 1. Background Agriculture is the main source of Ethiopian livelihoods and the backbone of the national economy. Faced with growing climate threats, resilient agricultural systems are Photo credit: CCAFS/IRI/Jacquelyn Turner vital for Ethiopia’s future. 1.1. Agriculture in Ethiopia commodities. Coffee fetches the largest foreign exchange for the country. The sector is also the main Agriculture—which includes crop production1, source of raw materials for agro-industries. Studies livestock, forestry, fisheries and apiculture— often show that growth based on agriculture makes remains by far the most important economic a stronger contribution than industrial growth since sector in Ethiopia. No other economic sector is agriculture has greater multiplier effects and the more vital in safeguarding human livelihoods than benefits from agricultural growth are often shared agriculture in Ethiopia. More than 85% of the equitably among the majority of the population. Ethiopian population depend on agriculture directly or indirectly for their livelihoods (FAO 2011a). Of Agriculture in Ethiopia is dominated by rainfed the total number of farming households, 25% are smallholder mixed crop-livestock farming (Georgis women headed. The sector contributed 34.8% et al. 2010). Smallholder agriculture with average to the country’s GDP and accounted for 70% of farm size ranging from 0.5–2 ha contributes to 95% employment as of 2017 (CIA 2019). It is a major of the total agricultural production and supports contributor to export earnings with over 85% of the livelihood of millions of people (Jirata et al. exports almost entirely composed of agricultural 2016). Crop production is the dominant sub-sector 1Includes coffee, enset, pulses, oilseeds, cereals, potatoes, sugarcane, fruits and vegetables 3 Ethiopia climate-smart agriculture roadmap within agriculture. Because of diverse agroecological 1.2. Vulnerabilities of Ethiopian zones, topography and natural vegetation, Ethiopian agriculture smallholder farmers have developed complex farming methods and cropping patterns. Farming Vulnerability describes exposure, sensitivity and is practiced under five major farming systems of capacity to respond to negative impacts of climate highland mixed farming, lowland mixed agriculture, change. Agricultural activities are by nature pastoral systems, shifting cultivation and commercial prone to risks and uncertainties of various nature agriculture (Degefe and Nega 2000). In crop farming, emanating from environmental factors such as seven different cereal crops, six pulse crops, seven climate change, soil erosion and land degradation. oilseed crops and a number of other different fruit Weak extension services also pose a risk. Much of and tree crops are grown (Mulat et al. 2004). Coffee, these risks have a climatic component and most sesame, flowers, fruits and vegetables are Ethiopia’s of them are affected by climate change, either in major agricultural exports. intensity, scope, or frequency. Greater frequency of extreme events such as increased temperatures, The livestock sector is one of the largest in the world less predictable rainfalls, changing rainfall patterns, in terms of animal head counts and contributes shorter rainy seasons, repeated frequent floods and 16–20% to the national GDP and represents a droughts increase uncertainty and risk in agricultural key subsistence source for more than 10 million production. Ethiopian agriculture is not immune to pastoralists and 10% of the country’s foreign these challenges. Long-term changes in temperature currency earnings (MacDonald and Simon 2011; slowly lead to fundamental changes in plant and Mulat et al. 2004; Pantuliano and Wekesa 2008). animal species that can be used for agriculture in Cattle, sheep, goats, camels, equines and poultry a particular location. In Ethiopia for example, the constitute the major livestock herd in Ethiopia. In deterioration of rangelands and increase in woody the highlands, livestock is considered as a security browses can be expected to result in an increasing during crop failure, an investment and additional number of pastoralists maintaining mixed herds of income for farmers. Livestock also serve as source browsing animals like camels and goats with smaller of draught power for crop production, raw material number of cattle and sheep (Kefyalew and Tegene input for industry (e.g. hides and skins, wool, 2012). Emergence of new pests and diseases, as hair, etc.) and source of manure for fertilization. well as new trading patterns are likely. Ethiopian Equines are the major transport services in rural agriculture is extremely sensitive to shifts in weather areas. The role of livestock as a source of food is and is among one of the country’s most vulnerable critical for both highland and lowland inhabitants. sectors to the impact of climate variability and In the lowland agroecological setup with pastoral change (Kassie et al. 2013). Various studies indicate production system, livestock do not provide inputs that the trends in inter-annual and inter-seasonal for crop production but are the backbone of life rainfall variability—decline in amount, increase for their owners, providing all of the consumable in intensity, variability in the length of growing and saleable outputs, and representing a living seasons, increase in temperature—have negative bank account and insurance against adversity implications on crop and livestock productivity (Coppock 1994). The main food contributions of affecting the income of rural households negatively livestock include, among other things, meat and (Kassie et al. 2013; Getachew 2015). Rain-fed, meat products, milk and milk products, eggs, and low-input, low-output agriculture, which supports honey. In mixed farming systems of the highlands, the livelihoods of the majority of the population, 26% of the livestock output is used as food, while is highly sensitive to climatic conditions. Its in pastoral areas where livestock forms the main performance is highly dependent on the timely source of livelihood, this proportion increases onset, duration, amount and distribution of rainfall. to 61%. Ethiopia exports beef and live animals, Changing rainfall patterns, in combination with especially to the Middle East and North Africa. warming trends, make rainfed agriculture riskier and 4 Ethiopia climate-smart agriculture roadmap aggravate food insecurity in Ethiopia. Recent rainfall health, growth and reproduction. The effects data show trends of overall declines in rainfall of climate change on livestock production are between March and September from 1980 to the further elaborated by Thornton et al. (2009) and present. These declines have been mostly marked Kipkoech et al. (2015). Feed shortage, digestibility in belg season-(February–May) dependent areas and nutritional quality of forage, shortage of leading to more intense and frequent droughts water, livestock genetic resources loss, reduced across different parts of the country. In addition, productivity, and decreased mature weight and/ some analysts suggest that there has been a shift or longer time to reach mature weight are among in the timing of rainfall, leading to more erratic and the major ones mentioned. Changes in patterns unpredictable precipitation patterns. of rainfall and temperature affect feed availability, grazing ranges, feed quality, weed, pest and disease Changes in regular crop planting times, length of incidences. The indirect effects of climate-driven growing season and shifts in suitable crop types changes in animal production may result mainly or cultivars are among the main effects of climate from alterations in the nutritional environment. change on crop production. For example, in the Higher temperatures tend to reduce animal feed Central Rift Valley, areas used for growing chick intake and feed conversion rates (Rowlinson 2008; pea, peas and long maturing sorghum varieties are Topp and Doyle 1996). Thus, changes in climatic now growing medium or early maturing varieties factors such as temperature, precipitation and of other crops (ICRA 1999). The same report the frequency and severity of extreme events like mentions that replacement of maize and sorghum droughts directly affect livestock yields. During over time by teff owing to early maturity, late extended dry periods, there is less access to pasture planting and lower total water consumption has and water for livestock. The combination of drought been observed in most of the semi-arid regions. and overgrazing, particularly near watering points, Conventional cultivation practices such as excessive destroys vegetation cover and increases soil erosion. tillage, overgrazing and the complete removal of Livestock diseases cause rapid loss of livestock crop residue at harvest, leave the soil unprotected assets and reduce milk supply, reproduction and and trigger soil erosion, particularly during rainy draught power during disaster incidence. The seasons. According to Zeleke and Hurni (2001), an physical weakness of livestock at this time makes estimated soil loss of 1,493 million tons per year is them susceptible to different diseases. Rrinderpest, observed in the Ethiopian highlands, while Tadesse pasteurolosis, contagious bovine pleuropneumonia, (2001) indicated grain yield loss of up to 1.5 million foot and mouse disease, anthrax, bloody diarrhea, tons per year. Pests and diseases, atmospheric skin and lung diseases, and internal and external carbon dioxide and lower nutritional quality of parasites are some of the critical infectious diseases some foods are also other dimensions of the and pests attacking livestock during drought and impact. In livestock production, changes in patterns flood hazards (Afar National Regional State 2010). of rainfall and temperature, and frequent and extensive droughts affect feed availability; shrink Ethiopia is characterized by food insecurity available water resources; reduce productivity and emanating from environmental challenges and feed quality of grasslands and rangelands; reduce other structural and institutional factors. Many livestock productivity; and increase weed, pest and government initiatives aimed at increasing food disease incidence (Coffey 2008). Moreover, limited production and ensuring national food security agricultural inputs, poor cultivation practices, poor have made little progress. As a result, many rural complementary services such as extension and households find it impossible to survive without veterinary, credit, marketing and infrastructure, access to seasonal employment or aid from the frequent pest and disease outbreaks, and other productive safety net and related social protection production and market risks are challenges for the programs. Significant areas with high livestock sector. populations tend to be arid. Hence, the harsh effect of climate change has maximum impact According to Smith et al. (1996), climate change on vulnerable pastoral communities engaged affects animal production in four ways: changes in extensive livestock production systems in on livestock feed-grain availability and price; drylands (Aklilu et al. 2013). Farmers and herders livestock pastures, forage crop production and still rely on age-old technologies and agricultural quality; livestock diseases and pests; and direct management practices that are outdated and often effects of weather and extreme events on animal unsustainable. There is limited mechanization that 5 Ethiopia climate-smart agriculture roadmap makes farming labor-intensive and time-consuming. efficiency in the use of resources; direct action to Constraints in crop production include limited conserve, protect and enhance natural resources; availability of improved, hybrid or short maturing and enhance resilience of people, communities and seeds; lack of seed multiplication capacity; low ecosystems, especially to climate change. Improving profitability and efficiency of fertilizer use due to coordination and collaboration among institutions the lack of complimentary improved practices and and stakeholders in climate-smart agriculture seed; and limited irrigation due to shortage of contributes to overcome mainstreaming bottlenecks water. In addition, lack of transport infrastructure and challenges. and market access decreases the profitability of adopting improved practices (Kate and Leigh 2010). 1.4. Current policies on climate change Concerning livestock, the constraints commonly mentioned are diseases, feed shortage, limited and agriculture infrastructure and research, limited demand, and institutional policy. Open range free grazing, Ethiopia’s policy response to challenges of climate often with no supplemental feeds, and animals change are many although there is no direct that are predominately local breed with low milk mention of climate-smart agriculture. However, productivity are the dominant characteristics of several of Ethiopia’s development and sectoral livestock production in Ethiopia (EPCC 2015; Feleke policies and programs already deal with climate 2003). change, even before climate change became one of the most important factors in sustainable development. The CRGE objectives and guiding 1.3. Objectives and scope of the principles, the productive safety net program (PSNP) roadmap and the sustainable land management program (SLMP) already share the goals of climate-smart The objective of this document is to develop a agriculture for sustainable development. Early climate-smart agriculture roadmap that helps to actions on climate change have allowed the country address land degradation, build resilience and to prepare for short- and long-term agricultural minimize emissions from agricultural farming adaptation and mitigation actions closely systems for enhanced food and nutritional security linked with national food security and nutrition and improved livelihoods. policies. What remains to be done is creating awareness about the policies and promoting their Developing a climate-smart agriculture roadmap for implementation at all levels. One way of doing this the agricultural sector requires a review of existing could be mainstreaming the policies into agricultural policy and strategy documents. It also requires extension and research. Moreover, establishing a understanding of the current status of the sector’s legally binding institutional framework for greater capacity and institutional coordination that cut coordination and integration among institutions, across a number of stakeholders. The roadmap is and synergy among programs/projects is vital. Some informed by principles of good practice and adapted of the key policy responses relevant to climate- based on specific circumstances and contexts. It smart agriculture are listed in Table 1 below. followed a cross-sectoral approach which takes advantage of potential synergies. It entails improving 6 Ethiopia climate-smart agriculture roadmap Table 1. Summary of key policies, laws and strategies relevant to the adoption of climate-smart agriculture practices in Ethiopia Policy Year Intention/goal Agricultural development led industrialization Since 1993 Agriculture is the main source to generate primary surplus that fuel the (ADLI) strategy growth of other sectors; notably, industry, infrastructure, social services and other tailored interventions to address the specific needs of the country’s varied agroecological zones. National energy policy 1994 This is a comprehensive national energy policy with the goal of addressing the problem of energy supply and utilization. Article 43 and 44 of the Constitution 1995 Provides guidance regarding environmental rights and promoting sustainable development. Environmental policy of Ethiopia 1997 Gives overall guidance in the conservation and sustainable utilization of the country’s environmental resources. Environmental impact assessment proclamation 2002 Ensures that the environmental implications are taken into account before decisions are made. Sustainable development and poverty reduction 2002–2005 This is a poverty reduction strategy that aimed at achieving the MDGs. program (SDPRP) Plan for accelerated and sustained 2006–2010 This is a poverty reduction program that was formulated to achieve the development to end poverty (PASDEP) MDGs. Community-based participatory watershed 2005 This is a guide on how to plan, design and implement community watershed development strategy development activities. The Guideline provides consolidated and normative information for field workers and woreda sector offices. Ethiopian policy and strategy on the Since 2006 This was designed to meet public demand in forestry products and foster development, conservation and use of forests the contribution of forests in enhancing the economy of the country by appropriately conserving and developing forestry resources. National Adaptation Program of Action (NAPA) 2007 The NAPA represented the first step in coordinating adaptation activities across government sectors. REDD+ strategy Since 2008 This shows alternative mechanisms for financing forestry development in Ethiopia and enhancing the country’s climate change mitigation potential. CAADP compact 2009 One of the pillars of CAADP is extending the area under sustainable land management and reliable water control systems. Growth and Transformation Plan (GTP I and II) Since 2010 The Growth and Transformation Plan (GTP) strategic framework for the period 2010–2020 recognizes the environment is a vital pillar of sustainable development. Ethiopia’s agricultural sector policy and 2010–2020 Provides a strategic framework for the prioritization and planning of investment framework (PIF) investments that will drive Ethiopia’s agricultural growth and development Agriculture sector program of plan on 2011 This is the agriculture sector climate change adaptation plan. adaptation to climate change (APACC) Ethiopian program of adaptation to climate 2011 This provides more programmatic approach to adaptation planning. It seeks change (EPACC) to build a climate resilient economy through adaptation at sectoral, regional and community levels. The EPACC updates and replaces Ethiopia’s National Adaptation Program of Action (NAPA) which was formulated in 2007 and submitted it to the UNFCCC Secretariat. Climate resilient green 2011 This strategy is Ethiopia’s overarching strategy to become carbon-neutral economy strategy middle-income status before 2025. Ethiopian soil information system (EthioSIS) 2011 A national soils database and soil fertility map of Ethiopia was developed through a combination of remote sensing and in-field sampling to determine soil nutrient deficiencies and develop tailored fertilization regimes. Working strategy for strengthening Ethiopia’s 2013 Includes nutrient management practices through legumes in crop rotations teff value chain to supply biologically fixed atmospheric nitrogen as a replacement or supplement for inorganic nitrogen fertilizer. National policy and strategy on disaster risk 2013 This is a disaster risk management framework, including early warning management and risk assessment, information management, capacity building and integration of disaster risk reduction into development plans. It mainly focuses on droughts. National Strategy for Ethiopia’s 2014 To transform Ethiopia’s agriculture through implementation of pluralistic Agricultural Extension System extension system and by providing demand-driven and market-led extension services to male, female and youth farmers, pastoralists and agro pastoralists and contribute to the achievements of GTP-2 goals. Ethiopia’s climate-resilient green economy 2015 This is a sectoral chapter of the resilience strategy of the CRGE. It focuses climate resilience strategy: water and energy on water and energy. 7 Ethiopia climate-smart agriculture roadmap Growth and Transformation Plan (GTP-II) 2015 GTP II is the second federal, 5-year national development plan. Policy Year Intention/goal Agriculture and forestry climate change 2015 This is a sectoral chapter of the resilience strategy of the CRGE focusing on resilience roadmap agricultural crops, livestock, forestry, food security and disaster prevention under a transformation of the agriculture and forestry sectors into services and industry. Water and energy climate resilience strategy 2015 Another sectoral chapter of the resilience strategy of the CRGE addressing rainfall variability challenges on hydropower and food security. Intended nationally determined contribution 2015 This gives details on emission reduction targets as well as broader (INDC) climate change mitigation and adaptation strategies. Sectors included are agriculture (livestock and soil), forestry, transport, electric power, industry (including mining) and buildings (including waste and green cities) Climate smart indicators for GTP II results November This is a handbook for climate-smart indicators and part of the agriculture framework 2017 sector indicator handbook. Guideline for mainstreaming CRGE 2018 This guideline is developed to provide guidance for the agriculture sector, particularly for the Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources and the Ministry of Livestock and Fishery to mainstream CRGE and climate-smart agriculture into different programs and projects in the sector and at policy level. Climate-smart agriculture: a field manual for 2019 This document aims to implement sustainable agriculture production extension workers system by capacitating extension workers. Ethiopia’s climate resilient green economy 2019 The goal of NAP-ETH is to reduce vulnerability to the impacts of climate national adaptation plan, Federal Democratic change by building adaptive capacity and resilience. It aims to strengthen Republic of Ethiopia (NAP-ETH) holistic integration of climate change adaptation in Ethiopia’s long-term development pathway, supported by effective institutions and governance structures, finance for implementation and capacity development and strengthened systems for disaster risk management and integration among different sectors. Revised watershed development strategy of 2019 This strategy identifies “poor climate change adaptation” as a bottleneck to Ethiopia watershed development and proposes measures to address it. Development, Management & Utilization of 2020 Emphasizes on the need to rehabilitated degraded areas, natural resources Community watersheds Proclamation depletion, biodiversity conservation, and reduce GHG to maintain the productivity of land Updated Community Based Participatory 2020/21 Guide on how to plan, design and implement community watershed Watershed development activities. The Guideline provides consolidated and normative Development Guideline information for field workers and woreda sector offices (under printing) Source: Ethiopia climate-smart agriculture scoping study (Jirata et al. 2016) Ethiopia is a signatory to a number of multilateral the Convention on Biological Diversity, the United agreements that have a bearing on the sustainable Nations Convention to Combat Desertification development efforts of the country. Ethiopia has (UNCCD) as well as the UN Sustainable Development signed and/or ratified many of the international Goals. Ethiopia’s agricultural sector policy conventions and protocols related to climate change investment framework (PIF) listed in Table 1 above is and land degradation including the United Nations consistent with the CAADP Pillars.2 Framework Convention on Climate Change (1994), 2CAADP technical review summary of key findings for Ethiopia, Addis Ababa (September 2010) 8 Ethiopia climate-smart agriculture roadmap 2. Climate-smart agriculture Climate-smart agriculture builds the adaptive capacity and climate resilience of food systems and livelihoods while boosting productivity and reducing emissions when possible. Explore the opportunities for climate-smart Photo credit: CCAFS/Seble Samuel agriculture in Ethiopia. Agriculture has to address three intertwined food security and climate change. It has multiple challenges simultaneously: ensuring food security entry points ranging from the development of through increased productivity and income, technologies and practices to the elaboration of adapting to climate change and contributing to climate change models and scenarios, information climate change mitigation (Thornton et al. 2018; technologies, insurance schemes, value chains, FAO 2010). Climate-smart agriculture does not and the strengthening of institutional and political prescribe interventions. Instead, climate risks are enabling environments. As such, it goes beyond addressed by tackling trade-offs and synergies single technologies at the farm level and includes between the three objectives (Rosenstock et the integration of multiple interventions at the food al, 2016). It is an approach that brings together system, landscape, value chain or policy levels. It agricultural practices, policies, institutions and also involves innovative practices such as improved financing in the context of climate change. It is a weather forecasting, early warning systems and way to guide the needed changes in agricultural climate risk insurance (Jirata et al. 2016). systems given the necessity to jointly address 9 Ethiopia climate-smart agriculture roadmap Farm landscape in SNNPR Sheep commonly kept in SNNPR Photo credit: CCAFS/Seble Samuel Photo credit: CCAFS/Seble Samuel It gives farmers tools and a pathway to make their social solidarity, environmental responsibility and operations and livelihoods more productive and economic efficiency—by jointly addressing food resilient in the face of climate change while also security and climate change challenges (Nciizah and helping reduce their climate impacts. It integrates Isaiah 2015). Figure 1 below provides an illustration the three dimensions of sustainable development— of climate-smart agriculture interventions. Figure 1: Approach to climate-smart agriculture interventions Source: Thornton et al. 2018 10 Ethiopia climate-smart agriculture roadmap Climate-smart agriculture systematically integrates this does not imply that every practice applied climate change into the planning and development in every location should produce “triple wins” of sustainable agricultural systems (Lipper et al. since achieving benefits in all three dimensions 2014). Interventions take into account how different is difficult. Because of this, necessary choices elements interact at the landscape level, within among competing investments and objectives or among ecosystems and as part of different must be made. Hence, climate-smart agriculture institutional arrangements and political realities. It seeks to identify and reduce trade-offs and assesses the risks and needs of a specific farm or promote synergies by taking these objectives into farming community through a climate impact lens, consideration to inform decisions at all scales and then addresses them using practices chosen for derive nationally and locally acceptable solutions in that particular situation. In choosing appropriate line with the national development goals over short- climate-smart agriculture interventions for a specific and long-term. Figure 2 provides an illustration area, it analyzes the site-specific socioeconomic of how climate-smart agriculture can generate and institutional context, as well as the prevailing synergies and trade-offs across climate-smart agroecological conditions and potential climate agriculture pillars. change scenarios, risks and impacts. However, Figure 2: Climate-smart agriculture pillars: outcomes of trade-offs and synergies Source: Mwongera et al. 2017 For example, Option A in the figure is an ideal focus is generally on improving currently existing situation where all gains from climate-smart techniques, such as the usage of fertilizers and agriculture are realized. In option B, there is a gain in pesticides, but with better-applied efficiency and productivity and adaptation, but a loss in mitigation. improved seeds (for instance, drought tolerant Option F presents a gain in adaptation and a loss seeds). Table 2 shows how climate-smart agriculture in both productivity and mitigation. These two differs from conventional agriculture. situations are our entry points, where we plan to mainstream site specific climate-smart agriculture Examples of proven practical techniques of climate- intervention to maintain the triple win. Option H is smart agriculture that could enhance adaptive not desirable as it compromises all the three pillars. and resilience capacity include use of drought- Option G represents the business-as-usual situation. resistant crop varieties, stress-adapted livestock breeds, diversified cropping system, intercropping, Climate-smart agriculture takes into consideration conservation agriculture, crop rotation, mulching, the diversity of social, economic and environmental reducing post-harvest losses, integrated crop- contexts, including agroecological zones and livestock management, agroforestry, improved farming systems where it will be applied. The 11 Ethiopia climate-smart agriculture roadmap grazing, improved water management, integrated as better weather forecasting, more resilient food soil fertility management market linkages, climate crops and risk insurance (Jirata et al. 2016; FAO smart value chains, and innovative practices such 2013; Boto et al. 2012). Table 2. Climate-smart agriculture versus conventional agriculture How does climate-smart agriculture differ from conventional agriculture? Key features of conventional agriculture intensification Key features of climate-smart agriculture Conversion of energy source from human to animal and fossil fuel Use of energy efficient technologies for agricultural power (irrigation dependent machinery or tillage) Increased use of fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides (highly dependent on fossil fuels) generally very inefficiently applied Increased efficiency of fertilizers and wider use of organic fertilizers Expansion of agricultural land area through deforestation and Intensification on existing land areas as main source of production conversion from grasslands to croplands increase rather than expansion to new areas Increased specialization in agricultural production and marketing systems Greater diversification in production, input and output systems Emphasizing improved and hybrid crop varieties Valuing the resilience of traditional varieties 2.1. Gender and climate-smart interventions to be more effective and sustainable, agriculture they must be designed to address gender inequalities and discrimination against people at risk (Twyman et al. 2014). A gender-responsive Women in Ethiopia contribute up to 40-60%3 approach to climate-smart agriculture must identify of labor in the production process. However, and address the different constraints faced by men women face specific constraints that reduce and women and recognize their specific capabilities. their productivity and limit their contributions to Gender-responsive climate-smart agriculture agricultural production and productivity. Climate projects must reduce gender inequalities and change affects men, women, boys and girls in ensure that men, women, boys and girls can equally different ways. There is a clear linkage between benefit from climate-smart agriculture interventions agriculture and women. Women play a major role in and practices, thus achieving more sustainable agriculture as farmers, workers and entrepreneurs. and equitable results. A growing body of evidence Women farmers are more exposed to climate risks demonstrates that more equal gender relations compared to men for many of the same reasons within households and communities lead to better that farm productivity is lower for female farmers agricultural and development outcomes, including than males—women have fewer endowments and increase in farm productivity; improvement in family entitlements, less access to advisory information nutrition; reduction in labor loads; and participation and services, financial capital, and they are less in decision-making in households, communities and mobile and have limited control over farm labor national agendas (FAO 2011b; Nyasimi and Huyer (Jost et al. 2016). In most cases, women tend to 2017). It has been estimated that if rural women be excluded from decision-making and may not had the same access to agricultural resources as benefit from technologies and practices that could men, yields could increase by 20–30% and the total help them adapt to new climatic conditions. There number of hungry people around the world would is an international consensus that the design reduce by 12–17% (FAO 2011b). Researches need and implementation of climate change response to enhance climate-smart agriculture intervention strategies and projects must consider gender- by considering the ergonomics in the working specific differences in the capacity to adapt to environment of women, women-appropriate farm and mitigate climate change (FAO and the World implements and technologies, etc. Bank 2017). Hence, for climate-smart agriculture 3Agricultural Transformation Agency, Ministry of Agriculture, 2014. National Strategy for Ethiopia’s Agricultural Extension System - Vision, Systemic Bottlenecks and Priority Interventions 12 Ethiopia climate-smart agriculture roadmap A model female farmer showcasing her climate-smart crops in Doyogena, Ethiopia. Photo credit: CCAFS/Seble Samuel 2.2. Existing and promising climate- agricultural practices currently practiced by smart agriculture practices and services smallholder farmers in Ethiopia. Despite high usage of traditional production methods, there is evidence Ethiopian agriculture is diverse in terms of climatic of increased use of organic fertilizers; adoption zones, food production systems and socioeconomic of crop varieties with higher resistance/tolerance conditions. Agriculture is considered climate- to drought, pests, and diseases; increased use of smart when it sustainably increases agricultural irrigation schemes; agroforestry that combine trees productivity and incomes, builds resilience to and shrubs with crops; improved livestock feeding climate change and reduces greenhouse gas practices and rangeland management; switching to emissions (Harvey et al. 2014; Brandt et al. 2015). livestock species or breeds that are more adapted A scoping study conducted by FAO (2016) across to water scarcity and resistant to disease; and Ethiopia examined the different agricultural reduction of herd size while increasing productivity practices and came with the list of climate-smart as attempts to increase productivity and resilience. Women at a market in Hosana. Photo credit: CCAFS/IRI/Jacquelyn Turner 13 Ethiopia climate-smart agriculture roadmap There are also promising landscape natural resource northern and southern Ethiopia. In addition, the management practices such as exclosures which climate resilient agricultural and forestry strategy prohibit people and livestock interference on has identified 41 promising programmatic options hillsides and mountainous areas protected for on adaptation that have relevance to climate-smart restoration purposes; and farmer managed natural agriculture intervention. Table 3 below shows the regeneration, which is a systematic regeneration and list of most common climate-smart agriculture management of underground vegetation with live practices across Ethiopia (FAO and the World Bank roots and seeds within the soil. These methods have 2017; Jirata et al. 2016). already been successfully applied in some parts of Table 3. Common agricultural practices and their climate-smart agriculture attributes Agricultural practices Components Why it is climate smart Conservation • Reduced tillage • Carbon sequestration agriculture • Crop residue management (mulching) • Reduces existing emissions • Crop rotation/intercropping with cereals • Resilience to dry and hot spells and legumes • Enhances soil fertility resulting in improvement in Integrated soil • Compost and manure management, • Reduced emission of nitrous oxide and CH4 fertility management including green manuring • Improved soil productivity • Efficient fertilizer application techniques (time, method and amount) Small-scale irrigation • Year-round cropping • Creating carbon sink • Efficient water utilization • Improved yields • Improved food security Agroforestry • Tree-based conservation agriculture • Trees store large quantities of CO2 practiced both traditionally and as • Can support resilience and improved productivity of improved practice agriculture • Farmer-managed natural regeneration Crop diversification • Popularization of new crops and crop • Ensuring food security varieties • Resilience to weather variability • Pest resistance, high yields, tolerant to • Alternative livelihoods and improved incomes drought, short seasons Improved livestock • Reduced open grazing/zero grazing • Improved livestock productivity feed and feeding • Forage development and rangeland • GHG reduction practice management • CH4 reduction • Feed improvement • Livestock breed improvement and diversification Improved animal husbandry • Animal breed improvement, improved • Improved livestock productivity animal health system • GHG reduction • improved manure management practices • CH4 reduction Other • In situ water conservation/harvesting • Resilience of agriculture • Early-warning systems and improved • Improved incomes weather information • Reduced emissions • Support to alternative energy (fuel- • Reduced deforestation efficient stoves and biofuels) • Reduced climate risk • Crop and livestock insurance • Livelihoods diversification, • Post-harvest technologies (geoprocessing and storage) Source: Ethiopia climate-smart agriculture scoping study (Jirata et al. 2016) 14 Ethiopia climate-smart agriculture roadmap Currently, agricultural development activities carried related to climate change and are contributing to out in the country are supported by a number of climate change adaptation and mitigation should be policies, strategies and institutions. Of the numerous mentioned. Table 4 below shows some examples of agricultural development activities conducted, those projects implemented in the country. that are considered important in addressing issues Table 4. Key country relevant bilateral and multilateral climate related projects No Program/project Intervention year Project objectives 1 MERET project Since 2003 Water harvesting, reforestation, seedling production, soil fertility management and construction of farmland terraces 2 PSNP Since 2005 Enabling the rural poor facing chronic food insecurity to resist shocks, create assets and become food self-sufficient. PSNP builds community assets through climate-smart public works. 3 Humbo Assisted Natural Since 2006 Rehabilitation of degraded forests through assisted natural Regeneration project regeneration. Crops surrounding reforested areas benefit through (afforestation and modification of the microclimate, which comes about through a reforestation) combination of reduced wind speed, lower temperatures, higher humidity and greater infiltration of water into the soil. 4 SLMP Since 2008 Reducing land degradation in agricultural landscapes and improving agricultural productivity for smallholder farmers. SLMP promote climate-smart agriculture and integrated land management practices that internalize climate induced risks and the conservation of biodiversity and soil. 5 Great Green Wall for the Since 2008 Reinforcing the Climate Resilient Green Economy (CRGE) strategy Sahara and the Sahel Initiative (GGWSSI) 6 CIMMYT implemented Since 2010 Increasing farm-level food security and income through conservation project, Sustainable agriculture technologies that ensure sustainability and productivity Intensification of Maize- Legume Cropping Systems for Food Security in Eastern and Southern Africa (SIMLESA) 7 R4 Rural Resilience Initiative, 2010 Building resilience to climate change for long-term food security and Oxfam America and the livelihood improvement. It was aimed at enabling vulnerable rural World Food Programme households to increase their food and income security in the face of increasing climate risks through a combination of risk management strategies: improved resource management (risk reduction), insurance (risk transfer), microcredit (prudent risk taking) and savings (risk reserves). 8 AGP Since 2011 Sustainably increase agricultural production and productivity of selected crop and livestock commodities, establish market linkages and accelerate commercialization, build the capacity of smallholder farmers for efficient water and crop management, improve dietary diversification for better health, and strengthen the capacity of smallholder farmers to adopt and implement climate change mitigation and adaptation measures 9 CIMMYT implemented 2012–2019 Develop and deliver drought and other stress tolerant maize varieties to Drought Tolerance Maize smallholder farmers for Africa (DTMA) and Stress Tolerance Maize for Africa (STMA) 10 Climate-Smart Push-Pull Since 2013 Demonstration of green leaf Desmodium and Barachiaria grass for the Technology Promotion (ICIPE) control of maize stalk borer 11 AGRA soil health project Since 2013 Enhancing income of smallholder farmers through integrated soil fertility management 12 Farm Mechanization and Since 2013 A program that supports the SIMLESA and other conservation Conservation Agriculture agriculture initiatives in the country through evaluation and for Sustainable Intensification demonstration of two-wheel tractor based technologies for (FACASI) program (CIMMYT) conservation agriculture 13 PSNP/HABP Climate Smart 2013–2015 An initiative to strengthen two important food security programs—the Initiative II Productive Safety Net Program and the Household Asset Building Program—by piloting approaches to mainstream climate change within existing government approaches and cycles 15 Ethiopia climate-smart agriculture roadmap No Program/project Intervention year Project objectives 14 Africa Climate-Smart Since 2014 Support the rapid scaling-up of climate-smart agriculture to six million Agriculture Alliance (ACSAA) farming households across Africa through the collaborative efforts and practical experience of alliance members in agricultural research and implementation 15 Drought Resilient and Since 2014 Improve livelihoods and resilience of the pastoral production system in Sustainable Livelihoods the Afar and Somali regional states of Ethiopia Program (DRSLP) in Ethiopia 16 Climate-smart agriculture Since 2015 Help smallholder farmers to adapt to climate change through adoption in southern Ethiopia (Farm of climate-smart technologies and practices, including the provision of Africa, SoS Sahel, Self Help ICT based weather and market information Africa, and Vita) 17 Pastoralist Areas Resilience 2012–2017 The project sought to build resilience to drought-induced animal Improvement through Market mortality by facilitating market systems development in Afar, Oromia, Expansion (PRIME), USAID and Somali Regions 18 Regional Pastoral Livelihoods Since 2015 Project to enhance livelihood resilience of pastoral and agropastoral Resilience Project communities in cross-border drought prone areas of selected (RPLRP) countries and improve their capacity to respond promptly and effectively to an eligible crisis or emergency 19 Participatory Small-scale Since 2016 Reduce the impact of climate change, enhance economic growth and Irrigation Development reduce rural poverty Program II, IFAD 20 Ethiopia Resilient Landscapes Since 2018 To improve climate resilience, land productivity, carbon storage, and and Livelihoods Project increase access to diversified livelihood activities in selected rural (RLLP), World Bank watersheds. 21 Livestock and Fisheries Sector Since 2018 The development objective of the Livestock and Fisheries Sector Development Project Development Project for Ethiopia is to increase productivity and (LFSDP) commercialization of producers and processors in selected value chains, strengthen service delivery systems in livestock and fisheries and respond promptly and effectively to an eligible crisis or emergency. 22 Ethiopia—GCCA+/Climate- 2018–2022 The project provides technical assistance to enable the Ministry of smart Mainstreaming into Agriculture to: the Productive Safety Net Mainstream climate-smart initiatives in the watershed and rangeland Program (Climate-smart activities planning and implement the Productive Safety Net Program IV. PSNP) Enhance institutional and technical capacity in planning, implementation and monitoring for climate-smart outcomes in PSNP4’s public works and livelihoods components. Generate evidence to promote dialogue on climate sensitive development programming and future climate financing. 23 ILRI implemented program Since 2019 Support interventions to increase the contribution of livestock for climate-smart livestock production to the three key pillars of climate-smart agriculture— systems (PCSL) increased productivity, mitigation of GHG emissions and adaptation to climate change across diverse systems and species. It supports governments, the private sector and local stakeholders in realizing their development objectives while also fulfilling their commitments to achieve climate change adaptation and mitigation goals. 24 Lowlands Livelihood Since 2019 The development objective of Lowlands Livelihood Resilience Project Resilience Project (LLRP), is to improve livelihood resilience of pastoral and agropastoral World Bank communities in Ethiopia. It has four components: 1) integrated rangeland development and management; 2) livelihood improvement and diversification; 3) improving basic services and capacity building; 4) project management, monitoring and evaluation. 25 Climate Action through Since 2019 Increase adoption of sustainable land management (SLM) practices and Landscape Management expand access to secure land tenure in non-rangeland rural areas. (CALM) Program for Results Project for Ethiopia Moreover, various types of traditional climate-smart agriculture practices have been implemented and adopted in Ethiopia. Amongst those cited in FAO (2016) are the Derashe traditional conservation agriculture; Konso cultural landscape; Hararghe Highland traditional soil and water conservation; Hararghe cattle fattening; Hararghe small-scale traditional irrigation; Ankober manure management and traditional agroforestry in Gedeo, East Shewa, East Wollega and West Gojam zones; and crop rotation practiced by many crop farmers in the country. 16 Ethiopia climate-smart agriculture roadmap 2.3 Opportunities and challenges SLMP, PSNP, AGP and REDD+ follow a landscape of mainstreaming climate-smart approach based on large-scale processes in an integrated and multidisciplinary formulation that agriculture in Ethiopia takes into account natural resources management, which includes environmental and livelihood Opportunities concerns. The integrated watershed management approach addresses a host of land use issues in a The government of Ethiopia has developed policies catchment area, their effect on soil properties and and strategies that are pertinent to ensure food erosion, the hydrological regime, biomass, energy security, as well as address climate change. It has and biodiversity. The PSNP as a program, through its also ratified international climate change-related main components’ interventions and the climate- conventions. The sector’s role in producing food, smart mainstreaming project, supports public works meeting the people’s basic survival needs and most and livelihoods planning and implementation to of the export income provides it an extraordinary adapt to climate change. attention compared to other sectors. The transition to climate-smart agricultural The country has developed a comprehensive green development pathways requires financial growth strategy that encompasses agriculture in the investment. The possibility to tap into international form of the Climate Resilient Green Economy (CRGE) climate financing and climate-smart agriculture strategy. In the MoA, a directorate for environment experiences help to fast-track implementation. and climate change coordination has been established for piloting climate-smart agriculture NEPAD’s Comprehensive Africa Agriculture and mainstreaming the CRGE into the sector’s Development Program (CAADP) ensures that development plans, polices, strategies, projects and climate change is mainstreamed into agricultural programs. development. It provides an opportunity for incorporating climate-smart agriculture into country The FTC- and DA-centered interventions with 60, and regional programs through the development 000 Das, 14,000 FTCs and SMS based agricultural of the National Agricultural Investment Plans information through a mobile network provide (NAIPs) and National Agricultural Food Security and excellent platform for CSA extension. Investment Plans (NAFSIPs), both key instruments in the CAADP process. Adoption of existing agricultural practices (“good management practices”) that have been The country has prioritized the advancement documented to improve agriculture through various of gender equality and youth employment with indicators such as increased water use efficiency policies and legal provisions and the setting up and drought resilience, improved soil structure and of institutional mechanisms at all levels of the fertility, reductions in nutrient losses, etc. can easily government’s administrative structure. be scaled up through the wide extension structure of the MoA. Taking advantage of the entry points Challenges that already exist in the climate-smart agriculture technologies and practices undertaken by a number of state and non-state actors listed in Table 4 above. In spite of the potential of climate-smart agriculture to improve resilience and enhance agricultural production and rural livelihoods, systematic Sufficient resource endowment in the form of response to climate change through adoption of projects and programs by AGP, SLM, PSNP, RLLP and climate-smart agriculture practices and technologies others, and the availability of adequate number of is still very limited in Ethiopia. Among the challenges extension and development agents at grassroots commonly mentioned are: level provide a good opportunity to create climate- related awareness, capacity-building training, and large-scale implementation and promotion of • Lack of mechanisms to bring together and climate-smart practices. coordinate stakeholders involved in different forms of climate-smart agriculture technology promotion and synergies in the implementation of climate-smart agriculture and food security programs and initiatives. There are numerous 17 Ethiopia climate-smart agriculture roadmap projects and programs that are conducting and resource base. Lack of knowledge about promoting climate-smart agricultural practices ecosystems and their links with livestock leads to and technologies in the country. However, these wrong policy and development decisions. programs and projects are being implemented in a fragmented project-based manner although • Lack of skilled human resources on climate there is an integrative knowledge management change adaptation and mitigation at all levels, platform to avail all climate-smart agriculture and inadequate information relevant to climate- stakeholders of past and recent lessons learned smart agriculture. and best practices, as well as the more mundane reports and evaluations of programs and • Climate-smart agriculture is not adequately projects promoting climate approaches. incorporated into extension guidelines and manuals (and the extension system as a whole) • Ethiopian climate is varied and complex. The in a way that the great majority of the rural variation is also compounded by the difference farming population could understand and in soil type and cultural practices across the participate in their implementation. country. This variation complicates policy planning since responses to build resilience • Most interventions still depend on the must be grounded in local contexts. availability of external finance. • Diversification has allowed farmers to cope with • Feeding the country’s population in the context drought or erratic rains but identifying the right of climate change will require gradual and technological package for various ecologies and significant expansion of agricultural products. crops has been of considerable challenge to researchers and extension systems. • Farmers face substantial barriers in adopting climate-smart agriculture practices and lack • Most farmer households in Ethiopia are of information about the potential gains of resource poor and they usually own small adopting a new technology. These include parcels of farmlands that are degraded and significant upfront expenditures required for with low yield. They have limited access to adopting new technologies. appropriate farm equipment and tools, quality seeds and other basic agricultural inputs, credit, • The dominant nature of conventional microfinancing and/or insurances, and capacity agricultural practices like frequent ploughing in implementing improved practices. and removal and burning of crop residues. • There’s gap in policy support to address gender- • Climate-smart agriculture requires change in specific barriers such as advisory information, the attitude of farming households, appropriate services and incentive mechanisms for adoption strategies and planning, as well as change in the of climate-smart agricultural production normal seasons of agricultural practices. systems. • Appropriate institutional structures and • Farmers in Ethiopia face major risks arising from supporting national policies and strategies may the effect of climatic hazards and managing risks seem overwhelming to smallholder farmers. associated with high costs (at least initial costs) of adopting new technologies (e.g. conservation • Policies and strategies didn’t provide recognition agriculture and agroforestry) whose benefits and adequate support for proven technologies often only come after several years/seasons of of carbon sequestration, conservation production. agriculture, mulching, intercropping and agroforestry. • Lack of understanding of ecosystems and their link to livestock production. Hence, there is a • Lack of policy support and capacity enhancement need to critically identify and enhance positive to climate risk management, including insurance contributions of livestock in agricultural and safety nets, as well as improved access to development that will satisfy current and future weather information and weather based agro- human needs while preserving the natural advisories adapted to the needs of farmers in different agroecological zones. 18 Ethiopia climate-smart agriculture roadmap • The current ability to quantify greenhouse gas plans/schemes that include various incentive (GHG) emissions and mitigation from agriculture mechanisms are needed to promote climate- is limited. There is lack of baseline data to help smart agriculture technologies in vulnerable use emissions factors and other parameters areas. Although current policies, strategies and which are specific to the country. laws related to climate change and sustainable agriculture in Ethiopia are adequate, aligning 2.4. Enabling institutional and policy climate policy documents with the country’s environment related to climate-smart economic and agricultural development policies is still not to the required level. They lack detailed agriculture guidelines, manuals and action plans and are not sufficiently mainstreamed into existing programs Enabling policies and institutions are essential and projects. There is lack of adequate research when making use of evidence base to design findings on climate-smart agriculture practices in more effective and sustainable interventions. FAO Ethiopia for the various agro-ecologies, soil types, (2014) mentions the steps to build an enabling rainfall patterns, farming systems, temperatures environment for climate-smart agriculture and moisture ranges. Data on climate-smart technologies should include the following: agriculture are insufficient at all levels. Research projects on climate-smart agriculture are not to the • Assessing major barriers to the adoption of level required to influence agricultural extension climate-smart agriculture options; practices. The institutional capacity of the country is not adequate to implement and replicate • Analyzing the potential of local institutions to climate-smart agriculture strategies. For purposes overcome these barriers; of knowledge dissemination, a comprehensive capacity development approach that builds on • Engaging in dialogues with local communities; sound assessment of the needs of all stakeholders • Developing capacities at different levels; is required. Within diversified extension service delivery, there is a need to build the capacity of all • Supporting policy coordination; and NGOs and conservation agriculture implementing organizations. Above all, the extension directorate of • Securing enough financing for implementation. the Ministry of Agriculture requires special support since it is through the extension system that the Climate-smart agriculture technologies that have technologies reach the wider community. potential to improve agriculture productivity, increase resilience and reduce emissions do Making the transition to climate-smart agriculture not achieve the desired impact without strong requires not only strong political commitment, but enabling conditions. To make agricultural systems also greater coherence, coordination and integration climate-smart requires actions at different levels of among the various sectors dealing with the drivers policies, institutions, investments and practices. As that are influencing climate change, agricultural mentioned earlier, many of Ethiopia’s development development and food and nutrition security. In and sectoral policies and programs already deal this regard, the development of enabling policies with agricultural adaptation and mitigation actions and the promotion of regulatory and legislative to climate change. However, the policies need to be initiatives is crucial. Increasing policy coherence coordinated to achieve climate-smart agriculture calls for a systematic assessment of current policies objectives. Financial incentive mechanisms and and their intended and unintended effects on the information through extension services are needed set of development objectives prioritized by the to empower farmers and farming communities to country, including those pertaining to climate-smart invest in climate-smart agriculture technologies, agriculture. Public policies, as well as expenditure practices and services. Existing gender policies and and planning frameworks, should work towards laws need to be assessed for their effectiveness in integration of climate-smart agriculture policies improving the livelihoods of women smallholder and support measures at the national, regional and farmers. Trade-off analysis need to be carried out local levels. Representatives from all value chain to estimate the proportion of the population that stakeholder groups involved at all levels need to gains or loses when a climate-smart agriculture participate fully in this coordination and integration technology is adopted. Similarly, policies and process. To ensure that the benefits of these institutional structures at different levels and 19 Ethiopia climate-smart agriculture roadmap activities are shared equally, it is important for the 2.5 Need for capacity building in process to be gender inclusive. Understanding the climate-smart agriculture local and gender-specific barriers and incentive mechanisms for adoption of climate-smart Considerable efforts are required to develop agricultural production systems is key for designing knowledge and capacity to make climate-smart supportive policies. It is also critical to recognize agriculture a reality. Hence, it is vital to develop the value of indigenous knowledge and farming effective and systemic capacity development practices and engage with representatives from strategy across the entire agricultural value chain indigenous organizations when developing coherent for the adoption of climate-smart agriculture. It cross-sectoral policy frameworks. It is also important embodies a complex process involving not only to identify and enhance synergies between the technical, but also essential sociocultural and different policy objectives and compensate for political aspects. Accordingly, a capacity assessment trade-offs where necessary. should be conducted to determine what and whose capacity needs to be developed and provide a The public sector can play a key role in creating an benchmark to measure progress, identify what enabling policy and legal environment for climate- the adoption constraints are and ensure that smart agriculture, which can permit private sector the envisioned capacity development-related and civil society stakeholders to make timely, well- interventions for the climate-smart agriculture informed and efficient decisions related to securing project address some of the above mentioned food production, adapting to climate change and issues (FAO 2013). Moreover, the assessment and reducing or removing greenhouse gases. Many analysis of the existing situation and related gaps stakeholders, especially smallholder agricultural and opportunities must be grounded in a sound producers with limited assets, will only be inclined understanding of local knowledge, perceptions, and be able to take necessary actions if their work is behaviors and values. This foresees the importance supported by a coherent climate-smart agriculture to complement a national level capacity assessment policy framework. The transition to climate-smart with conducting a participatory capacity assessment agriculture requires transcending sectoral and at the field/project level, and to share insights on other boundaries and calls for the full integration of how to identify and prioritize the capacity needs climate change issues into the policymaking process that must be addressed to mainstream climate- at all levels. This entails the formation of new smart agriculture into the agricultural system. institutional structures and alliances among private and public stakeholders in different areas, including policymaking, research, extension and financing. 3. Proposed strategies to en- hance climate-smart agriculture implementati 3 20 Ethiopia climate-smart agriculture roadmap 3. Proposed roadmaps to enhance climate-smart agriculture implementation in Ethiopia A mixed approach of farm and landscape level roadmaps centered on climate adaptation and mitigation, boosting productivity and creating enabling environments, can support climate-smart agriculture mainstreaming across Ethiopia. 21 Ph oEtthoio cpirae cdlimita: tCe-CsmAarFtS a/grAicyulatulnree rhoa Mdmualpatu I. Farm level roadmap: improving productivity and resilience of smallholder agriculture Adaptation Strategic Vulnerability due to inadequate and erratic rainfall distribution issue 1 • Agricultural production in Ethiopia is predominantly rain-fed, exposing this major livelihood activity to variability in rainfall patterns. Roadmap • Promote adaptive agricultural production methodologies • Use drought tolerant, early maturing and water-efficient crop varieties • Use cropping calendars informed by meteorological data • Use less input dependent animal breeds • Stabilize herd sizes • Use of drought tolerant forage crops • Enhance the conservation and utilization efficiency of the existing feed resource • Support conservation and propagation of germplasm of species with adaptive capacity • Promote the integration of multipurpose tree/shrub species that provide multiple benefits and use of trees that store carbon in the soil and their stems • Support the development of water harvesting and storage technologies, irrigation infrastructure development and other soil moisture conservation technologies • Promote efficient irrigation management that best suits the local condition coupled with reliable agricultural inputs and stable markets for the expected growth in farm products • Promote integrated pest, disease and weed management • Promote precision agriculture which optimizes soil and water management to locally specific conditions • Promote provision of accurate, timely and reliable climate/weather and agricultural information • Promote Irrigated based fodder bank establishment and development Strategic Vulnerabilities due to extreme weather events such as drought, flood, strong winds, hailstorm and frost issue 2 • Risks arising from the effects of climatic hazards and managing risks associated with the high costs (at least initial costs) of adopting new technologies (e.g. conservation agriculture and agroforestry) whose benefits often only come after several years/seasons of production. • Most of the household farmers in Ethiopia are resource poor and they usually own small parcels of farmland that are degraded and with low yield. They have limited access to appropriate farm equipment and tools, quality seeds and other basic agricultural inputs, credit, microfinancing and/or insurances, and capacity in implementing improved practices. Roadmap • Develop and implement strategies for early warning and response • Technical capacity development of proactive risk management at the local level • Enabling institutional mechanisms • Standardization of data collection • Use of diversified communication channels (Radio, ICT based information, mobile based application) • Develop and update databases • Modernizing climate observation and monitoring networks in vulnerable areas • Provision of accurate, timely and reliable climate/weather information • Develop risk financing instruments and insurance schemes such as index- and weather-based insurance systems, crop insurance system, etc. Using remote sensing data for managing climate risks is also beneficial. • Integrate climate-smart agriculture in disaster risk management and social safety net programs • Employ innovative financing mechanisms such as fixing of minimum price for agricultural products and buy back guarantee systems • Promote conservation of biodiversity and local crop varieties • Establish partnership with nongovernment stakeholders for resource mobilization Strategic Excessive tillage, overgrazing and the complete removal of crop residue at harvest enhance soil erosion issue 3 • The dominant nature of conventional agricultural practices like frequent ploughing, removal and burning of crop residues trigger soil erosion, particularly during rainy seasons. As a result, soil fertility declines at an alarming rate. This is one of the major challenges contributing to the reduction of agricultural productivity in most parts of Ethiopia. Roadmap • Applying organic matter improves soil structure, which in turn increases infiltration and soil water holding capacity. It also increases the nutrient level and the activity of soil organisms. • Promoting climate-smart agriculture technologies and practices that are specific to local needs and agro-ecologies will contribute to water management and soil fertility enhancement at the plot-farm scale. • The integration of conservation agriculture into in situ crop residue management • Integrated soil fertility management through the use of legumes for enhancing nitrogen fixation • Using precision agriculture, which optimizes soil and water management to locally specific conditions Strategic • Limited understanding of the spatial variability of soils and knowledge gaps regarding appropriate levels of nutrients and issue 4 water to apply to different crops under various soil types • The knowledge gap has prevented resource poor farmers from adopting appropriate integrated water and soil fertility management practices • Significant spatial variability of soils within farms and the wide variability in crop responses to organic and inorganic fertilizers mean the application of fertilizer should not be a blanket recommendation for all areas of all farms. • The soil type and texture, as well as the history of land use, determine the type and amount of nutrient application for the soil. 22 Ethiopia climate-smart agriculture roadmap Roadmap • Enhancing the coverage and scale of the existing national soils database and soil fertility map of Ethiopia • Taking stock of existing good practices (including traditional practices), demonstrating the economic feasibility of these practices in different locales and identifying what is needed to maintain and expand them • Understanding agronomic practices and management options, particularly water and nutrient management options to improve and stabilize crop yields to promote climate-smart agriculture technologies and practices that are specific to local needs and agroecologies, will contribute to water management and soil fertility enhancement at the farm level. • Strengthening technical, research and material capacity; producing and sharing technical knowledge and supporting knowledge transfer initiatives; and supporting innovation for sustainable and inclusive agriculture production Productivity Strategic Limited support in selecting appropriate sets of climate-smart agriculture interventions at relevant scales tailored to local issue 1 contexts and livelihood needs Roadmap • Develop/incorporate extension guidelines and manuals (and the extension system as a whole) in a way that the great majority of the rural farming population could understand and participate in their implementation • Promote irrigation farming, coupled with reliable agricultural inputs and stable markets, for the expected growth in farm products • Promote integrated farming combining crop and livestock operations • Promote Irrigation farming on reliable high value forage crops (e.g. Alfalfa) • Promote the production of improved forage crops • Promote the integration of fishery, aquaculture, and irrigation especially in parts of the country with rich water resources • Promote integrated farming combining crop and livestock operations • Promote fishery and aquaculture, especially in parts of the country with rich water resources • Promote apiculture in parts of the country where it is suitable • Promote improved nutrient and water management • Promote improved feed digestibility through integration of crop residues, fodder trees and shrubs • Increase cattle value chain efficiency (e.g. dairy cooperatives) • Promote poultry consumption • Use precision agriculture, which optimizes soil and water management to locally specific conditions Strategic Limited input supply system to enhance climate-smart agriculture implementation issue 2 Roadmap Promote organic fertilizer, irrigation, improved forage and crop support cooperatives • Improve input and environmentally sound farm service systems • Support the generation of location-specific tools and technologies • Encourage the private sector to establish agricultural business hubs • Promote information and communication technologies to improve agricultural information access • Support agricultural education and training institutions • Support the provision of machinery and equipment • Promote integrated crop management with forage and fodder crops in rotation to reduce competition with livestock and other uses • Promote the use of various cover crops, especially multipurpose crops that are nitrogen-fixing, soil restoring and pest repelling • Reduce pre- and post-harvest losses • Promote and access the use of improved livestock breeds • Promote the use of livestock production and processing technologies Mitigation Strategic The need to reduce and/or remove greenhouse gas emissions issue 1 Roadmap • Incentives for pro poor mitigation • Cost sharing or microcredit mechanisms for GHG reduction initiatives in agriculture • Improved livestock breeds, animal nutrition and manure management • Improve soil carbon storage • Develop carbon sequestration agricultural technologies (conservation tillage, cover cropping and crop rotation) • Improve animal nutrition and manure management to cut methane and nitrogen emissions. • Promote the use of livestock Feed Improvement technologies. • Use of Improved feeds • Promote technologies for reducing GHG emissions from livestock manure by using anaerobic digestion to generate clean energies in agricultural systems 23 Ethiopia climate-smart agriculture roadmap Strategic Requirements for developing of measurement, reporting and verification (MRV) system in the agriculture sector issue 2 Roadmap • Setting standards and installing an MRV infrastructure to develop an inventory system data bank on the sector • Use emissions factors and other parameters which are specific to the country (moving away from Tier 1 to 2) • Development of structures on data collection and recording, including an inventory on the interventions carried out on mitigation for continuous reporting on GHG emissions status at the country level • Integration of MRV platforms of Ministry of Finance, Ministry of Agriculture, Environment Forestry Climate Change Commission, etc. Enabling environment Strategic Weak organizational and institutional linkage among key actors for coordination and intergovernmental relations for issue 1 implementation of climate-smart agriculture related policies and legislations • There are a number of institutions, organizations and government departments involved in climate-smart agriculture in Ethiopia. There is a need to ensure that these institutions and organizations coordinate their efforts and conduct their work in a manner that adds value to one another rather than duplicating effort or being in conflict with one another. • Efforts underway to design watershed and agroforestry development strategies need to consider this climate-smart agriculture strategy to avoid repetition • Design and implement climate-smart agriculture mainstreaming framework within appropriate institutions Roadmap • Assess the major institutional and policy barriers to the adoption of climate-smart agriculture options • Analyze the potential of existing local institutions to overcome these barriers • Facilitate multi-stakeholder processes to support improved governance and promote cross-sectoral coherence, coordination and integration among the government, NGOs, private sector, and development partners to motivate farmers to adapt climate-smart agriculture approaches • Design appropriate institutional structures and promote national policies and strategies to address the overwhelming demand by smallholder farmers • Create an interface between education, research and development to enhance knowledge exchange on climate-smart agriculture • Align the climate-smart agriculture strategy with climate and agricultural policies and strategies scattered around different ministries Strategic Lack of skilled human resources on climate change adaptation and mitigation at all levels; inadequate information, knowledge issue 2 and skills relevant to climate-smart agriculture, etc. • There are significant gaps in capacity, technical knowledge and financing to address the impact of climate change on agriculture. Roadmap • Undertake capacity gap analysis in climate-smart agriculture technologies and practices • Develop training materials to support identified capacity development gaps • Support the development of human capital for research, education and extension • Develop capacity of practitioners to understand and address gender dimensions of climate change and agriculture • Research context-specific gender dynamics of labor allocation for potential CSA practices • Develop a communication strategy and establish communication networks and media for continued public support and improving chances of adoption • Create awareness of climate-smart agriculture technologies and practices through training, demonstration, site visits and campaigns. • Develop, repackage and disseminate knowledge products and services to promote climate-smart agriculture technologies and practices • Support research on climate-smart agriculture and networks of knowledge sharing platforms Strategic Lack of system for tradeoffs and synergy analysis issue 3 • The analysis provide entry points for targeted climate-smart agriculture planning so as to enhance synergies and reduce trade-offs Roadmap • Trade-off analysis of different climate-smart agriculture interventions to identify potential synergies and trade-offs and estimate gains and losses Strategic The need to support systems for capacity development, M&E, and market linkage issue 4 Roadmap • Capacity building support for adoption and scaling up of climate-smart agriculture practices and technologies (provision of proper seed and nutrient supply systems, and marketing of products) • Develop capacity of gender sensitive climate-smart agriculture advisory practices and transfer of knowledge, experience and successful technologies for the different agro-ecologies of the country • Strengthen formal and informal agricultural markets for value added products • Regular upgrading of development agents through training, experience sharing visits, demonstrations, etc. • Use of information and communication technologies (ICTs) such as cell phones and the internet to improve agricultural information access (e.g. market prices, transportation options and weather information) • Promotion of public-private partnerships in climate-smart agriculture technologies and practices • Support the development of appropriate indicators to measure progress and track climate-smart agriculture outcomes on adaptation, mitigation and productivity • Support more applied research projects on climate-smart agriculture • Enhance the capacity of meteorological services to downscale weather and climate information for agriculture • Stimulate mobilization of resources for investment in agricultural mechanization • Promote and regulate quality and standards of agricultural mechanization • Promote agricultural mechanization technologies that are gender responsive 24 Ethiopia climate-smart agriculture roadmap Strategic Lack of integration of the climate-smart agriculture approach in planning and measuring its impact issue 5 • Helps to ground the work into existing governance structures and responsibilities Roadmap • Design internal climate-smart agriculture mainstreaming systems and internally agreed mainstreaming policies with defined roles and responsibilities so that climate-smart agriculture is incorporated in every development practice • Promote tools for mainstreaming climate-smart agriculture approaches in agricultural sector planning processes • Promote tools for follow up and impact evaluation for the implementation of technologies, practices and services of the climate-smart agriculture approach • Ensure that all potential climate-smart agriculture related outcomes (beyond the agricultural productivity pillar) are included in the M&E design • Design and implement knowledge management and communication strategy • Enhance the current mainstreaming experience of the Climate Change Coordination Directorate and Transformation Agenda Delivery Unit in the MoA. Strategic Addressing gender issues and youth employment issue 6 • The roles, responsibilities and capabilities of men and women need to be well understood to ensure that both men and women have access to, and benefit from, climate-smart agriculture practices and policies. • A growing body of evidence demonstrates that equal gender relations within households and communities lead to better agricultural and development outcomes, including increase in farm productivity and improvements in family nutrition. • If climate-smart agriculture is implemented without consideration of gender and social inequalities, it may fail to take advantage of opportunities to improve livelihoods and may instead increase inequalities. Roadmap • Enhance capacities of agricultural experts at all levels on practical skills such as gender mainstreaming, gender planning, gender budgeting, gender monitoring and evaluation and other aspects. • Facilitate mechanisms for integrating the equity principle and gender equality, as well as the intergenerational and social inclusion approaches in climate-smart agriculture actions. • Support extension services for climate smart interventions that improve yields, boost income, reduce labor and enhance value-added opportunities for women. II. Landscape level (NRM): enhancing ecosystem resilience at landscape level through integrated landscape approach that follows the principles of ecosystem management and sustainable land and water use Productivity Strategic issue Agricultural expansion, free grazing and fuelwood collection have driven deforestation and forest degradation • Deforestation is causing accelerated soil erosion, which negatively affects agricultural production and income sources. Estimated soil loss amounts to 1,493 million tons per year and grain yield loss is up to 1.5 million tons per year (Tadesse 2001); • A substantial proportion of the Ethiopian population relies on firewood from forests and woodlands as its primary energy source. Roadmap • Integrating climate-smart sectoral approaches into different sectors • This offers multiple benefits, including improved food security, livelihoods and ecosystem resilience, by making the whole agriculture-livestock-energy-forestry system more sustainable and productive. • Promote the adoption of efficient, climate-smart technologies and practices across the sectors • Agricultural intensification • Improved rangeland management, controlled grazing and area closures • Soil fertility management and biological soil conservation measures • Promote the integration of multipurpose tree/shrub species that provide multiple benefits • Mobilization of individual farmers and communities to collectively invest in sustainable efforts, e.g., rangeland and forest resource management • Restoration of degraded farmlands, wetlands and forests • Integration of trees into landscapes can help reduce soil erosion, increase nutrient availability in soils and sequester carbon • Area enclosures prohibit people and livestock interference on hillsides and mountainous areas protected for restoration purposes • Farmer-managed natural regeneration (FMNR) or assisted natural regeneration of degraded landscapes • Restoration at the landscape level should be prioritized by integrating climate-smart agriculture technologies and practices to create a climate-smart landscapes that provide livelihood and multiple ecosystem benefits and services • Expansion of integrated watershed management approaches Adaptation Strategic Improve ecosystem services and enhance the role of forests issue 1 • Micro watershed transformation through land rehabilitation can also be a cost-effective solution to manage climate risks by contributing to both drought and flood risk management. Roadmap • Promote ecosystem-based agriculture • Promote agroforestry practices. Integrating trees into landscapes can help reduce soil erosion, increase nutrient availability in soils and sequester carbon. Integration of forage legumes into agroforestry systems is also a useful strategy. 25 Ethiopia climate-smart agriculture roadmap Mitigation Strategic Livestock’s threats to the environment through deforestation, land and pasture degradation issue 1 Roadmap • Sustainable intensification of livestock and feed crop production to reduce carbon dioxide emissions from deforestation and pasture degradation Enabling environment Strategic Lack of institutional arrangements and coordination at community and landscape levels issue 1 • Coordination across agricultural sectors (e.g. crops, livestock, forestry and fisheries) as well as other sectors, such as the energy and water sector development, is essential to capitalize on potential synergies, reduce trade-offs and optimize the use of natural resources and ecosystem services. 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