International Livestock Research Institute
International Water Management Institute
Ethiopian Ministry of Water Resources
Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organization
Integrated water and land  
management research 
and capacity building 
priorities for Ethiopia
Proceedings of a MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI international 
workshop held at ILRI, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia 
2–4 December 2002
ILRI Pr
oceedings
Integrated water and land
management research
and capacity building
priorities for Ethiopia
Proceedings of a MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI international
workshop held at ILRI, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
2–4 December 2002
editors
P.G. McCornick, A.B. Kamara and Girma Tadesse
Ethiopian Ministry of Water Resources
P.O. Box 5744, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organization
P.O. Box 2003, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
International Water Management Institute
P.O. Box 2075, Colombo, Sri Lanka
International Livestock Research Institute
P.O. Box 30709, Nairobi, Kenya
? 2003 ILRI (International Livestock Research Institute)
All rights reserved. Parts of this publication may be reproduced for non-commercial use
provided that such reproduction shall be subject to acknowledgement of ILRI as holder
of copyright.
ISBN 92–9146–140–7
Correct citation: McCornick P.G., Kamara A.B. and Girma Tadesse. (eds). 2003.
Integrated water and land management research and capacity building priorities for Ethiopia.
Proceedings of a MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI international workshop held at ILRI, Addis Ababa,
Ethiopia, 2–4 December 2002. IWMI (International Water Management Institute),
Colombo, Sri Lanka, and ILRI (International Livestock Research Institute), Nairobi,
Kenya. 267 pp.

Table of Contents
Acknowledgements.....................................................vii
Outcomes of the workshop ..............................................viii
Welcome address .......................................................x
Gulilat Birhane
Workshop objectives ....................................................xi
D.J. Merrey
Welcome address ......................................................xii
D. Peden
Keynote address .......................................................xiv
Girma Hailu
Opening address.......................................................xvi
Shiferaw Jarsso
Reseach and development in land and water resources
Research and development in land and water resources ..........................3
Admasu Gebeyehu
Present and future water resources development in Ethiopia related
to research and capacity building...........................................11
Gulilat Birhane
Present and future trends of natural resources (land and water) management
in Ethiopian agriculture .................................................22
Belayhun Hailu Mamo
Present and future trends in natural resources management in agriculture:
An overview ..........................................................29
Paulos Dubale
Agriculture, irrigation and drainage research in the past and the future..............38
Paulos Dubale, Michael Menkir, Moltot Zewdie and Lijalem Zeray
Advances in integrated water resources management research in agriculture..........46
H. Sally
Improving the water productivity of livestock: An opportunity
for poverty reduction ...................................................57
D. Peden, Girma Tadesse and Mulugeta Mammo
Water resources for livestock in Ethiopia: Implications for research
and development ......................................................66
Zinash Sileshi, Azage Tegegne and Getnet Tekle Tsadik
Managing water for livestock and fisheries development .........................80
Sileshi Ashine
MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop v
Livestock grazing impact on vegetation, soil and hydrology in a tropical
highland watershed ....................................................87
Girma Tadesse and D. Peden
Community health, water supply and sanitation ...............................98
Getachew Begashaw
Managing sustainable rural water supply in Ethiopia...........................103
Getachew Abdi
Water and the environment in Ethiopia ....................................113
Mateos Mekiso
Water and health in irrigated agriculture....................................121
E. Boelee
Research and development capacity building issues in the water sector of Ethiopia ....130
Abebe Mekuriaw
Challenges and opportunities in capacity building for water resources
development and research in Ethiopia: The AWTI experience ...................141
Sileshi Bekele
Comparative advantages and research interest areas
of the Department of Civil Engineering, Addis Ababa University .................149
Yilma Sileshi
Overview of the Ethiopian Rainwater Harvesting Association (ERHA).............155
Meselech Seyoum
Policies and institutions to enhance the impact of irrigation
development in mixed crop–livestock systems................................168
Berhanu Gebremedhin and D. Peden
Water harvesting in northern Ethiopia: Environmental, health
and socio-economic impacts .............................................185
Mintesinot Behailu and Mitiku Haile
Promoting global watershed management towards rural communities:
The May Zeg-zeg initiative ...............................................192
J. Nyssen, Mitiku Haile, K. Descheemaeker, J. Deckers, J. Poesen
J. Moeyersons and Trufat Hailemariam
Small-scale irrigation development in the wetlands of South-West Ethiopia .........196
Taffa Tulu
Synthesis of research issues and capacity building in water and land
resources management in Ethiopia ........................................204
A. Kamara and P. McCornick
Proposed framework for collaborative research and capacity building
programme on water and land management in Ethiopia ........................217
D. Merrey, Gulilat Birhane, Paulos Dubale and D. Peden
Summaries of working group sessions ......................................226
Closing remarks ......................................................237
H.E. Gebremedhin Belay
Programme ..........................................................239
List of participants ....................................................243
Table of Contents
vi MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop
Acknowledgements
This work was carried out with the aid of grants from the International Development
Research Centre (IDRC), Ottawa, Canada and from the Global Mechanism (GM) of the
United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD).
MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop vii
Outcomes of the workshop
The workshop emerged from a joint mission of the International Water Management
Institute (IWMI) and the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) to Ethiopia in
February–March 2002, at the invitation and enthusiastic support of various Ethiopian
government ministries and other institutions for developing long-term collaborative
research and capacity building in integrated water and land resources management. Other
visits and missions, including a workshop-planning mission in August 2002 by a senior
IWMI staff member followed. The Ministry of Water Resources (MoWR) and the
Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organization (EARO) along with IWMI and ILRI later
agreed to hold a ‘Workshop on research and capacity building priorities 2002–2020’. This
workshop was organised by representatives from the MoWR, EARO, ILRI, and IWMI and
was held at the ILRI Addis Ababa campus in early December 2002.
The workshop brought together about 80 professionals, both researchers and
practitioners drawn from a wide range of institutions in Ethiopia, in addition to the
international participants. Twenty-five papers were presented and discussions conducted
on land and water management research. The participants worked in five discussion groups
to prepare the workshop outputs.
Well-targeted and good quality research is essential to develop Ethiopia’s natural
resources and to reduce poverty and promote development. A range of important research
issues were identified, which will be useful for guiding future research projects in Ethiopia.
These research issues need further prioritising. Carrying out the research will require
co-operation among Ethiopian research institutions and partnerships with federal
ministries and regional governments, and can be strengthened through partnerships with
international institutions. They can facilitate collaborative research among the countries
sharing the Nile and other river basins, and exchange of experiences with other regions and
basins.
The workshop made it clear that there is considerable research and development
capacity in Ethiopia. However, this capacity is fragmented among diverse institutions.
Integrated water and land management research must be interdisciplinary, including the
social, physical and biological sciences. The human, institutional and financial resources for
carrying out research are well short of the level required to meet the needs of the country.
Substantial financial resources over a period of time will be required to build the
necessary capacity for land and water management research. Such resources can be raised
from many sources, including government, private sector, non-governmental organisations
(NGOs), bilateral and multilateral partners, and regional sources such as the Nile Basin
Initiative (NBI). A joint effort by Ethiopia and international partners to raise the necessary
funds is needed.
The workshop recommended the implementation of the Ethiopian Science and
Technology Commission (ESTC) proposal to establish an institutional framework for
supporting and strengthening water research and development. It also recommended
viii MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop
establishing strong linkages with appropriate international networks and institutions. The
International Water Management Institute (IWMI) could play a role in developing this
institutional framework.
An Ethiopian Consultative Committee for Water and Land Management Research
should be established to serve as an interim mechanism to support water research in
collaboration with the planned research department in the Ministry of Water Resources.
This Committee will help prioritise research issues and facilitate co-operation between
Ethiopian institutions and international bodies such as IWMI and ILRI.
A Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) between the Government of Ethiopia and
IWMI should be prepared and adopted as soon as possible to facilitate co-operation.
Several projects are already in the pipeline and an MoU would facilitate their
implementation and the development of a strong collaborative programme. Posting of
IWMI staff in Ethiopia, if desired, will be under ILRI’s agreement with the Government of
Ethiopia.
Finally, the Organising Committee wishes to thank the International Development
Research Centre (IDRC) of Canada and the Global Mechanism for Combating
Desertification for their support, which made the workshop possible.
Gulilat Berhane (MoWR), Paulos Dubale (EARO), D. Merrey (IWMI) and D. Peden (ILRI)
Outcomes of the workshop
MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop ix
Welcome address
Gulilat Birhane
Ministry of Water Resources
His Excellency, Ato Shiferaw Jarsso, Minister of Water Resources
His Excellency, Mr Samuel Nyambi, UNDP Resident Representative and UN Resident
Coordinator
Honourable Guests
Respected Participants
Ladies and Gentlemen
It is a privilege and honour for me to welcome you all on behalf of the organising committee
and on my own behalf to the workshop on ‘Integrated water and land management
research and capacity building priorities for Ethiopia’.
The workshop was conceptualised during the first visit by the high-level experts of the
International Water Management Institute in February 2002. Since then efforts have been
made to organise this workshop in a manner that enables it to give the best opportunity to
all stakeholders in the field of water and land, which are the most important factors of
production in an agrarian economy. In the last ten months, invitations have been
forwarded for public and private institutions, non-governmental organisations (NGOs)
and professionals to present papers and participate in the workshop. Funds were also raised
from the International Development Research Centre (IDRC) and the Global Mechanism
(GM) of the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD).
As a result, today we have more than 75 participants from 24 government institutions, 8
private institutions, 3 NGOs, 10 bilateral and 8 multilateral institutions and freelance
experts.
In the coming two and a half days, 23 papers will be presented and plenary discussions
will also be conducted.
Ladies and Gentlemen
For the benefit of our respected guests, who may not able to be with us in the subsequent
sessions, I now call upon Dr Doug Merrey to give us a brief highlight on the goal and
expected outputs of the workshop.
I thank you.
x MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop
Workshop objectives
D.J. Merrey
Director for Africa, International Water Management Institute (IWMI)
Friends and colleagues
I am very pleased that this workshop has materialised so quickly, and that there are so many
participants here today. I welcome everyone on behalf of the International Water
Management Institute (IWMI).
The main objectives and expected outcomes of the workshop are to:
• identify priority research issues in land and water management research in Ethiopia
• identify priority capacity building needs related to land and water management in
Ethiopia
• advise on the niche and roles of various partners in the research and capacity building
programme, including the Ethiopian partners who must take the lead, IWMI,
International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), and other international and regional
partners
• advise on the governance framework for partnership among the various parties and
• outline a resource mobilisation strategy to make it possible to implement the
programme.
We all agree that improved land and water management is essential for sustainable
development and poverty reduction in many African countries including Ethiopia.
Ethiopia has considerable research capacity already, but perhaps it is not always as
effectively mobilised as it could be. The intention of the proposed long-term programme is
to help mobilise and focus these capacities, and help Ethiopia further strengthen its
research capacities and its policies and management strategies in natural resource
management.
I am sure that this workshop will be an important milestone in achieving this objective
and Ethiopia’s long-term development goals.
Thank you.
MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop xi
Welcome address
D. Peden
Director, Ethiopia, International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI)
Your Excellency, Ato Shiferaw Jarsso, Minister of Water Resources
Your Excellency, Ato Mesfin Tegegne, Vice Minister of Water Resources
Colleagues from the Government and the universities of Ethiopia, the Global Mechanism
of the CCD, the United Nations Country Team, Embassies, NGOs, IWMI and ILRI
Visitors and Guests
Dear Friends
It is a great pleasure to welcome each and every one of you to ILRI, the International
Livestock Research Institute, and to this opening session of the workshop on ‘Integrated
water and land management research and capacity building priorities for Ethiopia’. We are
delighted and honoured to host this event on ILRI’s Addis Ababa campus in collaboration
with the Ethiopian Ministry of Water Resources, the Ethiopian Agricultural Research
Organization (EARO), the Ministry of Agriculture and the International Water
Management Institute (IWMI). We are particularly happy to have so many participants
from partner organisations across the country and from abroad. You are very
welcome.There is a family of 16 international agricultural research centres that work with
many partners to improve agriculture and natural resources management around the
globe. These are known as Future Harvest Centres. For those of you who can access the
web, you will find more information about the Future Harvest Centres at
www.futureharvest.org. ILRI and IWMI are parts of Future Harvest. Shortly, you will also
learn more about IWMI and Future Harvest’s priorities for research and management of
water resources.
ILRI was established in 1995 through the merger of the International Livestock Centre
for Africa (ILCA, a well-known institute in Ethiopia) and the International Laboratory for
Research on Animal Diseases (ILRAD) that was located in Kenya. What Ethiopians used to
know as ILCA is now ILRI. In collaboration with many partners, ILRI conducts livestock
related research in Asia, Africa and Latin America and it maintains close ties to many
advanced research institutions in the more industrialised countries. It seeks to strengthen
ties with non-governmental organisations (NGOs) and civil societies whenever and
wherever appropriate.
Reducing poverty is a goal that we all share in common. As its goal, ILRI and its partners
intend to reduce poverty and make sustainable development possible for livestock keepers,
their families and the communities in which they live. It can become the unifying principle
that drives future collaboration amongst all of us. Our vision is a world made better for the
poor people in developing countries by improving agricultural systems in which livestock
xii MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop
are important and or could become so. Evidence shows that, in Ethiopia, livestock
production plays an important role in bringing people out of poverty. We believe that well
managed domestic animals can make agricultural systems in this country more productive
and more sustainable. However, livestock production is not possible without adequate
quality water. When people mismanage livestock, degradation of already scarce water
resources often follows. Thus, ILRI is committed to working with you to help improve the
lives of the poor through integrated water and livestock management.
This is an exciting day because this workshop will enable us to learn more about you and
the organisations that you represent. It will allow us to merge our comparative and
collaborative advantages to better enable us to collectively bring great benefit to the
millions of the poor in Ethiopia and to contribute to the conservation of Ethiopia’s natural
resources, a country of unique inherent value and importance. Improving water, watershed
and river basin management is vital to poverty reduction. The knowledge gained in
Ethiopia will benefit the world.
For example, the Secretary General of the United Nations, Kofi Annan, specified in the
targets for the recent World Summit on Sustainable Development that: ‘Unless we take
swift and decisive action, by 2025 as much as two-thirds of the world’s population may be
living in countries that face serious water shortage. We need to improve access. We need to
improve the efficiency of water use, for example by getting more crop per drop in agriculture
which is the largest consumer of water.’ ILRI believes that ‘crop per drop’ must include
animals feed crops and those intended for direct human consumption.
Together, we can make a difference. We hope this workshop will mark new
strengthened partnerships that will lead to better natural resources management in
Ethiopia.
Your Excellencies
On behalf of ILRI, I wish to extend a warm welcome to each and every one of you. We
thank you all for coming, and we look forward to a rewarding workshop. In the course of
the next three days, please do not hesitate to let any member of the ILRI team know if there
is anything that we can do to make your time here enriching and enjoyable.
Thank you.
Welcome address
MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop xiii
Keynote address
Girma Hailu
Assistant Resident Representative (P)
Energy, Environment and Water, UNDP Ethiopia
Honourable Guests
Colleagues, Workshop Participants
Ladies and Gentlemen
UNDP is highly honoured to be invited to make a statement on this important meeting
entitled ‘Integrated land and water management research and capacity building priorities
for Ethiopia’ organised by the Ministry of Water Resources in collaboration with the
International Water Management Institute (IWMI), the Ethiopian Agricultural Research
Organization (EARO), and Ministry of Agriculture from 2–4 December 2002 at the
International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Availability of increased water resources is the key to sustainable development. The
Ethiopian Government has now committed itself by including water as one of its national
priority agenda and formulated a 15-year comprehensive Water Resources Development
Programme that outlines:
• water supply and sanitation
• small-scale irrigation
• hydropower and
• water resources management needs of Ethiopia.
Together with education, health and infrastructure, water resource development is now
one of the chapters that have been included in the sustainable development and poverty
reduction programme.
UNDP financed the preparation of the Water Sector Development Programme
(WSDP) by the Ministry of Water Resources that has now been finalised and efforts are
being made to start implementation. This workshop is very timely since it builds on the
research and capacity building aspect that is well recognised as a means to increase the
availability and efficient management of water in Ethiopia. The fourth component of
WSDP, water resource management, calls for expanded land and water resources studies
and capacity building to meet the growing water demand of the population, as well as for
crops and livestock.
UNDP chairs and coordinates the development partners’ group on water established to
promote constructive dialogue with government counterparts. The substantive input of
this group has been well appreciated by the Government during the WSDP formulation
and subsequent Poverty Reduction strategy discussions. This forum not only helps to raise
awareness and information exchange on water related issues but also serves as a critical
vehicle to mobilise resources to implement the activities of the WSDP as well.
xiv MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop
Let me once again reassure the workshop participants that UNDP will continue to
support the water sector and hope this workshop will map out the way forward regarding
land and water resource development research and capacity building in the country.
Keynote address
MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop xv
Opening address
Shiferaw Jarsso
Minster of Water Resources, Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia
Honourable Guests
Respected Participants
Ladies and Gentlemen
On behalf of the Ministry of Water Resources and on my own behalf it gives me a great
pleasure to be here with you at the opening of this important workshop on ‘Integrated water
and land management research and capacity building priorities for Ethiopia’.
As it is widely known, Ethiopia is blessed with huge water resources potential but due to
adverse problems, the country couldn’t benefit from these rich resources. The major factors
constraining the use of our water resources include:
• lack of finance
• poor management of water and land
• transboundary nature of most rivers and
• shortage of skilled manpower.
Climate change, population growth, environmental degradation and lack of
harmonised intervention have also been affecting both the water and land resources
adversely. This is actually the challenge we face and hence need immediate intervention
from all stakeholders including government, external support, non-governmental
organisations (NGOs) and others.
To tackle the challenges in a systematic way, the Ministry of Water Resources has started
the water sector reform some seven years back. After a rigorous consultative process
involving all stakeholders from the grassroots level, the Ministry of Water Resources has
completed the preparation of a visionary water management policy, water sector strategy
and water sector development programme. The United Nations Development Programme
(UNDP) has played a key role in supporting these programmes.
In addition, the Ministry of Water Resources has completed carrying out Integrated
River Basin Master Plan Studies in five of the twelve basins. The basic objective of the
Master Plan Studies carried out by the Ministry have been to ‘prepare an investment plan
which would contribute to sustainable development and poverty reduction through
optimum possible adverse environmental impacts taking water resources at the centre of
development’. Conducting such studies would no doubt provide sufficient information on
the optimum use of our water resources.
In addition to the commitment of the Government of Ethiopia to provide limited
support, high expectations are foreseen from our external partners to help the
implementation of the recommendations of the studies.
xvi MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop
The Ministry of Water Resources is in the process of establishing the Basin Authority
through the necessary legal arrangements, considering this as an excellent tool useful for
implementing the master plan studies.
Moreover, positive developments are being observed on the use of the Nile water for the
benefit of all the riparian countries.
Ladies and Gentlemen
Capacity building has been given top priority by the Government of Ethiopia. Without
building our capacity, it would be difficult to implement any programme on a sustainable
manner. Coupled with building capacity, undertaking of research activities becomes
extremely important to share experiences from others, analyse our situation and come up
with valuable recommendations.
We realise that this is an important instrument to develop our sector, and to this effect,
the Ethiopian Science and Technology Commission together with the Ministry of Water
Resources have conducted a thorough study and research in the water sector. We will soon
start implementing the programme. The Ministry of Water resources has also newly
organised a Research and Development department to better address the related problems
of our sector.
Ladies and Gentlemen
Before I conclude my remarks, I would like to take this opportunity to forward my sincere
appreciation to the staff of the International Water Management Institute and the
International Livestock Research Institute, who have devoted their time and shown keen
interest to make this workshop a reality. I also hope that this spirit of co-operation would
continue in a sustainable manner. I would also like to assure you that the support of the
Ministry of Water Resources would definitely continue in the years ahead.
Furthermore, I would also like to thank all other institutions and colleagues who have
greatly contributed to the success of this workshop.
Finally, wishing you a happy discussion time I declare the workshop officially open.
I thank you.
MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop xvii
Opening address
Research and development
in land and water
resources
Research and development in land
and water resources
Admasu Gebeyehu
Freelance Consultant
Introduction
The rapid increase in population necessitates an adequate management of Ethiopia’s land
and water resources. Agriculture is unthinkable without land and water. Agriculture could
be effective only when it gets sufficient water at the right time. Therefore, to ensure
sustainable agricultural development, there should be reliable supply of land and water as
well as land and water management systems. If people engaged in agriculture get sufficient
water throughout the year, it is possible to harvest higher yields from a smaller size of land
and keep labour busy on production throughout the year.
Ethiopia is a country of great geographical diversity with high and rugged mountains,
flat-topped plateaux, deep gorges, incised river valleys and rolling plains. Altitude ranges
from the highest peak at Ras Dejen, 4620 metres above sea level (masl), down to the
depression of the Kobar Sink, about 110 masl. Physical conditions and variations in altitude
have resulted in a great diversity of climatic conditions, soils and vegetation cover.
The physiography of the country gives rise to a wide array of climatic zones, which range
from tropical to temperate. Rainfall regimes of the country show that the mean annual
rainfall varies from more than 2500 mm to less than 60 mm. Places such as the Afar
Depression experience the highest mean annual temperature in the country at 45°C from
April to September. The lowest mean annual temperature in some highland areas is
observed to be around 0°C or lower.
The altitudinal ranges of Ethiopia provide a variety of climatic conditions, which permit
the cultivation of a variety of agricultural crops and land uses. About 43% of the country is
classified as highland (above 1500 masl), where most of the population (about 88%) practice
mixed crop–livestock agriculture. The largest proportion of the country are the lowlands,
where pastoralism is the main activity of the people.
The Ethiopian Rift Valley separates the Nile drainage system, the Indian Ocean
drainage system and other drainage systems, which have no outlet to the sea. Ethiopia has a
substantial amount of potential water resources, though its distribution and occurrence
through time and space is erratic. On average, the surface water potential amounts to over
110 billion cubic metres per annum. Ethiopia, known as the ‘water tower’ of north-eastern
Africa, is faced with the fact that all its large rivers (except Awash) flow into neighbouring
countries. About 90% of the annual runoff goes to the rivers that flow into The Sudan,
Egypt, Somalia and Kenya.
MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop 3
The irrigation potential of Ethiopia is estimated to be about four million hectares of
which only about 5% is developed. Since irrigation development is associated with heavy
consumption of water, this may cause serious conflict with riparian states as it certainly
reduces the quantity of the trans-boundary waters. There is a need to continue the present
effort of establishing the principles of co-operation for the use of regional and
trans-boundary waters for irrigation.
Hydropower potential has been estimated to be 170 thousand GWh/yr, whereas less
than 1.5% of the potential is used. Although there is a large, untapped potential for
hydropower production, access to electricity is low and it is a constraint to economic
growth.
Ethiopia is one of the poorest and least developed countries in the world. The current
population is estimated at 66 million with an annual growth rate of about 3%. The economy
is highly dependent on agriculture consisting of crop production and livestock rearing.
Poverty is the central issue of the economic problem. Major indicators of poverty in
Ethiopia could be lack of farm land or small size of farm land per household, lack of the
major means of production, households with large numbers of dependants, low nutritional
status of rural communities particularly that of children and the wide spread prevalence of
infectious diseases.
Ethiopia had been self sufficient in staple food and was classified as a net exporter of
food grains till the late 1950s. However, since the early 1970s, domestic food supply failed to
meet the food requirements of the people. Even though sufficient quantities of food have
been produced in most of the good years, the average food production during the last
decade remained almost stagnant. In the 1960s, the average per capita food production was
about 280 kgs per year; however, it has fallen to about 160 kgs per year during the last 30
years.
More than half of the population is food insecure. Food insecurity problems of the
country mainly emanate from limitations of rural land holdings, where more than one-third
of the households cultivate less than 0.5 ha of land under rain-fed agriculture with minimal
agricultural inputs.
Ethiopia’s livestock population is the largest in Africa and the tenth largest in the world.
Livestock are an integral part of nearly all the farming systems and are the principal capital of
the farmer. Cultivators own about three-quarters of the livestock, and pastoralists own the
remaining quarter. The recurrent droughts severely affected livestock and crop production.
The deteriorating environmental conditions have also adversely affected feed resources.
Watershed management
Ethiopia has varied landscapes, ranging from rugged highlands in the central part, to the
wetland areas of Gambella, and to the deserts of the Afar and the Ogaden area. Rainfall is
highly variable across the country, from season to season, and from year to year. This
variability subjects the country to frequent droughts and famines. Deforestation,
population growth, overgrazing, and use of marginal lands have intensified erosion. Land
degradation is serious in the highlands, contributing to low soil productivity and poor
4 MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop
Admasu Gebeyehu
agricultural production. High erosion also causes downstream sedimentation, which can
significantly decrease reservoir life.
The objective of watershed management is to improve the standard of living of the
population living within the watersheds, decrease population pressure, and increase land
productivity so that sustainable livelihoods and land use practices can be secured for the
target populations. Without action, the challenges of food insecurity and famine,
environmental degradation, and rapid population growth will intensify. Yet, through
co-ordinated efforts of different stakeholders, production of food and energy, mitigation of
droughts, arresting watershed degradation, reducing sedimentation, and improving the
environment can be achieved. It is possible to capture these opportunities in a sustainable
manner to benefit the people.
Any watershed management intervention for Ethiopia must address the root causes of
land degradation, soil erosion, sedimentation and loss of soil fertility. Population pressure,
fuel wood demand, lack of alternative sustainable livelihoods, and illiteracy are some of the
root causes. In view of the multi-sectoral nature of the problems, a comprehensive and
integrated approach is required. Treating the symptoms, as opposed to addressing the root
causes, will lead to a downward spiral of degradation and poverty.
The first benefit of appropriate watershed management is to reduce soil erosion and the
subsequent siltation rate of reservoirs thereby maximising the benefits of irrigation and
hydropower projects. The second important benefit will be an overall increase in land
productivity, which will yield higher agricultural outputs and thus enhance food security
and alleviate poverty.
Widespread and high rates of soil erosion are serious problems in Ethiopia. The severity
of the geological erosion is due to a combination of an aggressive climate, steep topography,
and erodible soil types. Human activities in the catchments, including land clearing for
agriculture and particularly overgrazing and firewood stripping, have resulted in a rapid
acceleration of the erosion processes. The rapid population growth has further exacerbated
the soil erosion and deforestation. An annual average sediment yield of 10 to 1500 t/km
2
in
the south-western, northern and eastern parts of the country is observed. Unless proper
conservation measures are taken high sediment loads in the rivers continue to cause
siltation problems in reservoirs and lakes.
During drought times, many springs and streams dry up, and crop production becomes
practically impossible. During the severe drought Ethiopia experienced in 1984 affecting
both The Sudan and Egypt, the annual yield of the Nile River at Aswan dam fell to only 42
billion cubic metres, which is half of the mean. The prevalence of drought forced people to
look for opportunities for survival including abandoning their home and migrating to
temporary camps. Those who were unable to move or cope were doomed to perish. The
deterioration of the natural environment compounded the human and livestock death toll.
Various factors, such as human and livestock population growth, poverty, expansion of
agriculture and demands of wood, are threatening the management of land and water
resources in Ethiopia. Comprehensive and integrated programmes and inter-disciplinary
approaches are critical to fully use land and water resources and to safeguard those resources
against deterioration.
MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop 5
Research and development in land and water resources
Sustainable management of land and water resources is essential for the alleviation of
poverty, economic development and the enhancement of the well-being of the Ethiopian
people. Poor people depend heavily on forest products. They collect and sell forest products
to obtain cash for purchasing basic needs and services. In addition, wood is the only
affordable, and often the only, fuel.
Investments, policy related strategies, and regulations related to land and water
resources need to be formulated in the context of a broad resources strategy, which takes the
long-term view and considers the ecosystem and socio-economic structure that exist in river
basins. The key element is the need to develop a comprehensive framework based on a
multi-sectoral approach that reflects the country’s social, economic and environmental
objectives.
The country needs to build its technical, institutional and organisational capacities to
effectively manage its land and water resources. In many cases, the institutional and
organisational capacities will need to be developed at national and local levels. More
support is needed from international agencies in capacity building including training and
research. Strengthening the institutions dealing with land and water resources in Ethiopia,
building their managerial capacity and improving co-operation and co-ordination between
federal and regional governments are vital for sustainable development in the country. In
addition, user participation will be important in creating a sense of ownership among land
and water users and as a means of improving operations and cost recovery.
Identified research and development (R&D)
programmes in the water sector
Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) that are involved in water sector research and
development activities include: Addis Ababa University (AAU), Arbaminch Water
Technology Institute (AWTI), Alemaya University of Agriculture (AUA), and Mekelle
University (MU).
There are national institutions (non-HEIs) that carry out R&D in collaboration with
universities, or institutions carrying out applied research, or institutions conducting
strategic research. The most important organisations include: Ethiopian Agricultural
Research Organization (EARO), National Meteorological Services Agency (NMSA),
Geological Survey of Ethiopia (GSE), and Engineering Design and Tool Enterprise (EDTE)
For research to contribute to the national development, the potential users’ capacity to
appreciate and actually use the relevant technology made available by research is decisive.
Equally decisive are the planning, organisation and management of research in the research
institutions, and its development and promotion. Any water sector R&D organisation has
to serve not only government organisations but also the private sector. The major
beneficiaries of water related R&D results include: Ministry of Water Resources (MoWR),
Ministry of Agriculture (MOA), Environmental Protection Authority (EPA), Regional
Irrigation Development Offices (RIDO), private sectors involved in the water sector (such as
6 MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop
Admasu Gebeyehu
Consultants, Contractors etc.), and non-governmental organisations (NGOs) involved in
water development.
R&D efforts in the land and water sector, particularly by the HEIs, become ineffective
and inconsequential due to several factors such as:
• lack of a defined responsibility and accountability for charting out R&D programmes
based on centrally determined objectives, policies and priorities and
• lack of transparency at every level of the higher learning organisational set up.
The objectives of most HEIs are too general, too vague and lacking clarity and focus.
Clear objectives and optimisation of a productive research linkage between the HEIs,
government organisations and the private sector is highly desirable.
R&D in the water and land sectors is faced with problems related to institutional
development, funding, human resource development, information management, adequate
planning as well as effective dissemination and adoption of research findings.
Information gathering on land and water R&D being undertaken by scattered
institutions is extremely scanty, haphazard and no comprehensive database is available on
the ongoing and completed research. There is a need to know what land and water R&D
projects are being carried out, what they lead to, where they take place, when they are likely
to be completed and their expected findings. There is a further need to know which
personnel are involved in what projects, their capabilities etc. This key deficiency of the
present information management leads to less than satisfactory planning, monitoring and
evaluation of research programmes.
Recruiting for research involves strategies for attracting well-qualified staff. It also
involves devising strategies for providing quality research training. Lack of sufficient local
capacity in graduate training forces the country to depend on external training, which has its
own risks and shortcomings including high cost, appropriateness of training for local needs,
disassociation from the home environment, and brain drain.
MCE (2002) carried out a study on research and development activities in the water
sector to assess the existing situation and proposed alternatives for future action. The study
has identified four divisions with a total of 23 R&D programmes.
• Water resources assessment and management which consists of five R&D programmes
such as: climatic characteristics, surface water hydrology, groundwater hydrology, water
quality management, and watershed management
• Water resources development which consists of eight R&D programmes: water supply,
sanitation, water supply for livestock, irrigation, drainage, rain water harvesting,
hydropower, and multi-purpose projects
• Engineering and technology which consists of six R&D programmes: construction site
and materials investigation, hydraulic structures, traditional technology, technological
development, choice/selection of technology, and technology management
• Socio-economics or social sciences, which consists of four R&D programmes: finance
and economics, institutions and stakeholders, capacity building, and policy and
legislative issues.
This classification allows R&D activity in the water sector to be categorised according to
the field of research to be undertaken. While this classification includes individual
MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop 7
Research and development in land and water resources
specialised fields of national interest, it generally reflects the overall structure of disciplinary
fields and related subfields taught at universities or tertiary institutions.
Since R&D activities within the area of land and water are inter-disciplinary in nature,
all the identified R&D programmes could be involved depending on the nature of the
specific problems. However, the R&D activities relevant to land and water shall concentrate
on issues that would produce relevant practical results and significantly contribute in:
• promoting practices of efficient and appropriate watershed management to maximise
water yields and quality and minimise sediment yields
• incorporating environmental conservation and protection requirements as integral
parts of land and water resources management
• minimising and mitigating as much as possible, the negative environmental impacts
associated with land and water resources development
• promoting and enhancing traditional and localised water-harvesting techniques in view
of the advantages provided by the schemes dependence on local resources and
indigenous skills
• introducing and transferring rainwater-harvesting techniques that have been successful
elsewhere for agricultural purposes
• providing sustainable and objective-oriented training on the relevant areas of land and
water resources management and develop and implement effective means to efficiently
utilise and sustainably retain trained manpower and,
• building and strengthening the capability to search, select, negotiate, transfer, use and
modify appropriate technologies for prospecting and development of land and water
resources.
Proposed organisational arrangement
The need for a R&D organisation (institute) in the water sector, is not only apparent, but is
also becoming more urgent as sectoral objectives and planned development programmes
are receiving enhanced attention from the government, the public and concerned
international bodies.
As competition between uses and users increase, the requirements for water are also
growing. The competition between countries sharing a water source will be addressed
through equitable allocations that are bound to include factors such as economic viability,
cost effectiveness, and non-harmful impact, all requiring practical solutions to the various
constraints. The environmental dimension of water resources development, both negative
and positive, at the local and international levels, will require intelligent solutions based on
scientific and practical research.
The existing national R&D capability in the water sector can only be described as
minimal. These capabilities have so far demonstrated little impact on the development of
the sector. The need for a comprehensive and integrated management of R&D is critical.
The overall review and analysis of the national water sector R&D capabilities and its
limited achievements have led to the conclusion that the establishment of a water resources
R&D institute is of crucial national importance. The institute should be an autonomous
8 MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop
Admasu Gebeyehu
organisation having the overall responsibility and powers regarding all national R&D
efforts in the water sector.
The overall objective of the proposed water sector R&D organisation (institute) is to
contribute towards the implementation of the country’s long-term policies and
development objectives within the sector itself, and other related development
programmes. The specific objectives include:
• contributing towards strengthening the national capability to undertake R&D activities
in all fields of the water sector
• undertaking, and cause the undertaking of, multi-disciplinary research to resolve
problems, alleviate constraints and maximise opportunities in the development of the
country’s resources
• promoting the use of research results to enhance sectoral development and
• operating as depository and documentation centre for data, information and research
undertakings related to the water sector.
The major duties and responsibilities of the institute include:
• initiating and conducting R&D on water resources particularly in the field of
assessment, management, development, engineering, technology and socio-economics
• guiding, planning, co-ordinating, integrating and monitoring R&D activities in the
water sector
• studying the application of various research results carried out in other countries to this
end, the preservation of a collection of related materials, literature and scientific data
• co-operating with and providing consultative services to the different agencies on
questions falling with the functional sphere and capability of the institute
• disseminating research findings through reports, publications and other appropriate
media, and acting as a forum for constructive dialogue on water resources development
and management
• operating as depository and documentation centre for all research in Ethiopia that are
related with water resources development
• training personnel involved in specialised data collection, investigation, research
methods and applications
• strengthening the existing R&D executing and support institutions in the water sector
and establishing new ones as necessary
• undertaking effective training of R&D manpower locally and abroad as necessary and
on the basis of the sub-sectoral need and plan to produce the desired quality and quantity
• promoting efficient and sustainable relationship and interaction among the R&D,
higher learning and development institutions
• providing the necessary support and incentives to strengthen the participation of the
private sector and the community at large, especially women, in the R&D activities of
the sector
• encouraging and supporting the participation of professionals engaged in the R&D of
the water sector in relevant national, regional and international conferences, symposia
and workshops to enable them to acquire knowledge and experience essential to their
work
MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop 9
Research and development in land and water resources
• creating a conducive working condition to workers engaged in R&D activities of the
water sector and establishing a system for the provision of incentives, recognition and
protection of rights for those that achieve satisfactory results
• establishing and strengthening R&D co-operation with international organisations and
foreign governments in such a way that it contributes to national water sector R&D
capability building
• building and strengthening national capability in project studies, design and other
engineering works and consultancy services in the water sector and,
• allocating the required budget for undertaking the R&D activities of the sector and
creating suitable conditions to encourage the private sector to contribute to the sectoral
R&D through its own initiatives.
Issues for discussion
1. It is a well-known fact that Ethiopia is the ‘water tower’ of north-eastern Africa since
90% (about 110 billion cubic metres per annum) of the annual runoff that originates in
Ethiopia flows to neighbouring countries. However, the maximum amount to which
Ethiopia is entitled (or eligible) to use is not known.
2. Although the residents of Addis Ababa have relatively better access to alternative energy
sources such as electricity, gas, kerosene as well as alternative construction materials
such as stone, blocks and bricks, more than half of the residents use firewood, charcoal
and dung as energy sources and about 80% of the housing construction material is
wood. Why?
3. Deforestation, high population growth, overgrazing and use of marginal lands have
intensified land degradation through the process of erosion. Another way of looking at
the problem is by making assumptions on whether poverty is the root cause of land
degradation or vice versa. What strategy should thus be adopted to solve the problem?
References
MCE (Metaferia Consulting Engineers). 2002. Study on research and development activities in the water
sector. Study conducted for the Ethiopian Science and Technology Commission by MCE in
association with Eco-Consult. MCE, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
NBI (Nile Basin Initiative). 2001. Sustainable development of the River Nile for the benefit of all. Eastern
Nile Council of Ministers, Entebbe, Uganda.
10 MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop
Admasu Gebeyehu
Present and future water resources
development in Ethiopia related
to research and capacity building
Gulilat Birhane
1
Planning and Projects Department, Ministry of Water Resources, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Background
Ethiopia with a total area of 1.13 million km
2
has a total population of 63.5 million in 2001
out of which about 54 million are rural while 9.5 million are urban. The rate of population
growth is in the order of 3% per annum.
The economy of the country is highly dependent on agriculture, which is in turn
dependent on the availability of seasonal rainfall. Although the country’s renewable surface
and ground freshwater amounts to 123 and 2.6 billion cubic metres per annum,
respectively, its distribution in terms of area and season does not give adequate opportunity
for sustainable growth to the economy. The intensity of recurrent droughts affects the
livelihoods of agricultural communities and the whole economy. Even in a year of good
rain, the occurrence of floods affects the livelihoods of riparian residents with little capacity
to neither protect themselves from the seasonal flood nor mitigate the impact.
Excess water is also responsible for the soil erosion in the highlands. Recent studies
show that the sediment yields in different rivers range between 180 and 900 t/year per km
2
(Rodeco 2002). It is estimated that the transboundary rivers alone carry about 1.3 billion
tonnes of sediment each year to neighbouring countries (MoWR 1993). Poor watershed
management and farming practices have contributed to these rates.
Sustainability of the management of water supply schemes is also a challenge for the
sector. Poor co-ordination among stakeholders is aggravating the situation and constraining
the economic returns on investment. Lack of research and development in the sector has
hampered the contribution of the sector to the socio-economic development of the country.
Basin studies were first undertaken in the country in the 1950s, and the United States
Bureau of Reclamation (USBR) conducted the Abay River basin study in 1964.
Subsequently, basin level studies have been carried out in the northern basin (Tekeze,
Mereb-Gash and Guang) and the Wabi Shebele River basin. Basin development studies
have been carried out recently in a more comprehensive and integrated manner in five of
the twelve major basins in the country, and studies in two more basins are underway. To
date, the implementation of these studies has been limited.
MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop 11
1. This document is prepared on behalf of the Ministry of Water Resources. However, all the views in the
document are those of the author. If at any circumstance there is any deviation the author is liable for the
views reflected.
Seven years ago, realising the prevailing problem, the Ministry of Water Resources
began work on water sector reform. This started with developing integrated water resources
management policies and was subsequently followed by the creation of strategies and
development programmes, which included extensive stakeholder consultations. This
process included drawing on experiences from other developing and developed countries.
This paper presents an overview of the resource base of the country, existing practices
and, based on the planning efforts discussed above, future directions of development with
regard to research and capacity building.
Resource base and issues on the ground
Out of the total water resources, about 75% drains to neighbouring countries (MoWR
2001a). The country is divided into 11 climatic zones ranging from equatorial desert to hot
and cool steppes, and from tropical savannah and rain forests to warm temperate and cool
highlands. The mean annual rainfall varies between about 100 mm in the north-east to
2800 mm in the south-west (Lemma 1996). However, rainfall is generally erratic and
irregular. The fluctuation of the rainfall is closely related to the occurrence of the El Niño
Southern Oscillation (ENSO) that occurs on a 2–7 year cycle.
Table 1 presents the surface water resources available against the landmass of the major
basins of the country. Two of the basins, Ogaden and Ayesha, which make up 7% of the
country’s landmass and serve as home to a number of pastoralists and their livestock, have
no water. On the contrary, there are also basins with high ratios of water. The question is
how do these people live in these water-deficient areas? What sort of remedial measures can
be taken to reduce the risk in their traditional life styles? The integrated master plan studies
have identified potential solutions in the investment plans where financing allows.
On top of the general water scarcity in these areas, frequent droughts further affect the
socio-economic features of the country. In the history of the country, more than 42 great
droughts and famines had been recorded (NMSA 1996). In the 1972–74 drought and
famine events alone, more than 140 thousand people were displaced. The incidence of the
1984–85 draught was not much different from the former in terms of migration to
neighbouring woredas (Admasu 1996) even though the drought was not as severe. In any
given year, on average, more than four million people face food shortages and need relief
assistance. The incidence of poverty is also high with 45, 37 and 42% at the rural, urban and
national levels respectively (MoFED 2002). Nevertheless, no major action has been taken to
overcome the problem in a sustainable way, and environmental degradation is now
aggravating the problem.
In previous water resource development projects, the issue of environmental impact was
not well addressed. A few studies were conducted. However, major mitigation measures
were not carried out and beneficiaries were not trained to implement the programmes. In a
country like Ethiopia, the worry should have to be on two important facts: the social and the
economic opportunity. Unfortunately, these issues are not well articulated.
The potential irrigable land in Ethiopia is about 3.6 million hectares out of which only
5% has been developed. The water sector development programme concluded that the
12 MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop
Gulilat Birhane
production of feed, fibre and sugar could not meet local demands with rainfed agriculture
and the current rate of irrigation development. To close the food gap, it is estimated that a
further one million hectares of irrigated land has to be developed in the next 15 years,
which, even if it was possible, is considered not to be sustainable (MoWR 2001b).
Table 1. Ethiopian surface water resources by major river basins.
No. River basin
Catchments area
(km
2
)
Annual run off
(× 10
9
m
3
)
Specific
discharge
(litres/km
2
)
Share out of
total
1 Abay 199,812112,00 52.6 7.8 43.05/17.56
2 Awash 112,700 4.6 1.4 3.76/9.9
3 Baro-Akobo 74,100 23.6 9.7 19.31/6.51
4 Genale-Dawa 171,050 5.88 1.2 4.81/15.03
5 Mereb 5900 0.26 3.2 0.21/0.52
6 Omo-Ghibe 78,200 17.96 6.7 14.7/6.87
7 Rift Valley 52,740 5.64 3.4 4.62/4.63
8 Tekeze 90,000 7.63 3.2 6.24/7.9
9 Wabi-Shebele 200,214 3.16 0.5 2.59/17.59
10 Danakil 74,000 0.86 0 0.7/6.5
11 Ogaden 77,100 000/6.77
12 Aysha 2200 0/0.19
Total 1,138,016 122.19
Ground water resource potential is approximately 2.6 billion cubic metres.
Source: Different master plan studies.
The total hydropower potential of the country is estimated to be around 650 million
TWH, of which about 160 million TWH is economically exploitable. Presently the
generation capacity is less than 450 MW, and is expected to rise to 670 MW when Fincha II
and Gilgel Ghibie hydropower projects join the Interconnected system (ICS).
Water quality is a critical issue in a number of areas, including the groundwater in the
Rift Valley basin, which is high in florides. In other areas, iron deposits are problematic. The
lack of information on water quality makes it difficult to determine appropriate strategies in
a particular locality.
Despite its importance to water management, there is limited water quality monitoring
in Ethiopia. Upstream activities in a number of basins are polluting the water bodies with
little consideration for stakeholders downstream. Without improved management, the
situation will further deteriorate and could lead to conflict.
Water allocation will also be another area of concern. So far, there is no major record of
conflicts. Nevertheless, there are some cases, such as the issue of abstraction and pollution
by upstream residents, which beneficiaries have started to complain about. This is actually
an international phenomenon that relates with population growth and resource scarcity
(Abernethy 2000).
For Ethiopia, which has an economy highly dependent on agriculture and high
population growth, it is prudent to effectively manage its water resources, build capacity and
MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop 13
Present and future water resources development in Ethiopia related to research and capacity building
link development efforts with practical research findings. Development efforts made so far
were not supported by empirical research findings; rather they have relied on theoretical
ideas or imported experience, which do not fit the prevailing conditions on the ground.
The Ethiopian Water Resources Management Policy (EWRMP) that was developed in
1999 attempted to address all the issues highlighted above (MoWR 1999). The policy is
detailed on various issues, including research. However, since the document is holistic in
nature, there are certain issues still to be examined at a local level. Some of the relevant parts
of the policy will be presented later when the development approach is discussed. The sector
strategy also addressed the issue of research as one of the important inputs to the success of
the water sector programme implementation.
Conventional ways are not working
Returns to date have been disappointing. Economic growth is jeopardised by agricultural
market fluctuations, such as the fall of the coffee market and recurrent droughts. Part of the
solution lies in diversification of the production systems that fully utilise the available water
resources. The utilisation may range from rainwater harvesting to construction of big dams,
and from bucket pouring to large-scale irrigation systems. The economic justification would
have to be proved through research and studies. In a country with abundant unskilled labour,
low-tech labour intensive investment scenarios seem rational. Nevertheless, it has also its own
cost inefficiency, low return on investment and even lack of sustainability. The traditional
development of the sector is highly characterised by most, if not all, of the following:
1. Lack of sustainable and reliable water resources management strategy
2. Lack of efficient utilisation of water resources
3. Non-objective-oriented programmes and projects
4. Uncertainties and ambiguities in planning
5. Prevalence of intensive centralism of management that does not focus on rural
development
6. Lack of institutional sustainability
7. Lack of operation and maintenance activities of water schemes
8. Ad hoc development practices lacking coherent objectives and continuity
9. Highly subsidised and considered as any other social good
10. Lack of stakeholder participation and belongingness to the development of the sector
11. Relatively low attraction of the private sector
12. Low investment on research and development and
13. Transboundary nature of the rivers and the conflict that comes along.
The country has considerable experience in drought alleviation, but, so far, it has been
unable to avert the situation. As part of the broad water sector reform programme, the
Ministry of Water Resources has sought to incorporate drought alleviation in water sector
management and investment, thereby addressing drought in a more systematic way, rather
than react to drought when it occurs.
14 MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop
Gulilat Birhane
Basin studies were first undertaken in Ethiopia some 45 years back. However, the study
was not comprehensive and little of it was implemented. Because of the lapsed time, these
studies are of limited value. Without immediate implementation and updating, such efforts
are a waste of meagre resources. Given this, the Ministry of Water Resources is striving to
implement some of the projects identified under the present basin studies. The
establishment of basin authorities is also in process to support and monitor the
implementation of the studies. There are also efforts to establish a department in the
Ministry that facilitates and co-ordinates research efforts in the sector.
Development approach
Change is always a challenge. In entering into change, it is always difficult to get real partners
and forecast external influence. Internally the sector had institutional problems in
developing a coherent vision. But because of the 1995 re-organisation of federal
institutions, the sector had an opportunity to be organised under a unified organ— the
Ministry of Water Resources—and establish the foundation for reform.
The reform starts from setting clear goals, objectives and principles, which are presented
in Boxes 1–3. The vision of the sector has been spelt out in a way that enables it to alleviate
the prevailing problems (FDRE 2000). Detailed regulations are under preparation. The
policy has three broad parts, which are the general policy, cross-cutting issues and sectoral
issues. All the parts have further sub-divisions. The issue of research and development and
capacity building is addressed under the cross-cutting issues (MoWR 1999).
MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop 15
Present and future water resources development in Ethiopia related to research and capacity building
Box 1: Goal of water resources management policy
The overall goal of the water resources policy (WRP) is to enhance and promote all
national efforts towards the efficient, equitable and optimum utilisation of the available
water resources for significant socio-economic development on a sustainable basis.
Box 2: Objectives of the water resources management policy
1. Development of the water resources of the country for economic and social benefits
of the people on an equitable and sustainable basis.
2. Allocation and apportionment of water based on comprehensive and integrated
plans and optimum allocation principles that incorporate efficiency of use, equity of
access, and sustainability of the resource.
3. Managing and combating drought through, inter alia, efficient allocation,
redistribution, transfer, storage and efficient use of water resources.
4. Combating and regulating floods through sustainable mitigation, prevention,
rehabilitation and other practical measures.
5. Conserving, protecting and enhancing water resources and the overall aquatic
environment on a sustainable basis.
Considering water as a social and economic good, the principle of cost recovery,
acceptance of the basin as a unit of planning, decentralised management, equitable and
reasonable water allocation, capacity building, and research and development are the most
important concepts incorporated in the policy.
After the endorsement of the policy and before the development programme was
launched, the sector strategy was prepared. Since it is defined and agreed as a means of
translating the policy into action it sets a road map on how to make meaningful
contribution towards:
• realising food self-sufficiency and food security in the country
• improving the living standard and general socio-economic well-being of the people
• improving environmental health conditions
• generating additional hydropower
• enhancing the contribution of water resources in attaining national development
priorities
• promoting the principles of integrated water resources management and
• enhancing water supply coverage (MoWR 2002).
Environment, watershed management, water
resources protection and conservation
This is one area that was not given much emphasis in past efforts to develop, utilise and
manage water resources and yet it has been found to be very important and the experiences
of other countries justify the same.
2
16 MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop
Gulilat Birhane
Box 3: Fundamental principles of water resource management
policy
1. Water is a natural endowment commonly owned by all the peoples of Ethiopia.
2. As far as conditions permit, every Ethiopian shall have access to sufficient water of
acceptable quality, to satisfy basic human needs.
3. In order to significantly contribute to development, water shall be recognised both as
an economic and a social good.
4. Integrated framework of water resources development as a rural-centred,
decentralised management and the participatory approach shall underpin.
5. Management of water resources shall ensure social equity, economic efficiency,
system reliability and sustainability norms.
6. Promotion of the participation of all stakeholders, particularly women and user
communities in the relevant aspects of water resources management.
2. The author observed the Yellow River Commission of China during a short-term visit in 2000. There are
also a number of experiences throughout the globe.
The inclusion of environmental protection in all development efforts is a recent
phenomenon that emerged from the Rio De Janeiro World Summit. Immediately after
that, Ethiopia established a specialised governmental institution that prepared policies and
strategies. The Ministry of Water Resources has also addressed the issue of environment in
its policy and strategy. In both documents, environment was included as an integral part of
projects and programmes. This means that environment has to be included in the process of
preparation and implementation of all projects. The issue is to determine the impact of the
intervention on the environment, its cost effectiveness, sustainability, the standards to be
met etc. Research is vital in comprehending these issues.
Watershed management is also another area of focus. What has been done so far locally
is not encouraging. The practice of water and soil conservation has been in place for more
than five hundred years in Konso,
3
but this effort was not developed and duplicated
elsewhere in the country, especially in areas that have similar problems with Konso.
Recently, encouraging efforts have been made in Amhara and Tigray regional states to
adopt bund construction for water and soil conservation through food-for-work
programmes. With certain modifications it would definitely be acceptable in other parts of
the country. There are also certain research-oriented efforts carried out by the Ministry in
two projects. The first project financed by the European Union (EU) is called the
‘Assessment and monitoring of erosion and sedimentation problems in Ethiopia’, and its
objective is to control erosion. The outcome is encouraging and can be duplicated
elsewhere. The second one is an on-going study under the umbrella of the Environmental
Support Project. The focus of this project is on environmental assessment and sustainable
resource utilisation in North Wello Zone. The purpose of the project is to facilitate
decision-making on improved natural resources management.
The policy has addressed the issue of basins development by giving due emphasis and
showing a direction for its inclusion as an integral part of the overall water resources
management. In the policy the ‘Basin’ is the planning unit, and projects initiated since have
watersheds as an integral part of the focus. The items discussed in this section have been
addressed in the policy and the strategy. However, there is much to be refined and checked
against the socio-economic framework. Research and investigation is required for further
elaboration and verification.
Stakeholders’ issues
Experience shows that programmes with high community participation rates greatly
improved their sustainability. The policy and strategy of the sector has provisions for
stakeholder participation and even the process of the document preparation itself was
consultative and open to partners. Now, the outstanding issues with respect to stakeholder
participation might be the extent and mechanism of choosing the appropriate ways of
participation.
MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop 17
Present and future water resources development in Ethiopia related to research and capacity building
3. Konso is a special district in the Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples’ Regional Government. The
traditional way of bund construction and soil conservation of the Konso people has been recorded as one
of the national heritages of the country.
If we take the case of beneficiaries alone, especially in a country like Ethiopia where there
is diversified cultural and social conditions, adaptation of a unilateral mode of stakeholder
participation may not be appropriate. The lifestyle and religious thought of the sedentary
highlanders cannot be the same as that of the lowland pastoralists. Even the life style of the
eastern pastoralists is not the same as that of the southern and western pastoralists. To get
appropriate participation it is necessary to have the appropriate social researchers and
capacity building.
Transboundary waters
Water is a source of life regardless of its location, culture or ownership. That is why it
remains a source of conflict and suspicion for some countries (Wondimneh 1979). Of
course, there are cases where countries have been able to manage their shared water and
mutually use it (Mokuoane 2000). Since 75% of the rivers that originate in the highlands of
Ethiopia cross the border and feed neighbouring countries, co-operation is not only
important but a must. That is why the Ethiopian Government in its water resources policy
had made its commitment clear towards the principle of equitable and reasonable use of
water resources.
International efforts and the policy direction have brought together the partners in the
Nile basin under the umbrella of the Nile Basin Initiative (NBI). It is clear that this is a start
of a long journey, which could collapse at any time unless otherwise supported by all the
necessary instruments, including empirical research results on the benefits that could be
achieved from the co-operation and the mechanisms to strengthen it.
Capacity building and dialogue among all stakeholders have to continue to facilitate
research and co-operation. With respect to Ethiopia, which contributes about 86% of the
Nile waters and the sources of other trans-boundary rivers, the lack of capacity both at
regional and national levels is evident.
Finance and economics
One of the most challenging areas of the policy is finance and economics. As a tradition,
water is considered simply as a natural resource and even most of the people may not be
aware of its economic value. On the contrary, the investment requirement of water is high
while the time requirement to get returns is long.
Even some of the outcomes from providing water are not also easily understood, which
complicate water pricing. Unless there is some justification (social or political), any
investments made must be paid back, which is also the direction of the water policy. The
policy and strategy provisions address the issue of cost recovery and water pricing. Urban
water supply and irrigation projects are required to cover investment, operation and
maintenance costs. Rural water supply projects are only required to cover the cost of
operation and maintenance. Water pricing is done in order not to harm the beneficiaries
and yet discourage misuse of the resource. To this end, tariff setting is site specific.
18 MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop
Gulilat Birhane
The two primary challenges are: affordability and the willingness to pay. Since about
45% of the people have a daily income of less than US$ 1, it is very difficult to get returns
from a huge investment. Even those who have better incomes might not be willing to pay
back the cost of water, unless special training is extended.
To overcome the challenges, care has to be taken in the choice of technology and efficiency
has to come into the whole process from inception to operation. His Royal Highness the
Prince of Orange, in his ‘No Water-No Future’ initial contribution to the panel of the UN
Secretary General in preparation for the Johannesburg Summit, has come up with a
recommended target and actions towards financing water projects (see Box below).
Research and development
As mentioned above, in the past research related to water was not well incorporated into
development efforts. Currently the Ministry has a policy direction aimed at integrating the
research as part of development efforts. In line with this, the Ministry considers the
following points as key areas for research (MoWR/ESTC 2002).
• the occurrence and state of resources in the entire hydrological cycle
• the application and utilisation of resources for various end users
• resource management and environmental aspects including watershed
• engineering and infrastructure aspects with respect to water resources regulation and
management.
The specific research activities may include but are not limited to:
• definition of engineering design parameters and standards for water development
• identification of suitable and appropriate irrigation methods for different scale of
irrigation schemes
• development of different water conservation and management options for surface and
sub-surface water
MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop 19
Present and future water resources development in Ethiopia related to research and capacity building
Recommended target
Have at least 20% of all water infrastructure investments funded by alternative forms of
financing by 2015.
Recommended actions
Build capacity in local government to assess alternative forms of financing for
infrastructure, including capacity to identify, develop and negotiate sound projects that
are feasible and environmentally sustainable as alternative solutions to large-scale
investments.
• setting water quality standards
• removal of fluoride from drinking water
• inventory and characterisation of indigenous water management practices
• selection of appropriate technologies in the water sector
• quantification of runoff and soil loss under different climatic conditions
• crop water requirement
• drainage for different soil types
• desalination of lake water
• loss of water through conveyance systems
• recent development and technologies in water resource surveys
• reservoir, canal, river bed sedimentation
• efficient water use methods in arid and semi-arid areas
• recycling of waste water
• solar energy for different water related uses
• wind mill energy for different water related uses
• development at the village level.
Conclusion
The issue of water is the issue of life. Societies that are able to use their water resources in an
efficient and sustainable manner have succeeded in being food self-sufficient, reducing the
incidence of water-borne diseases and minimising adverse effects of the resource.
Unfortunately, this has not happened in Ethiopia. If we take population growth and
environmental degradation into account, the way ahead will be even more complicated.
To avert the problem, intervention in the sector has to be intensified and implemented
in a manner that is efficient in terms of resources and capital. To achieve this efficiency
requires, among other things, that research activities be an integral part of development
efforts.
The policies and strategies for the water sector clearly support research. However,
harmonised activities have yet to be framed and initiated. Now is the time to look into all
possible options for research and capacity building in the water sector.
References
Abernethy C.L. (ed). 2000. Intersectoral management of river basins. Proceedings of an international
workshop on integrated water management in water stressed river basins in developing countries: Strategies
for poverty alleviation and agricultural growth, held in Loskop Dam, South Africa, 16–21 October 1999.
Pretoria, South Africa.
Admassu Gebeyehu. 1996. Assessment of crop production and vulnerability to famine. Case study of
Wello in 1994. In: Kaswso A and Sharka P. (eds), Proceedings of an international workshop on water
resources management in drought-prone areas. Water Resources Research and Documentation
Center, University for Foreigners, Perugia, Italy.
20 MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop
Gulilat Birhane
FDRE (Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia). 2000. Ethiopian Water Resource Management
Proclamation No. 197/2000. Berhanena Selam Printing Press, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Lemma Gonfa. 1996. Climate classification of Ethiopia. Bulletin 3. NMSA (National Meteorological
Services Agency), Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
MoFED (Ministry of Finance and Economic Development). 2002. Ethiopia: Sustainable development
and poverty reduction program. MoFED, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Mokuoane E. 2000. The Danube River basin: International cooperation in water management. In:
Abernethy C.L. (Ed). Intersectoral management of river basins. Proceedings of an international workshop
on integrated water management in water stressed river basins in developing countries: Strategies for poverty
alleviation and agricultural growth, held in Loskop Dam, South Africa, 16–21 October 1999. Pretoria,
South Africa..
MoWR (Ministry of Water Resources). 1993. Improvement of the resource–population sustainability
balance. Water Resources Development, MoWR, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
MoWR (Ministry of Water Resources). 1999. Ethiopian water resources management policy. MoWR,
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
MoWR (Ministry of Water Resources). 2001a. Data collected from different river basin development master
plan studies. Planning and Projects Department, Ministry of Water Resources, Addis Ababa,
Ethiopia.
MoWR (Ministry of Water Resources). 2001b. Water Sector Development Program—Methodological
Framework. MoWR, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
MoWR (Ministry of Water Resources). 2002. Ethiopian water sector strategy. MoWR, Addis Ababa,
Ethiopia.
MoWR/ESTC (Ministry of Water Resources/Ethiopian Science and Technology Commission).
2002. Terms of reference for the visit of the joint delegation on water research and development.
MoWR, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
NMSA (National Meteorological Services Agency). 1996. Assessment of drought in Ethiopia. NMSA,
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Rodeco. 2002. Assessment and monitoring of erosion and sedimentation problems in Ethiopia—Final Report.
Rodeco Consulting GmbH, Hydrology Studies Department, Ministry of Water Resources, Addis
Ababa, Ethiopia.
Wondimneh Tilahun. 1979. Egypt’s imperial aspirations over Lake Tana and the Blue Nile. United
Printers Ltd., Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop 21
Present and future water resources development in Ethiopia related to research and capacity building
Present and future trends of natural
resources (land and water) management in
Ethiopian agriculture
Belayhun Hailu Mamo
Senior Land Evaluation Expert, Ministry of Agriculture, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Abstract
Agriculture depends fundamentally on natural resources and has an important role in their
conservation. The deteriorating land and water resources in Ethiopia present a concern to
rural land users, and wider public awareness of environmental issues is bringing urgency to
conservation issues. Water depletion and land (natural resources) degradation, themselves
the result of ever-increasing ecological imbalances, caused the recurrent drought and
famine. Sustainable agriculture plays the central role in poverty reduction efforts of the
country.
Meeting food security and food self-sufficiency in Ethiopia require, among other things:
• integrated land and water development planning and implementation
• increased efficiency of water use in agriculture giving due attention to the popular
participation and empowerment of local governments and marginalised and resource-
poor community groups and
• enhanced capacities and capabilities of integrated land and water users and their
development partners, local governments, i.e. lower decentralised unit—woreda—for
designing and executing development programmes.
Scientific land and water use planning and implementation are the fundamental
processes needed to achieve these results. Nevertheless, it has to be founded on the basic
principles of community-driven development and fully supported with participatory and
applied research activities on the major biophysical and socio-economic land resources. The
practice has to be enhanced with smallholder level rainwater-harvesting techniques in areas
with relatively better length of growing period (LGP), followed by the huge dam
construction works in lowland areas. This measure will be the basis for sustained
productivity in the continuous and iterative process of producing and disseminating
alternative land use options equipped with alternative land use technology packages to
farmers/pastoralists in the specific agro-ecological settings. In addition, the proper
involvement and participation of all stakeholders prior to huge investment works is
essential. The human resources development (HRD) and training and education (TE)
establishment gearing towards the efficient implementation of integrated land and water
planning should not be overlooked.
22 MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop
Background
Land degradation and water depletion has been recognised as a serious problem in the
Ethiopian highlands. The fear of losing the fertile topsoil has driven experts, planners and
decision-makers to tremendous efforts focused on soil conservation measures.
Land and water resources are limited and finite. The wise use of rural land and water
resources with the best technologies, in the most rational and beneficial way possible, is
crucial for the social and economic well-being of the country and its people.
Land refers not only to soils, but also to land forms, climate, hydrology, vegetation and
fauna, together with land improvements (terracing, irrigation, drainage works) and
unsustainable land use practices (including all land using community).
Because of relatively better climate, rainfall amount and frequency and less health
hazards, most of the Ethiopian farming communities live on the highlands (>1500 metres
above sea level, masl). Areas extensively inhabited by pastoralists whose subsistence is
dependent on extensive grazing also indirectly rely on the cereal productions of adjacent
highland regions.
Although Ethiopia has an estimated area of 1.12 million km
2
with a wide ecological
diversity, the uneven spatial and temporal occurrence of water resources are still the causes
of underutilisation of arable land for agriculture. Between 80–90% of the country’s water
resources is found in four basins (Abay, Tekeze, Baro-Akobo and Omo-Ghibie) where the
population is not more than 30–40%. The water resources in the other basins (east and
central) are only 10–20% whereas the population in these basins is over 60% (MoWR
1995).
This clearly depicts that ‘moisture stress’ in most of the agricultural potential areas is the
major constraint. According to FAO (1994), the total irrigated area in Ethiopian river
basins amounts to 161,790 ha, which is only 4.4% of the predicted 3.4 million hectares of
potentially irrigable land.
Faced with this situation and a poverty driven depleted resource base, the risk averting
strategy that has been adopted by the rural community is increasing unsustainable pressure
on natural resources through:
• over utilisation of the available land
• encroachment on wildlife and forest priority areas
• overgrazing etc.
These actions lead to land and water depletion and degradation and/or ‘forced’
migration to urban areas.
In addition, the absence of off-farm income in rural areas has also contributed to the
high population pressure on arable land, which leads to fast deterioration of natural
resources.
This situation will remain a challenge until a high rate of agricultural transformation
coupled with maximum and sustainable agricultural productivity (per unit area of
land-intensification) takes off from the present crisis. Realising the present socio-economic
situations, it is evident that Ethiopia cannot meet its food security and food self-sufficiency
objectives using the prevailing land and water use systems.
MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop 23
Present and future trends of natural resources (land and water) management in Ethiopian agriculture
Taking into consideration the catchment areas of each river basin of Ethiopia vis-à-vis the
population census of 1997, it can be observed that more than 129 persons/km
2
live in the
Rift Valley, while the bulk of the lowlands are scarcely populated with as few as 8.3
persons/km
2
.
Agriculture in Ethiopia contributes 40% of the total gross domestic product (GDP) and
85–90% of export earnings. It also accounts for 85% of the total employment. However,
agricultural productivity is characterised by low productivity. The causes are various, diverse
and often interlinked with poverty.
As most of the poor are living in the rural parts of the country, agricultural development
will still play the central role in poverty reduction efforts. This implies that an increased
productivity in agriculture will have a powerful dynamic general socio-economic
equilibrium effect benefiting the poor.
Increased productivity in agriculture should be driven by technology and investment for
sustainable productivity and agricultural transformation. The most prominent social
benefits that can be brought by the increased productivity are elimination of hunger, fast
economic growth, reduction of poverty and proper development and utilisation of natural
resources.
Again, sustainable agriculture needs integrated land and water planning,
implementation and management, which increase the efficiency of water use in agriculture.
This process has to be led by the community and their development partners, i.e. local
governments.
Land and water development can be undertaken for settlement and irrigated
agriculture. The co-ordinated effort and consent of stakeholders plays an important role in
minimising mistakes, which are very costly. Training and education are also important tools
to achieve the desired productivity level for the rural poor.
Capacity building priorities in community driven
land and water management
Experiences suggest that decentralisation will not work without vibrant, participatory
communities, with woreda (local government) and also for sustainability. The two can evolve
together dynamically, strengthening one another (Alkiire et al. 2001).
Learning-by-doing is an important way of creating capacity in communities and local
governments. Technical schemes in the past often failed because they did not correspond to
communities’ needs and priorities (Esmail 2002).
Once communities and local governments are given the power and resources, they can
choose and implement projects.
Community driven land and water management that relies directly on resource-poor
land users has the potential to make poverty reduction efforts more inclusive and cost
effective than programmes traditionally run by governments.
Though community-led development programmes are relevant across many sectors,
they have the greatest potential for goods and services that are small-scale and not complex
24 MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop
Belayhun Hailu Mamo
and which require co-operation, such as common pool goods best represented by the
management of surface water irrigation systems, management of communal land (pasture,
grazing), and management of public forestry etc. (Manor 1999).
Why community-driven land and water management?
• enhances social acceptance and confidence
• compliments public sector activities, improves efficiency, effectiveness and equitable
utilisation of infrastructure
• makes development more inclusive of the interests of resource-poor, vulnerable and
minority groups
• empowers poor people, builds social capital and strengthens good governance and
• allows poverty reduction efforts to work at the appropriate scale.
Technical assistance and skill-oriented education and training should be given to all
people involved in and responsible for land and water management, planning,
implementation and execution, i.e. communities, land users, decision-makers and
technocrats.
Moreover, the installation of major data/information structures like mini-
meteorological stations in specific agro-ecological settings with the necessary human
resources should not be overlooked.
Regarding the above notion, the following important points are raised for discussion
and verification for enhancing the capacities of communities and the lowest levels of local
government.
1 Education and training
a. Surveying and mapping and database management with special reference to cadastral
for land registration, certification of land title and deeds.
This measure is important in ensuring security on land use rights and regulations.
b. Decision-supportive role in land/water use planning, management and enhanced local
capacity in sustainable (rain, ground and irrigation) water use efficiency.
The Agricultural Technical, Vocational Education and Training (Agri-TVET)
programmes (rainwater harvesting and small-scale irrigation curricula) can be used as an
opportunity to all people involved in land and water use management, i.e. woreda-level
decision makers, technocrats and water users associations.
c. Develop institutional structures of irrigated agriculture and capacity building both at
land (arable/grazing) and water use associations and local governments.
d. Enhance capabilities of local governments and community-based organisations in
designing local land use planning standards, strategies and enforcement regulations.
e. Develop mechanisms for enhancing the capacities and ensuring the participation of
private investors in direct investment, construction etc. of land and water planning.
f. Build capabilities of local governments in assessing the natural resources and
undertaking of Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) studies prior to any
investment.
MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop 25
Present and future trends of natural resources (land and water) management in Ethiopian agriculture
g. Develop demonstration facilities (rainwater harvesting techniques) in the Agri-TVET
institutions where all stakeholders should be responsible.
2 Expansion of supportive institutional structures (access)
a. Meteorological stations in specific agro-ecological settings as much as possible and
upgrading the services for practical application and applied research.
b. Training and education (TE) facilities in land and water management for human
resources development (HRD)
c. Development of applied trial and research stations in specific agro-ecological settings.
Initiatives for future applied research on land and
water management
Ethiopia gets an annual rainfall apparently adequate for rainfed food and fodder
production. However, moisture stress prevails in most parts of the country due to the
uneven and unpredictable occurrence of rainfall both spatially and temporally.
Moreover, the ever increasing unsustainable use of all bio-physical natural resources
coupled with overwhelming rural poverty and mismatch between uncontrolled population
growth and food and fodder production have been attributed to the ever increasing
ecological imbalances. This ecological disturbance has in turn been attributed to the
recurrent famine occurring every 3–5 years.
Furthermore, the traditional and backward agricultural practices and the absence of
applied research and extension services to alleviate local situations also contribute to
insufficient exploitation of the available rainfall amount. In addition, most of the available
data are obsolete and not suited to local conditions.
The little efforts made to use the water resources by the government, non-governmental
organisations (NGOs), farmers etc. are concentrated only on the natural courses of rivers on
available plains and do not give due attention to resource-poor farmers and pastoralists.
Moreover, investment on river diversions, levelling and other reclamation efforts are almost
negligible.
The major reasons can be summarised as follows:
• total dependence on rainfed agriculture and traditional land use practices
• insufficient technical service from the government and other relevant institutions
• poor characterisation of the agro-ecological settings to enhance organic farming and
alternative agriculture and the absence of alternative technology packages (extension) on
homogeneous land units—intensification efforts build upon what farmers are already
doing
• absence of coherent land and water information systems
• irrigation efforts are observed only in natural courses of rivers
• no investment by the government to alleviate constraints of potential areas for
re-distribution of land and opening up of new settlement areas
26 MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop
Belayhun Hailu Mamo
• near spontaneous approaches in allotting land to private investment without prior and
thorough attention to Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) and the absence of land
use policy on leased lands accompanying investment.
Despite the above shortcomings, the success exhibited in the production of cotton in
the Afar Regional State can be cited as an indication for the potentials and opportunities for
development of land and water harmonisation.
Shortage of rains and population pressure are blamed for food insecurity and low
productivity of agriculture and the deterioration of natural resources. However, if strategies
are designed to alleviate the above problems and water resources are developed to cater to
irrigation, it would be possible to attain agricultural surplus enough for domestic
consumption and external markets.
As the main problem of agricultural productivity even in the rainfed areas calls for
mitigating moisture stress, rain, ground and surface water resources have to be made to
contribute to agricultural development through supportive applied research on all
crop–environmental interactions within specific agro-ecologies.
The main aspects for future land and water management research initiatives could be
the following, but should be exhausted in the succeeding forums.
i. Agro-ecology characterisation on a larger scale for each regional state.
ii. The design of land use policy strategy, regulations at each level of planning and
mechanisms of harmonising them.
iii. Crop–environment interaction within a given agro-ecology, i.e.:
• soil nutrient status and fertiliser recommendations
• minimum irrigation requirement
• irrigation frequency (with respect to soil quality and crop requirements)
• areas with relatively better rainfall amount but needing supplementary irrigation
• water balance calculations
• soil moisture storage capacity
• reference (potential) evapotranspiration and crop coefficient (Kc value)
• minimum climatic data/information needed
• length of growing period (LGP)
• rainfall amount, probability, intensity, frequency and distribution
• available water capacity of soils and other physical properties
• crop rotation and organic farming
• socio-economic studies (indigenous knowledge, attitude of the community towards land
and hydrology)
• agro-industry and marketing, and other post-harvest technologies
• soil and water conservation requirements
• specific land and water management options
• other constraints and opportunities to development—exhausting all issues and
assumptions in specific areas within a period of time.
iv. Major land use (irrigation, rainfed, specific crop, grazing, livestock) requirements, i.e.:
• rainfall amount, moisture availability and other land qualities
MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop 27
Present and future trends of natural resources (land and water) management in Ethiopian agriculture
• nutrient requirements
• climatic requirements (temperature, humidity etc.)
• harvest index and yield response factors
• growing cycle
• slope and landscape
• salinity/alkalinity tolerance
• calcium carbonate (CaCO
3
) and Gypsum (CaSO
4
2H
2
O) tolerance
• soil physical properties requirements (texture, structure, infiltration capacity etc.).
Recommendations
Despite the challenges and setbacks, there is a window of opportunity for progress. There is
no blue print for achieving progress. Strategies and interventions should reflect the actual
situation and need thorough thought on how they might be used.
References
Alkiire S., Bebbington A., Esmail T., Ostrom E., Polski M., Ryan A., Van J., Domelen J., Wakeman
W. and Dongier P. 2001. Community driven development (CDD). ESRDF project, African Region.
Draft for comments. The World Bank, Washington, DC, USA.
Esmail T. (n.d.). Decentralization and institutions for collective action: Scaling-up productive natural
resources management programs. The World Bank, Washington, DC, USA. (Draft in progress)
FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations). 1994. Master land use plan.
Assistance to land use planning project, Ministry of Agriculture, NRMRD, Ex-LUPRD, 1983.
FAO, Rome, Italy.
FDRE (Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia). 1992–93. The Ethiopian integrated water policy.
FDRE, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Manor J. 1999. The political economy of decentralization. Direction in Development Series. The World
Bank, Washington, DC, USA.
MoWR (Ministry of Water Resources). 1995. Annual Report. MoWR, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
28 MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop
Belayhun Hailu Mamo
Present and future trends in natural
resources management in agriculture:
An overview
Paulos Dubale
Director, Soil and Water Research
Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organization (EARO), Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Abstract
Agriculture is the backbone of the Ethiopian economy engaging more than 85% of the
population and accounting for nearly 52% of the country’s gross domestic product (GDP).
Natural resources like land, water, vegetation, climate and topography and relief play a
significant role in the success of agriculture. As a result of population pressure, climate
change and poor management of natural resources, components of this sector have been
threatened by chronic degradation, recurrent droughts, shortage of skilled manpower and
improved technologies.
Efforts have been made to combat natural resources degradation by generating
technologies in soil and water conservation and re-forestation, but the result was gloomy
because of different reasons. Emphasis to develop the water resource was given top priority
only in recent years. The potential for irrigated agriculture is estimated at more than 3.7
million hectares. The major direct threats to the development of water resources for
agriculture in Ethiopia include sedimentation of rivers and water reservoirs, reduced
infiltration and recurrent drought. The Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organization
(EARO) has formulated a strategic research plan for the sector on its mandate area and also
for setting priorities to generate technologies for different agro-ecologies. Emphasis is given
to water harvesting in situ and ex situ and the management of irrigation water and drainage at
all levels.
Background
Agriculture accounts for more than 85% of the country’s work force, 51.6% of the gross
domestic product (GDP) and 90% of export earnings (CSA 1999). Proper management of
some of the natural resources is vital for the healthy development of the sector.
The country’s economic development policy aims at:
1. ensuring food security
2. increasing production of sufficient export products
MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop 29
3. increasing supply of raw materials for the local industries and,
4. ensuring conservation-based development of natural resources.
In recent years, agricultural development has been highly affected by mismanagement of
the natural resources. The Ethiopian highlands where most of the population lives have
undulating topography and relief. Although stressed by high population density, the
highlands have relatively better moisture, economic activities and infrastructure. The
lowlands (<1500 metres above sea level, masl) have low and erratic rainfall and, hence, low
soil moisture and severe erosion, as well as vector-born diseases that affect both humans and
livestock. However, the lowlands have very high potential for the development of irrigated
agriculture if water is available and infrastructure can be improved.
Trends of vegetation cover
There is no reliable figure on the trends of forest cover in Ethiopia. However, as some
historical sources indicate high forests might have once covered about 35–40% of the total
land area of the country (EPA/MEDaC 1997; EARO 2000a). Deforestation accelerated
towards the beginning of the 20th century and in 1960, closed natural forest was estimated
to cover only about 3.37%. It is believed that, in Ethiopia, agricultural activities must have
started about 5000 years ago (EPA/MEDaC 1997) and wide spread deforestation started
about 2500 years ago (Hurni 1988). In 1981, the estimated rate of deforestation stood at
200 thousand hectares per year and it is expected that this figure will be much higher today
and may continue like this unless some alternative options are made available to the rural
population. It has been estimated that high forests covered 16% of the land area in the early
1950s, 3.6% in the early 1980s (IUCN 1990) and only 2.7% in 1989 (EARO 2000a).
There are convincing indications of a downward spiral of forest resources degradation.
Some of these are:
1. persistent deterioration of the quality of cultivated land
2. expansion of gullies
3. poor yield
4. poor water holding capacity of the soils, and measured/estimated values of the annual
soil loss due to erosion ranging from 10 to 130 t/ha, with a generally accepted average of
42 t/ha (Hurni 1988).
Some re-forestation activities are underway but compared with the deforestation that is
taking place it is only a small percentage and most of the replanted species are eucalyptus
and cupressus with very low replanting of indigenous species. Re-forestation is a planned
activity with a targeted area to be covered each season whereas almost every household in the
rural part of the country does cutting of trees as it wishes. Compared with the long years tree
species take to reach a productive stage on degraded environment and against an increasing
demand and the slow effort in re-forestation, the future for vegetation cover is gloomy.
30 MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop
Paulos Dubale
Sustainable smallholder land and water management
Traditional small-scale irrigation innovations
Because of increasing trend of population growth in the last six decades, (from 17 million in
1940 to 63 million in 2000) (EPA/MEDaC 1997), and increased exploitation of land
resources, the balance of water resources has also been negatively affected. Although
traditional small-scale irrigation practices existed in a few places, scaling-up activities must
have started since the 1960s. The traditional irrigation practices by the farmers have some
setbacks like:
• high labour requirement to build canals
• loss of productive land due to soil and stone ridging as well as tree cutting for
construction purposes
• gully formation as a result of deep canals
• lack of water control to each canal resulting in poor water distribution to the
stakeholders
• because of the lack of extension advice on water management, the impact from such
practices has been small and should be improved through improvement of the
technologies.
However, farmers use simple tools available at their disposal. Today some small-scale
irrigation plot owners use watering cans or hoses water plants from the water source.
Farmers growing some high cash crops and living near market centres use small pumps and
generators to raise water to higher points for gravity application.
Out of necessity, farmers adopt the principle of irrigation from their relatives and
neighbours. Some farmers have adopted irrigation practice provided water is available.
However, furrow irrigation wastes water through seepage and evaporation by flowing a
long distance. Adoption of concrete tubes or plastic hose can reduce the loss of water. Hand
watering can also increase the efficiency of water management and reduce the incidence of
disease spread from one plot to another.
Management of irrigation water
Irrigation management under competing use of water
In many places where irrigation water is managed under commercial plantation, many
perennial trees are observed near the canal or around the homestead and villages. These
trees are planted for beautification of the landscape or for cooling and shading effect.
However, the negative contribution of these perennial trees is their consumption of water,
which is greater than that of the major crop produced. Renault et al. (2001) reported up to
43% of water consumption by the perennial trees compared with 22% by the crop in a
tropical humid environment. Under the present circumstances of unlimited watering by
furrow irrigation in the Awash Valley, the high evapotranspiration observed and the high
MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop 31
Present and future trends in natural resources management in agriculture
consumption by the non-intended perennial trees planners should reconsider traditional
criteria for design and performance assessment.
Salinity
Salinity affects over 11 million hectares of land in Ethiopia (Tadelle 1996). These naturally
salt-affected areas are normally found in the dry lowlands and in the Rift Valley. The
semi-arid climate of the Awash Valley has contributed to limited leaching by favouring
accumulation of soluble salts in the soil. Most of the irrigated large-scale farms in the Awash
Valley have been developed without giving due consideration to the delivery of irrigation
water and provision of drainage facilities for safe disposal of the excess water.
Sustainable land management
Soil erosion
The unique topography, type of soil, deforestation, intensive rainfall and low level of land
management and the land use type practised have resulted in heavy runoff that induced soil
erosion particularly in the northern and central highlands. Soil erosion is taking place all
over the country but because of the effect of overpopulation on land that is already fragile
(steep and mountainous), and mismanagement of the land itself, the northern and central
highlands are the worst affected. Estimation made on the amount of soil that leaves the plot
and deposited elsewhere or that leaves the country is unpredictable. This is expected
because the Ethiopian topography, agro-ecology, type of soil associations, land use type etc.
vary from one location to another. Measuring the source of variation in estimation of land
degradation is difficult. However, the estimations made by the Ethiopian Highlands
Reclamation Study (EHRS) and Soil Conservation Research Project (SCRP) are 100 t/ha
with 1.8% loss of productive cropland (Constable and Belshaw 1989) and 42 t/ha with 2%
loss of productive cropland per annum (Hurni 1988).
Soil conservation
The Soil Conservation Research Project (SCRP) of the Ministry of Agriculture, and the
Institute of Agricultural Research (IAR, now the Ethiopian Agricultural Research
Organization, EARO) have conducted major soil and water conservation research at the
national level. Limited research activities carried out by the various research centres focused
on quantifying the runoff and soil loss under different management and topographic
conditions. Results showed that grass cover was effective in minimising both runoff and soil
loss as compared with bare fallow and crop cover. If properly implemented, soil
conservation practices can be effective in counteracting soil erosion and increasing
productivity by reducing nutrient losses and conserving moisture. Recommended actions to
32 MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop
Paulos Dubale
combat the constraints in soil and water conservation are contouring, terracing and tree
planting. However, because of immense diversity in the social, topographic, agro-ecological
and watershed setups adoption rate is slow and sometimes rejected. Therefore, more
emphasis has been given to soil fertility management
Adoption rate was low because of:
• poverty
• lack of participation by the end users at the planning stage
• lack of land use policy, e.g. on grazing land, community forest and,
• lack of legislation pertaining to natural resources management.
Catchment management
Except in a few cases, research in soil and water has not taken into consideration the
catchment management. Hence, the effect of mismanagement of the catchment areas is
already being felt in many communities with steep lands and where small-scale irrigation is
practised. Sedimentation of micro-dams is becoming a serious problem in the absence of an
integrated watershed management practice. The issue may become the concern of many
communities as development of small-scale irrigation continues. Catchment management
is an important practice to adopt in soil and water conservation activities and agricultural
water management.
A catchment area may comprise different soil types or agro-ecological conditions,
depending on its extent and the physiographic and climatic conditions of the area. In
Ethiopia, however, field orientation of agricultural experiments is on plot or single site
basis. With the present situation of land degradation and possible expansion of small-scale
irrigation in the highlands, the adoption of a watershed management approach becomes
imperative. The country has also been more dependent on rain-fed agriculture but this is no
more reliable. Under this approach, each community will develop its own devices to
conserve soil moisture in situ. Hence, research centres are advised to adopt the watershed
management approach. Because of the advantages that watershed management approach
offer, few regional states have now initiated several watershed management projects and
depending on the success of these more of similar development projects will be initiated.
Infertile soil management
Causes for declining soil fertility
Farmers have a common perception regarding the cause for the decline in soil fertility.
These are:
1. continuous cropping
2. decline in manure application
3. little or no agronomic management, particularly cropping systems
MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop 33
Present and future trends in natural resources management in agriculture
4. decline in inorganic fertiliser use and,
5. soil erosion.
Continuous cultivation
An example of the declining size of farms per household is indicated in Table 1. Throughout
highland and midland Chiro woreda in eastern Ethiopia, farmers were forced to move onto
the valley slopes with 50% gradient or more, despite a guideline to cultivate only lands with
slopes below 35%. This is the case in many other parts of the country. Farmers are also
forced to cultivate the same land year after year without fallowing. Among the cropped land,
cereals occupy about 90%. Hence, there is little option left to the farmer to improve soil
fertility through crop rotation although resource-rich farmers do practice some rotations
and apply manure. Farmers with relatively small farmlands do not adopt soil conservation
practices and this has an impact on soil fertility management and soil conservation, which
will then cause land degradation because of unsustainable intensification of the land. The
continuous cultivation has also aggravated soil erosion because the land where most
agricultural activities take place is steep in many areas. The method of land preparation has
favoured erosion where essential nutrients have been washed off together with the soil.
Severely degraded land has gone out of production particularly in steep slopes.
Nutrient cycling
Nutrient balance studies
Braun et al. (1997) summarised and reported nutrient cycling between tree plantations and
natural forests, a few agroforestry tree species and forage species and the use of mineral
fertilisers on cultivated crops. Under a situation where almost all cow dung is used as fuel,
where most of the crop residues are used as animal feed and as fuel or construction material,
the nutrient imbalance would be self-evident (Table 1).
Table 1. Total nutrient balance for land/water classes in the Ethiopian highlands.
Land/moisture
class N kg ha
-1
Pkaha
-1
Kkgha
-1
Good rainfall –52 –7 –33
Uncertain rainfall –35 –5 –24
Problem rainfall –41 –4 –24
Sources: Braun et al. (1997).
Water resources
It is believed that Ethiopia has a total volume of 109 billion cubic metres of surface water
and about 2.6 billion cubic metres of ground water. The western half of the country receives
34 MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop
Paulos Dubale
sustainable amounts of precipitation and has many perennial rivers and streams while the
precipitation is marginal in the eastern half of the country. Because of the progressive land
degradation that is taking place at present, the amount of water leaving the catchments
carrying away soil with it must have increased ever than before. Hence, the amount of
available water in situ has been reduced particularly in the eastern half of the country. The
Ethiopian plateau is the source of the Abay, Awash, Tekeze, Mereb, Baro-Akobo and Omo
rivers that flow to the west and south-west. The Baro-Akobo basin is potentially the largest
possible irrigable area (about 483 thousand hectares) though only a negligible portion of it
has been developed probably because of the large investment cost required and its distance
from the central market makes it less favourable for commercial agriculture. Awash River is
the only river extensively used for commercial plantations of industrial and horticultural
crops in the Rift Valley. Out of the total irrigated area of about 161,125 ha, over 43% is
found in the Awash River basin. The remaining potential of the Awash River for irrigated
agriculture is estimated at 136,220 ha.
Because of deforestation, soil erosion and over-exploitation by the population, the
highlands are significantly degraded. This has resulted in increased acceleration of runoff
along the slope thereby reducing water infiltration. Acceleration of runoff movement down
the slope has also increased sedimentation in the downstream flat bottoms contributing to
poor quality of water. Consequently, some small rivers, streams and springs have their
volumes reduced or dried particularly during the dry season.
Social factors such as demographic pressure, land shortage, and social and cultural
aspirations affect the quality of soil and the environment. These socially driven forces lead
to several activities with major changes in soil and environmental characteristics such as
deforestation, and new land development. Some may argue that trees increase
evapotranspiration during the dry season thereby reducing the amount of water received by
the soil, but in a steeping slope like in many parts of the Ethiopian highlands, trees can
reduce the velocity and increase infiltration contributing to the more ground water
recharge.
Goal and objectives of the soil and water research strategy
General objectives
The general objective of the soil and water research strategy is to improve the utilisation and
minimise the degradation of natural resources for the sustained benefit of the nation at
large and farmers in particular.
The goal of the strategy is therefore:
• increasing land productivity per unit area through the adoption of the integrated plant
nutrient management (IPNM) approach
• improving the conservation and efficient utilisation of soil and water resources
• intensifying and diversifying land use-based knowledge and characteristics of the soil
and ecological resources classification
MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop 35
Present and future trends in natural resources management in agriculture
• optimising the scientific capacity of all centres in soil and water research to attain all the
above.
Agricultural Water Management Research Program
The importance of irrigation in agriculture to overcome food deficiency in the rapidly
growing population of the world is rapidly increasing (EARO 2000b). Ethiopia is already
suffering from food shortage because of its increasing population and chronic drought
occurrence in most parts of the eastern and northern part of the country. The estimated six
million hectares of land used for cereal production has become under-productive while
some of it could have been producing twice a year. At the same time, Ethiopia is endowed
with water resources, which could be easily tapped and used for irrigation.
This programme will handle basic soil–crop–water relationships, water balance,
agro-hydrology, irrigation and drainage methods. Drainage of heavy clay soils will be an
important component in the programme as a large area of the heavily populated land is
covered by waterlogged soils. Reclamation of degraded soils and implementation of runoff
farming for supplementary irrigation, efficient utilisation of water resources with special
emphasis on the development of small-scale irrigation will be emphasised in the different
agro-ecological zones (AEZs). Until now, research on irrigation has focused at the Werer
Center, which is located in the midst of irrigated agricultural land. However, the centre is
deficient in skilled manpower and facilities compared with the service it renders to irrigated
agriculture in the country. However, the research being conducted on agricultural water
management at Werer may not cover the interest of the highlands or other potentially
irrigable areas in the lowlands because of differences in agro-ecology and soils.
Summary
The current government’s policy for economic development and pathways to
industrialisation is through the development of the agriculture sector. There are some
obstacles facing the development of the water sector such as land tenure and land use issues,
and water basin development vs. ethnic bound development planning. However, there are
some positive sides, too, regarding agricultural development. These include:
• emphasis has been given to support the development of private smallholder agriculture
despite the fragmented and small-size land holdings
• large sizes of commercial enterprises are encouraged in areas with sparse population in
the lowlands with large opportunity for irrigated agriculture
• conservation based development of agriculture to combat soil degradation,
deforestation and improvement and maintenance of soil fertility
• the institutionalisation of strong soil and water and forestry research programmes at
directorate level equivalent to that of crops and animal science research in EARO to
generate technologies to combat desertification
• agro-ecological and watershed management approach is being adopted in EARO
36 MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop
Paulos Dubale
• the emergence of institutions like the Arbaminch Water Technology Institute and
Mekelle University College of the Drylands that train students in irrigation and
hydrogeology and soil and water conservation skills, respectively
• the National Extension Improvement Program which has soil improvement as part of its
packages
• a number of non-governmental organisations getting involved in natural resources
development and
• the emergence of market-oriented soil fertility improvement/management programmes.
References
Braun A.R., Smalling E.M.A., Muchugu E.I., Shepherd K.D. and Corbett J.K. (eds). 1997.
Maintenance and improvement of soil productivity in the highlands of Ethiopia, Kenya, Madagascar and
Uganda. African Highlands Initiative (AHI) Technical Report Series 6. AHI, Nairobi, Kenya.
Constable M. and Belshaw D. 1989. The Ethiopian Highlands Reclamation Study: Major findings
and recommendations. In: ONCCP (Office of the National Committee for Central Planning).
Towards a food and nutrition strategy for Ethiopia: Proceedings of the national workshop on food strategies
for Ethiopia, 8–12 December 1986, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. ONCCP, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
EARO (Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organization). 2000a. Forestry Research Strategic Plan.
EARO, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
EARO (Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organization). 2000b. Soil and Water Research Strategic Plan.
EARO, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
EPA/MEDaC (Environmental Protection Authority/Ministry of Economic Development and
Cooperation). 1997. The conservation strategy of Ethiopia (Volume I). The resources base, its utilization
and planning for sustainability. EPA/MEDaC, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Hurni H. 1988. Degradation and conservation of the resources in the Ethiopian highlands. Mountain
Research and Development 8(2/3):123–130.
IUCN (International Union for the Conservation of Nature). 1990. Ethiopian National Conservation
Strategy. Volume 1. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Renault D., Manju H. and David M. 2001. Impacts of water consumption by perennial vegetation in
irrigated areas of the humid tropics: A case for rethinking traditional views of irrigation design, management
and performance assessment. Improving water and land resources management for food, livelihoods and
nature. IWMI Annual Report 2000–2001. IWMI (International Water Management Institute),
Colombo, Sri Lanka.
Tadelle Gebresilassie. 1996. Appraisal of Awash River water quality for irrigation in the Amibara. In:
Desta Beyene (ed), Soil science research in Ethiopia: IAR proceedings. IAR (Institute of Agricultural
Research), Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. pp. 173–179.
MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop 37
Present and future trends in natural resources management in agriculture
Agriculture, irrigation and drainage
research in the past and the future
Paulos Dubale, Michael Menkir, Moltot Zewdie and Lijalem Zeray
Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organization (EARO), Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Abstract
Irrigation has so far not been very important in the development of agriculture in Ethiopia.
Unfortunately, the country suffers from severe food shortage due to chronic droughts when
there is a potential to develop over three million hectares by irrigation. Land under
irrigation accounts for only 5% of the potential and nearly half of this is under traditional
irrigation scattered all over the country. Most of the modern commercially managed
agriculture is found in the Awash Valley and mainly produces cotton, sugarcane and
horticultural crops.
Irrigation and drainage research in Ethiopia has been undertaken at the Werer
Agricultural Research Center where most of the commercial farms are found and serves
mainly these farms or similar other farms in far away places.
The major outputs of research in irrigation and drainage management at Werer have
been the determination of water requirement, frequency and depth of application for
cotton, wheat, maize and horticultural crops. Significant investigation has also been done
on drainage and fertiliser management under irrigation in the region. Continuous
monitoring of the quality of Awash River water for irrigation has indicated no major
problems concerning salinity except for a few sites.
The constraints and gaps observed in irrigation and drainage research, limitations
observed in the scaling up of the technologies to other locations, and future strategies and
approaches in research on agricultural water management are presented in the paper.
Background
Presently, irrigated area in the country accounts only for 5% of the total land suitable for
irrigation and about one-third of this is located in the Awash basin. But the improperly
planned irrigation projects not supported by improved irrigation and drainage
management technologies, had invited further degradation causing salinity, sodicity and
siltation problems. This is observed in the major state farms of the Middle and Lower
Awash.
Research on irrigation management and drainage in Ethiopia was first initiated in 1964
at Werer Agricultural Research Center. The main focus of the research was on the
38 MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop
agronomic aspects of irrigation on cotton production. More work has been done on the
crop water-requirement of different crops, namely fibres (cotton and kenaf), horticultural
and lowland oil crops. Investigations on alternative irrigation systems and an assessment of
indigenous knowledge were conceived only recently. At present, research on irrigation,
drainage and water conservation has been initiated in other centres of the Ethiopian
Agricultural Research Organization (EARO) located in the sub-moist and moist
agro-ecological zones of higher altitudes such as Debre Zeit and Melkassa. The justification
for this is that the research on agricultural water management at Werer may not cover the
interest of the highlands or other potential areas for irrigation development. However, the
centre still lacks skilled manpower and facilities.
Ethiopia needs to raise the national capability in agricultural water management
activities (irrigation, drainage, water harvesting), and water resource development through
research and development.
In Ethiopia, most of the research activities have been mainly concentrated on
agronomic components giving less attention to the engineering aspects. It is also observed
that the research has focused on plot-based studies than looking into integrated water
management for agriculture.
Adoption of research findings in water management and assessing and upgrading the
indigenous knowledge of irrigation by farmers should be the major outputs of the research
activities.
Objectives
The objectives of this paper are briefly to assess:
1. the irrigation and drainage research by the former Institute of Agricultural Research
(IAR, now the Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organization, EARO)
2. the gaps and constraints encountered in the process and,
3. the strategy to strengthen irrigation and drainage research in the future.
Research achievements
Water requirement studies
Irrigation research at Werer has been going on for over 35 years assisted by the Food and
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) in the first 10 years. The main
activities during this time were determining frequency of irrigation and water closure dates,
experiments to determine optimum combination of irrigation frequency and depth of
application, and experiments to evaluate sensitive stages of growth for moisture stress,
moisture depletion patterns and the effect of water logging on yield.
It was reported that the water requirement of cotton planted in mid-May was 1009 mm
while that planted in mid-July was 915 mm. The drop in July is due to the reduced
MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop 39
Agriculture, irrigation and drainage research in the past and the future
evapotranspiration and the small rain received at the time. The amount reported was within
the range and values given by other researchers (e.g. Kandia 1982). It was also found that
cotton in the Middle Awash can be irrigated by one of two irrigation regimes, i.e. once in two
weeks with 75 mm of water per application, or once in three weeks with 120.5 mm of water
per application. Water budget method was also studied and it was found that with 70%
irrigation efficiency, gross irrigation requirement for cotton in mid-Awash region is found
to be 120 mm (Kandia 1982).
Studies on cotton–water yield relation confirmed that irrigation of 150 mm water at
squaring; flowering and boll formation stages are best for optimum production. Irrigation
intervals for cotton grown on salt-affected soils revealed that one to two pre-planting
irrigation perform well on cotton yield.
Other practical recommendations were made on optimum irrigation regimes
(frequency and amount) of maize, kenaf, groundnut, sesame, bean, wheat, onion, pepper,
banana, tomato and citrus.
Monitoring the water quality of Awash River
The quality of Awash River water for irrigation has been monitored for many years. In 1973
the quality of the water sampled at Amibara Irrigation Project site was reported to be
satisfactory for sustained irrigation with adequate leaching and drainage. The quality
reported from 1987 to 1989 for Middle Awash was also considered safe except when water
was not available in June and July between Werer and Meteka farms (Endale et al. 1992).
Drainage
Studies on sub-surface drainage systems under a pilot drainage scheme revealed that a 40 to
60 metres drainage spacing with red-ash filter material is best to reduce soil salinity and
control groundwater table in the Middle Awash Valley. Leaching as a reclamation method
for salt affected soils revealed that intermittent leaching practice with 150 mm of irrigation
water is effective in removing soluble salts from the root zone of cotton crop in the Middle
Awash.
Cumber-beds of different width have been recommended for draining excess moisture
and application of N and P fertilisers highly increased the yield of crops grown on vertisols.
Constraints and gaps
a Manpower status
Manpower is one of the limiting factors in agricultural water management research. The
balance of manpower in soil and water research compared with that in the crop science
research is discouraging. It also indicates the low weight that had been given to the
management of the natural resources in the past. The balance within the programme is not
40 MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop
Paulos Dubale et al.
also encouraging. Of the total manpower engaged in the programme, the ratio for
agricultural water management, soil and water conservation and soil fertility and plant
nutrient management is 15:18:57. Laboratory technicians (diploma graduates) are also the
most limiting resource.
The technical capacity of the available staff is also limited due to lack of in-service
training, scholarships and support from more advanced research and academic institutions.
b Financial allocation
By nature, agricultural water management research activities need relatively higher amount
of financial resources. Unlike the other sectors of agricultural research the funding for
irrigation, drainage and water harvesting research from EARO has been extremely
restricted inhibiting involvement of the research staff into the solutions of agricultural
water management problems.
Therefore, it is important that this area of research must get financial assistance from
other sources. International institutions need to have a better involvement in this respect.
c Facilities
Most of the soil and water management divisions in the research centres have a small unit of
soil laboratory. However, the constraints faced are lack of hydraulic laboratory,
maintenance of instruments, shortage of chemicals and glassware in the existing
laboratories.
d Scope of research area
The scope of the research has been confined to irrigation agronomy trials to recommend
irrigation application and to develop the methods of drainage of heavy clay soils. Priority
areas for irrigation and drainage research, based on studies of the country’s problems, have
yet to be identified.
Research in water resource development could enable the development of low-cost
structures and irrigation systems for handling water. Where research information is lacking,
there is a danger of over-design, which results in high cost or under-design, which results in
failure. Specific research have not yet been conducted to address problems related with flow
structures (canals, ditches, flumes etc.); water storage facilities (farm ponds, irrigation
reservoirs) and sediment traps.
Agricultural water management research should, therefore, be accompanied with the
water resource development and research activities to have a significant impact on the
future development of irrigated agriculture.
e Poverty
Not only the research work, but also the implementation of developed agricultural water
management technologies has high initial cost. Most of the grass-root communities who are
MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop 41
Agriculture, irrigation and drainage research in the past and the future
supposed to use these technologies are poor. Due to this fact, it is difficult to implement
these technologies unless they get financial support.
f Dissemination of research results
Even though there are some technologies already developed in agricultural water
management programmes, little has been done in disseminating these technologies. This is
because of loose linkage between the research and extension on the one hand, and lack of
awareness by the extension services about the importance of these technologies on the other
hand.
Much attention by extension people has been given to the dissemination of high
yielding crop varieties and fertiliser, rather than agricultural water management
technologies.
Lessons learned
Need for participatory approach
Under the former Institute of Agricultural Research (IAR) (now EARO), most of the
research activities were developed through the initiatives of the researchers themselves
without the participation of the stakeholders and the end users. This has not speeded up the
transfer of the developed technologies to locations away from the centre.
According to Andargachew (2002), the participation of the stakeholders in the research
has the following importance:
• a recognition that farmers’ input in the research leads to more adoption and
sustainability
• contacts between researchers and farmers lead to recognition of the value of local
knowledge especially in complex, diverse and risk prone conditions
• provides technologies relevant to the needs of resource-poor farmers
• allows the generation and/or dissemination of technologies under local conditions
• provides opportunity for accepting or rejecting technologies at an early stage and at the
same time allows the easy adoption of promising technologies and
• gives information on the characteristics of a technology that farmers consider important.
Participatory approach is, therefore, the best solution for the dissemination, adoption
and sustainability of any research activities.
Need for strong research–extension linkage
Like in crops research, aggressive dissemination work is required in the transfer of available
technologies of agricultural water management to the farming communities, to bring real
change in the agriculture sector. For example, considerable efforts have been put to build
soil and water conservation structures using available technologies, unlike agricultural
42 MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop
Paulos Dubale et al.
water management. Efforts should be made by the researchers in water management to
make strong and closer linkage with the research–extension group to disseminate the
improved technologies to the end users.
Need for integrated water management research
In the past research projects were developed independent of the involvement of other
disciplines and this has incurred more time and cost to the research activity. Future
approach should consider involving the different stakeholders from planning to
implementation of the research projects to shorten the time frame between technology
generation and transfer.
The research should also focus on the investigation of national, zonal, regional and
other problems in particular to the needs of the people related to water resources
development in line with the agricultural water management. This could provide practical
and sustainable solutions to the existing problems. Moreover, applied research should be
given priority than the theoretical one. Therefore, integrated research approach is the key
for bringing effective, efficient and complete research technologies to the end users.
Need for research networking
Based on their importance, some research activities will be undertaken at a larger scale
involving many users. To ensure complementarity of efforts and avoid duplication, it is
suggested that some of these activities be grouped under the umbrella of networks where
appropriate centres would play the lead co-ordination role.
Ongoing and planned activities
Ongoing activities
• establishing soil, crop and water relationships and developing efficient water uses for
sustainable production particularly by determining the crop water-requirement and
irrigation scheduling for different crops under different agro-ecological zones (AEZs)
• evaluating different surface irrigation systems aimed at increasing the water use
efficiency and crop yield of different AEZs
• monitoring the water quality of the Rift Valley lakes and Awash River to facilitate the
existing and new irrigation works by avoiding risk and uncertainty
• assessing and evaluating farmers’ indigenous knowledge of agricultural water
management practices to upgrade and improve the traditional knowledge on irrigation
water management
• developing of different drainage technologies to manage poorly drained soils and
• water harvesting and conservation using contour bund in arid areas to mitigate the risk
of chronic drought (EARO 2002).
MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop 43
Agriculture, irrigation and drainage research in the past and the future
Planned activities
Short term
• Identifying and prioritising agricultural water management research
• Inventoring, characterising and evaluating farmers’ knowledge of agricultural water
management practices of watershed areas and water logging soils
• Evaluating the existing research outputs on agricultural water management and making
them available to the users
• Studying the tolerance of different crop, grass and tree species on salt affected soils and
developing crop production management systems.
Medium term
• establishing soil, crop and water relationships and developing efficient water use for
sustainable production. Developing appropriate irrigation and drainage technologies
• developing engineering parameters for irrigation and drainage design
• undertaking water balance studies in different AEZs
• identifying suitable and appropriate irrigation methods under different AEZs (EARO
2000).
Summary
Research on irrigation has been going on at Werer Agricultural Research Center, for more
than 30 years. It has served the interests of the large commercial plantations of cotton and
horticultural crops in the valley. It will continue serving the purpose of these large-scale
commercial farms as many more are expected to come into existence in the next few years.
However, from now on, irrigation development is not only focusing on the production of
industrial crops but also food crops and high value cash crops in the highlands where most
of the population live. The Ministry of Water Resources has nearly completed
comprehensive master plan studies of the major river basins and is embarking on the
implementation phase. The master plan studies not only focus on the potential lowland
irrigation but also on the development of potential areas in the highlands with emphasis on
food crop production.
The Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organization (EARO) is mandated to generate
technologies on irrigation and drainage in all agro-ecologies of the country and to this end it
has developed strategies for short, medium and long-term periods. To implement the
strategy EARO has started to recruit junior researchers in agricultural and water
engineering. Agricultural water management, watershed management and water
conservation are given high priorities in the short- and medium-term plans of the
organisation. EARO is working with all stakeholders and partners to achieve its objectives.
44 MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop
Paulos Dubale et al.
References
Andargachew Godebo. 2002. Farmer participatory research and extension guideline. Awassa, Ethiopia. pp.
3–4.
Endale Bekele, Geremew Eticha and Girma Desta. 1992. Appraisal of the quality of Awash River
water for irrigation. In: Natural resources management of conservation and development. Second natural
resources conservation conference, 10–12 May 1990, IAR, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. IAR (Institute of
Agricultural Research), Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. EARO (Ethiopian Agricultural Research
Organization). 2000. Soil and Water Research Program Strategic Plan. EARO, Addis Ababa,
Ethiopia.
EARO (Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organization). 2002. Soil and Water Research Program Annual
Research Directory. EARO, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Kandia A. 1982. Response of cotton to irrigation: Cotton production under irrigation in Ethiopia.
In: Mesfin Abebe (ed), Proceedings of the symposium. IAR (Institute of Agricultural Research), Addis
Ababa, Ethiopia. pp. 71–90.
Tadelle Gebresilassie. 1986. Appraisal of Awash River water quality for irrigation in the Amibara. In:
Desta Beyene (ed), Soil science research in Ethiopia: IAR proceedings. IAR (Institute of Agricultural
Research), Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. pp. 173–179.
MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop 45
Agriculture, irrigation and drainage research in the past and the future
Advances in integrated water resources
management research in agriculture
H. Sally
Senior Researcher
International Water Management Institute (IWMI), Africa Regional Office, Pretoria, South Africa
Abstract
This paper presents an overview of integrated water resources management (IWRM) with
particular reference to agricultural water use in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). The importance
of adopting an integrated, river basin based approach to analyse water availability and to
assess the possibilities for water resources development, water productivity improvements,
and water savings is highlighted. The role of storage, the merits and demerits of different
techniques for improving water productivity, the need for sustainable management of
groundwater, and the potential for recycling wastewater for agricultural production are
discussed. The importance of effective and user-friendly policy and institutional
mechanisms to promote uptake of and derive optimum benefits from technological and
management advances is underlined.
What does integrated water resources management
mean?
The concept of integrated water resources management (IWRM) was born of the realisation
that water policy and water management were often too fragmented to effectively address
important questions such as:
• how can society’s needs for water be met in a sustainable way?
• how can the aspirations and priorities of different categories of users at local, national
and regional levels be addressed?
• how to strike a rational balance between beneficial utilisation of the resource and
resource protection?
Population growth and greater demand for water exert increasing pressure on available
water resources and lead to water scarcity in many countries and regions, especially during
dry seasons and droughts. In addition, rising demand intensifies competition among water
uses and water users and may trigger disputes and conflicts.
IWRM is a comprehensive approach to water management that takes into account
different types of water (e.g. surface water and groundwater, brackish and fresh water),
combining both quantitative (e.g. floods, droughts, consumption) and qualitative aspects
46 MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop
(e.g. pollution, water temperature changes, ecological functions). IWRM also offers a
platform for managing actual and potential conflicts among various interests and users (e.g.
households, industries, agriculture, nature, fisheries, energy and navigation).
In general, IWRM means making decisions on the development and management of
water resources from a multi-disciplinary, quantitative, qualitative and ecological
perspective involving all uses and users of water. IWRM is founded on an understanding of
the interactions and interfaces between those different uses and users, particularly the
impacts of water use by a particular sub-sector, or at a particular location, on other
sub-sectors or locations.
Scope of the paper
This paper reviews concepts and issues related to IWRM in relation to the challenge of
meeting the expanding food and fibre requirements of growing populations in SSA. The
many facets of agricultural water use, with particular reference to tools and approaches for
increasing water availability and realising water productivity improvements in light of the
multiple uses and users of water in river basins are discussed. The need for an enabling
environment, including policies, institutions and support services, in seeking strategies to
improve and sustain agricultural water use, is highlighted.
Water and food security challenges in sub-Saharan
Africa
Achieving the goal of food security in SSA has to contend with the fact that some of the
world’s most water-scarce countries are located in the region. Research carried out by the
International Water Management Institute (IWMI) (Seckler et al. 1998; Seckler et al. 1999)
shows that almost all countries in Africa would face either absolute or economic water
scarcity in 2025. In the first case, countries will simply not have sufficient water resources to
meet their projected agricultural, domestic, industrial and environmental needs, even if
water is used with the highest feasible efficiency and productivity. The second set of
countries, although having sufficient water resources, will be limited by their capacity to
develop the additional storage, conveyance and distribution facilities needed to harness
those resources for agricultural development and food production. In addition, these
studies project that almost all the African countries will have to import over 10% of their
total cereal consumption in 2025.
In many countries in the semi-arid regions of SSA, rainfed agriculture is practised
extensively. But rainfed agriculture is highly dependent on the quantity and reliability of
rainfall, which determine critical decisions such as crop choice and planting dates.
Irrigation, if properly designed and managed, helps overcome many of the disadvantages
inherent to rainfed agriculture. It overcomes the need for shifting cultivation and reduces
the pressure on fragile environments. The risk of crop failure is minimised and farmers can
MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop 47
Advances in integrated water resources management research in agriculture
hope for higher and more reliable agricultural production and better levels of income.
However, large-scale irrigation expansion is slowing down as the best sites are progressively
exploited, the cost of developing the less favourable sites rises, and the availability of
investment capital diminishes. The generally disappointing performance of large irrigation
systems and the social costs associated with large-scale developments act as further
disincentives.
Increasing competition for available fresh water resources means that countries are
obliged to make hard choices in developing and allocating water between agriculture and
other uses. If water allocations to agriculture are reduced and instead diverted to sectors
considered to be more lucrative, prospects for increasing food production, which even now
is hard-pressed to keep pace with population growth, may be further undermined.
Appropriate decision-support tools and techniques can play a significant role in water
allocation. The Water Evaluation and Planning System (WEAP) is one such example (SEI
2001). IWMI has begun using it as a research tool to simulate and analyse water allocation
scenarios in river basins in response to various sources of supply (e.g. rivers, groundwater,
and reservoirs) and variations in abstractions, demands, and ecosystem requirements etc.
The scenarios address a broad range of ‘what if’ questions, such as: What if population
growth and economic development patterns change? What if ecosystem requirements are
tightened? What if irrigation techniques and crop patterns are altered? What if various
demand management strategies are implemented? Preliminary results of an application of
WEAP to the Steelpoort basin in South Africa are reported in Lévite et al. (2002).
So, the challenge before us is how to make the most productive use of the available land,
water, financial and other resources, including the adoption of policies and institutional
arrangements, to promote economically and ecologically sustainable soil, water and crop
management practices, and agricultural production.
Agricultural water use and IWRM in the basin
context
Agriculture is the world’s biggest user of land and water resources; it accounts for over 85%
of water withdrawals in Africa (Rosegrant and Perez 1995). But at the same time, not all of
the water withdrawn for irrigated agriculture reaches the crops—it either evaporates, seeps
through canals, or leaks through pipes. Sally et al. (2000) pointed out that the imprecise
nature of many canal water delivery systems and surface irrigation methods leads to more
water being applied than crop transpiration needs because of the difficulty in (a) ensuring
that all crops in the field receive a uniform and adequate water supply and (b) knowing when
enough water has been applied. Water applied in excess of crop transpiration evaporates
from soil surfaces, or percolates past the root zone to groundwater, or ends as surface runoff
and return flows to the drainage and supply systems. Some of this ‘lost’ water is thus
available for reuse especially if pollutants such as agro-chemicals, salt residues, or domestic
and industrial waste have not adversely affected its quality (Seckler et al. 1998). In terms of a
basin, irrigation return flows are therefore externalities that are sometimes positive, as for
48 MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop
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instance when groundwater is recharged, and sometimes negative, for example when
salinity build-up is exacerbated; hence the need to take a basin perspective to ascertain if
such excess water is desirable or not.
Water savings: Some misconceptions
It is recognised that the river basin is the appropriate unit for planning, developing and
managing water resources, and for analysing water availability and water use, and thereby,
the scope for water savings. Sakthivadivel et al. (2001) pointed out that water saving means
different things to different people. If a farmer uses less water in his fields, he may well
consider that he has also saved water. But increases in efficiency (which typically relates the
quantity of water beneficially used to the amount of water diverted) at a local level do not
necessarily lead to water savings at a basin scale, especially if return flows are being reused or
contribute to groundwater recharge. In such situations, any reduction in the amount of
water diverted for irrigation will have an adverse impact on water-related activities
downstream, especially if the basin is ‘closed’.
1
But in cases where there are drainage flows
out of the basin or to sinks, then using less water in the field will also translate into water
savings at the basin level.
Agriculture and irrigation projects on the one hand, and technological and
management interventions on the other, are often justified on the basis of water savings.
But, as shown above, this may sometimes be misleading. The adoption of these techniques
may result in less water use per hectare and an increase in water productivity on some fields.
But to determine whether water was really saved or not, we have to find out what happens to
the water that is not used. If water is not affected by pollutant loading and can be used
productively at another location, then there is no net change in water use (i.e. water
productivity increases, but there is no overall water saving).
Some tools and techniques
When contemplating water resources development, we therefore see the importance of
properly accounting for water flows in a river basin, including return flows from seepage,
percolation and surface runoff traditionally counted as ‘losses’ at farm and system level.
Molden and Sakthivadivel (1999) showed how this could be done using a water accounting
framework that integrates water balance information with the various water uses within a
basin. The different ways in which water flows into and out of basins can be assessed and
potential areas of water scarcity and those where further development of water resources can
occur identified.
MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop 49
Advances in integrated water resources management research in agriculture
1. In a closed basin, all of the water in the basin is fully committed and depleted by various uses within it and
there is no outflow of utilisable water. Any further depletive use in one part of the basin will thus affect users
in other parts. In such cases additional water needs can only be met through gains in water productivity (e.g.
by reducing non-beneficial evaporation, by reallocation or by augmentation from an outside source). In an
open basin, on the other hand, there are outflows of utilisable, uncommitted outflows all year round and
more water could be developed even in a low flow season without diminishing existing uses.
While there are many proven hydrologic models that can estimate likely runoff given
particular combinations of rainfall, land cover, topography etc. rather less is known about
water abstractions for irrigation and other uses. Many water abstractions are private and
small scale, and do not enter directly into the official records of water use in a basin. But they
can have a significant cumulative impact that ultimately will affect natural hydrologic
regimes. Approaches combining analysis of past records, field surveys, interviews of key
informants, and the use of remote-sensing images and data contained in global databases
such as the IWMI World Water and Climate Atlas (IWMI 2000) may be useful in this
regard. Droogers (2002) provided an overview of the available global datasets on irrigated
areas and an evaluation of their strengths and weaknesses and shows that remotely sensed
data can usefully complement existing field-based approaches and land-use classification
information to map irrigated areas and to assess actual evapotranspiration from both
irrigated and non-irrigated areas.
The foregoing discussion shows that, in reality, water used for agricultural purposes may
have a variety of other uses; the full potential of agricultural water use cannot be realised
without an overall knowledge and understanding of basin-level water use and availability.
Meeting increased demands for agricultural water use
There are two ways of meeting this increased demand: developing additional water supplies
(e.g. reservoir construction, trans-basin diversions), or making effective use of existing
facilities. The role of storage will be discussed as an example of the first approach; in the case
of the second, attention will be focused on improving water productivity. Discussions of the
potentially important contributions of (a) groundwater and (b) the recycling of wastewater
towards enhancing agricultural production will conclude this chapter.
Role of storage
Different rainfall regimes result in different levels of availability of fresh water resources. In
permanent humid climatic zones, rainfall distribution is regular and runoff is quite stable.
In many seasonally humid and semi-arid climates, river runoff is irregularly distributed
within the year—heavy rain alternates with dry spells resulting in alternating flood and
drought periods. Such areas stand to benefit from suitable measures to capture and store
excess water for irrigation, industry and domestic use.
The essential function of storage, whether in reservoirs, tanks, farm ponds, or
groundwater aquifers, is to help meet water demand in the face of spatial and temporal
variations in natural water supply. Keller et al. (2000) discussed different ways of storing
water: in the soil profile, in underground aquifers, and in reservoirs. They point out that
storage of water in the soil profile, though important for crop production, is very short-term,
lasting only a few days. Small reservoirs can store water for some months whereas in the case
of large reservoirs or aquifers, the storage horizon can extend to years.
50 MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop
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While recognising that each storage technology would have strong comparative
advantages under specific conditions of time and place, they show that substantial gains can
be achieved in water resources development projects by integrating aquifers and reservoirs,
wherever possible.
Enhancing the productivity of water
When managing water for agriculture, especially in areas where water rather than land is the
limiting resource, the focus should shift to increasing the productivity of water. That is, to
identify and adopt agricultural and water management practices that achieve more output
per unit of water consumed, thereby easing the strains of water scarcity and reducing the
need for additional storage.
Techniques such as deficit, supplemental or precision irrigation that allow better
control, timing and reliability of water supplies will enable farmers to apply limited amounts
of water to their crops in the time and amount that help realise optimum crop response to
water. One can select crops or crop varieties that are less water consuming or which yield
higher physical or economic productivity per unit of water, or adopt improved land
preparation and fertilisation practices. Any water thereby freed up can, in turn, be
reallocated to other uses with potentially dramatic increases in overall economic
productivity of water.
Sally et al. (2000) discussed issues related to the adoption of precision irrigation
techniques in a basin perspective: what they are, where in the basin they could be promoted,
and how they could benefit poor people. It is emphasised that such techniques are not
always high-technology options but include a broad range of innovative and affordable
technologies and water management practices such as simple bucket and drum kits for drip
irrigation, small sprinkler systems, level basins, and conventional drip and sprinkler
systems. They enable farmers with limited access to water to make effective use of that water;
in addition, non-beneficial evaporation can be minimised and water diversion
requirements from the source reduced. Overall, small, resource-poor farmers in water scarce
areas thus have an opportunity to improve agricultural production, household food security
and income. This is especially important for farmers in marginal areas of SSA given that the
‘costs’ of water scarcity invariably tend to fall more heavily on the poor, particularly women
who constitute nearly half the agricultural labour force (van Koppen 1999).
In light of the spatial and temporal interactions between different water users in a basin,
it is important that water conservation interventions be properly located within the basin.
The concept of ‘hydronomic zones’ (hydro: water, nomus: management) introduced by
Molden et al. (2001) provides a simple framework for interpreting water use, evaluating
water-balance based performance measures, and formulating strategies for the development
and management of basin-wide water resources. It provides guidance on whether the
geographic location and quality of outflows would allow reuse or not, thus helping to target
and prioritise efforts and investments for more productive use of water.
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Advances in integrated water resources management research in agriculture
Sustainable management of groundwater
2
Groundwater development offers major opportunities for promoting food production and
improving livelihoods in many countries with high levels of rural poverty. Groundwater is
also an increasingly important source of water for urban and industrial uses. Affordable
water-lifting devices such as small diesel or electric pumps, or muscle-powered treadle
pumps have dramatically improved poor people’s access to groundwater in Bangladesh,
eastern India and Nepal (Shah et al. 2000). At this scale, the capital requirements to develop
groundwater irrigation are generally low and its productivity is higher compared with
surface irrigation. It offers farmers irrigation water ‘on-demand’ and reacts slower to
drought.
Benefits of groundwater development have to be balanced against the risks of
over-exploitation and contamination. Groundwater is being heavily depleted in many
areas—the 1 to 3 metres annual decline in water tables occurring in pump intensive areas of
India and China illustrate the gravity and magnitude of the problem. This is compounded
by problems of inequitable access to water and health problems arising from contaminants
such as arsenic, fluoride or other contaminants.
Management of groundwater resources is a typical example of how to reconcile resource
use against resource conservation. The lack of reliable data on water availability, quality and
yield and aquifer characteristics in many semi-arid areas of SSA is a serious constraint to
establishing the limits to groundwater use. Measures to regulate groundwater overdraft
should be combined with approaches to promote groundwater recharge and increase water
productivity. The associated challenges are formidable. But they have to be faced if we hope
to make use of the available reserves of groundwater in a rational and sustainable way.
Recycling of wastewater in peri-urban agriculture
Although the rural population remains in the majority, the rate of urbanisation in SSA is
higher than in any other continent (Merrey et al. 2002). Driving this phenomenon are
demographic growth and migration to cities. A common feature of growing cities is that they
generate large volumes of wastewater but possess little or no sanitation infrastructure. Poor
sanitation results in wastewater entering waterways used for agriculture in urban and
peri-urban areas and hence de facto recycling of wastewater.
Urban and peri-urban agriculture is increasingly becoming an important source of
livelihoods, income and nutrition. It fills a niche for perishable products such as fruits and
vegetables, produced and marketed directly with very little processing. It contributes to
household food security of the urban poor and marketable surpluses provide a regular
source of income to peri-urban farmers, particularly women. But very often, the source of
water and nutrients in peri-urban agriculture is city ‘waste’, far more reliable than rainfall,
but with attendant health implications.
The global extent of peri-urban agriculture is not known but available estimates indicate
that about 900 thousand hectares of cropland worldwide are irrigated using treated or
52 MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop
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2. Adapted from Sakthivadivel and Sally (in press).
untreated municipal wastewater, with Mexico alone accounting for over 600 thousand
hectares (Raschid and Abayawardena 2002). It is suspected that this is just the tip of the
iceberg and comprehensive assessment at a global level is needed to understand its
significance. Countries in Africa (such as Botswana, Ghana, Kenya, Mozambique, Namibia,
South Africa, Zambia and Zimbabwe) are examples where wastewater (with varying degrees
of treatment) is used for agriculture. In fact, the National Agricultural Master Plan in
Botswana makes provision for treatment facilities to ensure the reuse of wastewater for
agriculture. In Ruai, Kenya, the effluent has been treated to a degree compatible with World
Health Organization (WHO) micro-biological quality guidelines for irrigation of crops
without risk to workers and the public (Hide et al. 2001; Inocencio et al. 2002).
On-going research is focused on developing and promoting technical, management and
policy options to support wastewater use in peri-urban agriculture that adequately address
concerns such as the possible health hazards to workers and the consumer, the effect of
repeated application of wastewater to the soil, and the possible accumulation of
contaminants in the soil and groundwater. They include crop restriction, low cost
treatment at the point of use (such as short-term retention of water in pools before applying
to the crop), additional pre-treatment, alternative irrigation methods (furrow, drip and
trickle irrigation are supposed to reduce risks to farm workers) and controlled use of
effluent.
Further details and discussion on the subject of reuse of waste for irrigation can be
found in Drechsel and Kunze (2001) and Hussain et al. (2002).
Institutions, policies and support services
Sound institutions and policies, together with the development of the requisite
organisational capacity and skills for enforcement and regulation, are vital to ensure uptake
of technological innovations and advances and that the ensuing benefits are equitably
distributed, particularly among the most disadvantaged sectors of society.
Key institutional attributes include:
a. demarcation of the roles, rights and responsibilities of the various actors in the water
sector
b. promotion of new forms of partnerships for investment, operation and maintenance of
facilities
c. participation of stakeholders at all levels and scales and
d. emergence of financially self-reliant service delivery organisations that are responsive
and accountable to water users.
But there are huge challenges ahead. Traditional, sectoral and fragmented approaches
to water resources management with different agencies and departments pursuing
divergent interests (e.g. the promotion of irrigation development at the expense of
ecological services) must be overcome. Upstream and downstream water-users need to
develop a better understanding of their inter-dependencies. Water management
MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop 53
Advances in integrated water resources management research in agriculture
decision-makers should not only have good technical skills and competencies, but should
also be encouraged to consult with, and be sensitive to the views of, all stakeholders.
When agricultural water stakeholders are provided with reliable and responsive support
services, they are more likely to invest in improved technologies and practices, usually
resulting in improved performance, increased production, and higher incomes. The
support services on offer should therefore be commensurate with the (often scarce) skills
and resources available in rural environments. Reliable service delivery requires the
establishment of:
a. clear rules and agreements between providers and users giving details of the nature of
the service, including the compensation arrangements for providing and receiving such
services
b. mechanisms for monitoring and control of obligations
c. modalities for resolution of conflicts and disputes and
d. procedures for modifying and updating agreements.
These factors take on added significance in light of the progressive disengagement of
public agencies from many aspects of agricultural water management accompanied by the
transfer of responsibilities to the beneficiaries.
Concluding remarks
Feeding the world’s population means contending with growing demands for food and
nutrition, more pressure on arable land, increasing competition for water resources, and
dealing with major concerns about deteriorating ecosystems. The challenge therefore is to
manage land, water and other natural resources to achieve food and environmental security,
alleviate poverty and raise living standards in an equitable and sustainable manner.
Water rather than land is generally the limiting resource in SSA—whereas some
countries just do not have sufficient water resources, others do not have the means to
develop the additional supplies to meet their needs. In this paper, emphasis has been placed
on improving the productivity of agricultural water use, as part of an integrated and holistic
approach to water resources management.
The use of models and indicators at field, system and basin levels to understand water
use, water availability, water productivity and water allocation has been discussed.
Identifying and promoting affordable but effective technologies to capture, collect and
distribute water that are commensurate with local conditions, organisational skills and
expertise, have significant scope for improving household food security and the livelihoods
of the poor. The importance of effective policy and institutional mechanisms that reflect the
aspirations of all stakeholders to derive the full benefits of technological innovations and
approaches has also been underlined.
54 MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop
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References
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Improving the water productivity
of livestock: An opportunity
for poverty reduction
D. Peden, Girma Tadesse and Mulugeta Mammo
International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Abstract
In Ethiopia, intensification of agricultural production is the primary focus of the
government’s poverty reduction strategy. Livestock constitute an invaluable resource
providing essential goods and services to small-scale poor farmers and their families and
communities. Production of high valued livestock products provides a route out of poverty
especially where growing urban demand fuels the markets. Water security is a requisite
input for livestock production and its resultant contribution to poverty reduction.
Typically, one tropical livestock unit (TLU = 250 kg live weight) requires less than 50
litres/day derived from drinking water and moisture in animal feeds. Assuming annual
rainfall of 500 to 1000 mm and a stocking rate of one TLU/ha, the drinking water required
by livestock is less than 0.2% of the intercepted precipitation. While sufficient high quality
water is essential to sustaining livestock production, direct water intake is only of minor
significance in terms of livestock water budgets in farming systems and watersheds where
the water required for feed production can be up to 5000 litres/TLU per day or 100 times
the amount directly consumed.
Water productivity of livestock may be high or low depending on the context within
which livestock production is evaluated. Livestock produced solely with irrigated forage and
grain crops may be very inefficient in terms of water consumed for food produced. However,
‘cut-and-carry’ and grazing production relying on consumption of crop residues and tree
fodder can be very efficient since the water used for plant production would have been used
with or without livestock feeding on it. The stover or feed is simply a by-product of growing
crops and does not require additional water for its production. Livestock also provide rural
farmers with additional value in terms of consumable and marketable outputs without
incurring significant demand for water. Understanding and managing water productivity of
livestock presents opportunities to contribute to poverty reduction.
Water productivity varies according to the geographic scale being considered and
depends largely on the degree to which water is depleted or available to other users or
ecosystem services. Livestock have a profound impact on downstream water resources. In
urban and peri-urban areas, livestock production may be an ideal agricultural practice in
terms of water productivity if downstream contamination can be avoided. Increasing
MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop 57
demand for livestock products implies increased future demand for water that can be
expected to rival the water requirements for production of all other food products
consumed by the urban population. In many cases, livestock management practices
jeopardise water quality, human health and aggravate water mediated land degradation.
Research is needed to develop practical strategies to enable poor people in rural, peri-urban
and urban areas to better manage livestock so that they can realise poverty reducing benefits
and minimise harmful effects on themselves and others. An utmost need exists for
community based natural resources management, a critical issue of interest to water and
livestock managers. Given the paucity of literature on livestock–water interactions, key
areas for future research are highlighted.
Introduction
Poverty is the pronounced deprivation in human well-being encompassing not only
material deprivation but also poor health, literacy and nutrition, vulnerability to shocks and
changes, and having little or no control over key decisions (ILRI 2002).
About 1.3 billion people or one-fifth of the world’s population live on less than US$ 1
per day. Women constitute 70% of the poorest of the poor. They provide more than half the
labour force required to produce food in the developing world. In Africa, close to 70% of
the staple foods are produced by women. Women typically spend a higher proportion of
their income on food and health care for children (Ashby 1999).
Ethiopia ranks near the bottom of the global poverty scale. About 45% of the people live
on less than US$ 1/day, and life expectancy is about 47 years and falling. Diseases of poverty
such as malaria, tuberculosis (TB), Human immunodeficiency virus/Acquired
immuno-deficiency syndrome (HIV/AIDS), parasites, blindness, respiratory infections and
diarrhoea are widespread (WHO 2002). Safe drinking water and sanitation are woefully
inadequate particularly in rural areas. Chronic food insecurity evidenced by high
prevalence of stunting and wasting in children trap future generations into continued
poverty. Efforts by the poor to sustain themselves contribute directly to land and water
degradation. For example, collection of wood and manure for fuel renders land vulnerable
to erosion resulting in flooding, soil loss and sedimentation of water bodies.
Poverty reduction is the driving goal of Ethiopian development strategies. The
International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) and its partners are committed to
reducing poverty and making sustainable development possible for poor livestock keepers,
their families and the communities in which they live. In Ethiopia, the Ethiopian
Agricultural Research Organization (EARO) is ILRI’s traditional and primary partner in
promoting effective use of animal agriculture for poverty reduction. Through new
partnerships, this workshop affords the opportunity to integrate animal agriculture into the
wider poverty reduction strategy including the integration of diverse livelihood strategies
within watershed and river basin systems. Indeed, the moral imperative of today is to
sustainably reduce poverty with particular emphasis on improving the lives of women and
children.
58 MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop
Peden et al.
The purpose of this paper is to highlight a few key principles related to the role of
livestock keeping as an important pathway out of poverty taking into account both
beneficial and harmful livestock management practices associated with integrated
watershed and river basin management. Global issues and principles are discussed with
reference to the Ethiopian context for development, integrated natural resource
management (INRM) and the improvement of water productivity through effective water
management.
Livestock and poverty reduction
The potential of livestock to reduce poverty is enormous. Livestock contribute to the
livelihoods of more than two-thirds of the world’s rural poor and to a significant minority of
the peri-urban poor. The poorest of the poor often do not have livestock, but if they can
acquire animals, their livestock can help start them along a pathway out of poverty.
Livestock also play many other important roles in people’s lives. They contribute to food
and nutritional security; they generate income and are an important, mobile means of
storing wealth; they provide transport and on-farm power; their manure helps maintain soil
fertility; and they fulfil a wide range of socio-cultural roles (ILRI 2002).
A predicted increase in demand for animal food products in developing countries offers
the poor, including the landless, a rare opportunity to benefit from a rapidly growing market
(Delgado et al. 1999). In brief, the global process of urbanisation creates expanding market
opportunities for food products. Increasing disposable income enables people to increase
the proportion of their diet comprised of meat, eggs and milk products including milk,
butter and cheese. Consequently, urbanisation leads to a consumer driven increase in the
demand for animal products relative to the demand for plant based components. Satisfying
this demand provides a great opportunity for poor farming families to rise out of poverty.
Mismanaging the production of animal products places unnecessary demands on water
resources and can result in enhanced degradation of water and land resources.
Water requirements of livestock
Water contributes up to 80% of an animal’s body weight. Deprivation of water more than
any other nutrient quickly leads to reduced feed intake, production, reproduction, poor
health, and death. Water intake depends upon the size of animal, feed and salt ingested,
lactation, and ambient temperature and an animal’s genetic adaptation to its environment.
For example, indicative water intake by dairy cows could be estimated by the following
equation (after Pallas 1986):
y = 16.0 + 0.71i +0.41m + 0.05s + 1.2t
MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop 59
Improving the water productivity of livestock: An opportunity for poverty reduction
where, y is the daily water intake (litres per day assuming l litre, and weights = 1 kg), where i is
the daily dry matter feed intake (kg/day), m is the daily milk production (kg/day), s is the
sodium intake (g/day) and t is the mean weekly mean minimum temperature (°C).
Indicative water intake levels of livestock range from about 5 litre/TLU in cool wet
weather to about 50 litre/TLU in hot dry conditions (Table 1). Although much effort has
been devoted to the important task of providing drinking water for animals, the actual water
required to produce daily feed for livestock is about 100 times the actual daily requirements
for drinking water. Livestock typically require daily feed intake of dry matter amounting to
about 3% of their weight, but about 1 m
3
or 500 litres of water is required to produce 1 kg
dry matter. One TLU of small livestock such as sheep and goats would require up to 5000
litres of water a day to produce the feed required, and larger animals such as camels will
require at least half of this amount.
Table 1. Indicative water requirements for drinking and feed production necessary to sustain animal production.
Species
Mean live
weight
(kg)
1
Tropical
livestock units
(TLU/head)
Daily dry matter
intake
Water needed to
produce daily dry
matter intake
2
Voluntary daily water intake
by season and average
temperature
(litre/TLU)
3
Kg
Kg/
TLU Litre
Litre/
TLU
Wet
(27°C)
Dry
(15–21°C)
Dry hot
(27°C)
Camels 410 1.6 9 5.6 4500 2813 9.4 21.9 31.3
Cattle 180 0.7 5 7.1 2500 3571 14.3 27.1 38.6
Sheep 25 0.1 1 10.0 500 5000 20.0 40.0 50.0
Goats 25 0.1 1 10.0 500 5000 20.0 40.0 50.0
Donkeys 105 0.4 3 7.5 1500 3750 5.0 27.4 40.0
1. One TLU = 250 kg.
2. Assuming 2 kg/m
3
(Kijne et al. 2002).
3. Pallas (1986).
Water productivity—General principles
Popular literature often criticises the use of livestock in agricultural production because of
their apparently high water requirements (e.g. Goodland and Pimental 2000; Postel 2001).
Water requirements of various agricultural commodities varies (Table 2) with beef
production reportedly requiring 200 times more water than potatoes. Many details are
missing from such summaries. For example, the food items listed have highly variable water
contents. The figures do not take into account market values of the commodities. The
requirements do not clearly explain how the water was used in the production process and
how much could have been re-used for other purposes. The example in Table 2 for example
could have come from a North American feed lot where the feed is irrigated maize and
where large quantities of water are used during the slaughter, processing, and packaging of
animal products. It probably does not represent livestock keeping and production in the
sub-Saharan African context. Despite these, the reported differences cannot be ignored.
60 MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop
Peden et al.
Understanding their implication and managing them for integrated natural resource
management requires analysis of innovative new research on water productivity of livestock.
Table 2. Estimates of water required to produce diverse food products.
Food product
Litres of water required to produce
1 kg of food item
Potatoes 500
Wheat 900
Alfalfa 900
Sorghum 1110
Maize 1400
Rice 1910
Soybeans 2000
Chicken 3500
Beef 100,000
Source: Goodland and Pimental (2000).
Water productivity of livestock is a measure of the ratio of outputs such as meat, milk,
eggs, or traction to water depleted (i.e. used as an input and subsequently not available for
other uses). When multiple outputs such as milk (litres), meat (kg), and traction (ox-days) are
involved, productivity must be expressed using a common measure such as US dollars or
Ethiopian Birr per unit of water depleted. Degraded water can be viewed as water depleted
for high value purposes. Water productivity can be estimated by the following equation:
Water productivity of livestock =
livestock outputs and services
Depleted water
?
?
?
?
?
??
Water productivity measures are scale dependent (Table 3), and water considered
depleted at one scale may not be considered as such at a different scale if it has been or can be
used for additional purposes. At the level of the individual animal, water lost through
evaporation and respiration are no longer available to the animal or to any other users. This
is depleted water. Losses such as those in urine and milk have no further value to the
individual, but may be of use to other users. Degraded water is partially depleted water that
can have lower value uses. A clear research challenge is to develop livestock management
practices that increase water productivity and reduce depletion and degradation.
Applicability of interventions will be scale-specific as suggested in Table 3. For example,
urine provides nutrients to the forage crops on which animals feed and contributes to soil
moisture. This is depleted water from the perspective of the individual animal but not to
larger systems (e.g. a pasture).
Estimating water productivity of livestock can be tricky. For example, Goodland and
Pimental (2000) suggested that 100 thousand litres of water are needed to produce 1 kg of
beef. In contrast, let us assume that one head of cattle consumes 25 litre/day over a two-year
period to produce 125 kg (the approximate dress weight of one TLU). This implies that it
MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop 61
Improving the water productivity of livestock: An opportunity for poverty reduction
will drink up to 18,250 litres over a two-year period. Let us also assume that all of the feed
comes from crop residues for which no additional water input was required. Then
productivity of beef production would be about (18,250 litres)/(125 kg) or 146 litres/kg, an
amount far more efficient than the figure given for potatoes (Table 2). In addition, much of
the water consumed by livestock is released into the soil as urine providing soil nutrients
and soil moisture. From this example, it is clear that livestock production could be viewed as
either one of the most efficient or inefficient means of producing food for people
depending on the system in which the livestock are raised. The difference between the two
water productivity scenarios of 100 thousand and 148 litres/kg of beef, that we must assume
that we know very little about the true water productivity of livestock keeping.
Understanding water productivity of livestock is lacking, especially at a watershed or river
basin level, and must be given priority in future research and development.
Table 3. Examples of depleted and degraded water with mitigation approaches for different scales of livestock production.
Scale or type of
livestock system
Forms of depleted and degraded water
linked to livestock management at
lowest scale of importance
Examples of livestock related methods to reduce
depletion and degradation linked to system scale
where applied
Biosphere None Implies that water is never lost and is always
recycled so that interventions operate at regional
or local scales
River basin River discharge
Contaminated ground and open water
Replenish ground water
Manage upper catchment
Manage manure, and animal by-products
International financing mechanisms
Watershed that
includes many
farming systems
Runoff
Contaminated ground water
Downstream flow beyond watershed
boundary
Reduce contamination by urine and manure
Increase ground cover and infiltration
Create incentives for downstream users to assist
upstream water and soil conservation
Improve common property and community
based natural resources management (NRM)
Household
including
livestock and
crop production
Transpiration, evaporation and runoff
Export of agricultural products
containing water
Infiltration below roots
Increase ground cover and infiltration
Increase soil water holding capacity
Construct contour erosion barriers
Livestock grazing
and feeding of
crop residues
(pasture or crop
land)
Transpiration, evaporation and runoff
Infiltration below root layers
Removal of agricultural products
containing water
Maintain ground cover and increase soil water
holding capacity
Plant deep-rooted fodder species (e.g. tree
fodder)
Use drought tolerant plants (e.g. C4 forages)
Increase water holding capacity of soil (e.g.
adding manure)
Individual
animals
Respiratory loss
Lactation, urination and defecation
Evaporation (thermoregulation)
Use of drought and heat tolerant animals
Provide shade
Provide non-saline drinking water
Because animal products have high value compared with most staple plant based foods,
livestock production will likely be increasingly valued as an effective strategy to alleviate
poverty in situations where market opportunities exist. Following on the argument that
water productivity of animal products derived from consumption of crop residues is
62 MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop
Peden et al.
competitive with crop production, it follows that in terms of water productivity, livestock
can make an important contribution to poverty alleviation.
The case of urban and peri-urban livestock
production
Globally, urban demand for livestock products is growing rapidly because of the combined
effects of migration and increased income (Delgado et al. 1999; ILRI 2002). Assume that
animal products will make up 10% of the future urban diet, and that feed conversion
efficiency of animal feed is about 10%, and that water requirements for production of
animal and plant food are about the same. Then the water required to meet the future urban
demand of animal products would be about the same as that required to produce all other
food for the urban population. Urbanisation often leads to the re-allocation of water from
agriculture to urban demands for domestic water and industry (Molden 2002). This suggests
that future competition for water between livestock and other water users will intensify.
However, urban and peri-urban livestock production systems can give high value products
for relatively little use of urban water if water requirements for feed production are not
drawn from the urban and peri-urban areas where water demand is high. By importing feed
from outside of the source area for urban water supplies, urban livestock producers can
avoid having to compete with urban demand for this essential input. This is a form of
‘virtual water’ (Meissner 2002) that provides a mechanism to improve water productivity
within urban and peri-urban agriculture. It also reduces the land area required for
production.
Non-consumptive interactions of livestock and
water resources
As Steinfield et al. (1997) observed, livestock do not degrade the environment—humans do.
The decisions and actions of people who manage livestock rather than the livestock
themselves are primarily responsible for the mix of positive and negative impacts that they
have on environmental and human health. In Ethiopia, many farmers would fail to harvest
crops without access to oxen to plow and drain waterlogged vertisols (e.g. Astatke and
Saleem 1997). The water required by the oxen must be factored into the productivity of
these crops. When poorly managed, livestock keeping can contribute to degradation and
depletion of water resources. Yet, studies in Ethiopia demonstrate that conversion of
cropland to grassland reduces annual soil loss from 42 to 5 t/ha presumably with an
accompanying decrease in runoff because well-maintained grass cover is perhaps the best
natural method of erosion and runoff control. Establishing watering points for livestock
creates foci for high human and animal populations and unleashes unsustainable pressure
on natural vegetation (Steinfield et al. 1997). In some savannah systems, scarcities of
vegetation are caused by drought and not grazing pressure (Ellis and Swift 1988; Cavendish
MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop 63
Improving the water productivity of livestock: An opportunity for poverty reduction
1995) where livestock numbers are determined by rainfall levels, and attempting to revive
grassland through manipulating livestock numbers is thus misguided. Livestock
management has a major impact on river basin hydrology and on the sustainability of
livelihoods of the inhabitants. Integrated watershed management will need to integrate
effective livestock management to attain sustainable poverty reduction. Finding optimal
livestock keeping practices and feeding systems for different species and conditions is a
primary need for future research and for development of watersheds and river basins.
Human health is a fundamental aspect of poverty (ILRI 2002) and significant health
issues are linked to both livestock and water management. For example, clean water is
essential to ensure hygiene in processing dairy and meat products. Without quality water,
food safety is jeopardised and market opportunities are lost.
Malaria, the number one cause of mortality in Ethiopia (WHO 2002), exists where
water provides suitable habitat for larval Anopheles mosquitoes. Some vector species prefer
blood meals taken from livestock raising the prospect that livestock treated with insecticides
such as deltamethrine could attract mosquitoes and control malaria (Habtewold et al. 2001;
Rowland 2001). However, watering practices for livestock may generate breeding sites for
the vector and contribute to increased prevalence of malaria. Land use changes such as
converting papyrus swamps to pasture and crop appear to increase temperatures and enable
survival of anopheline populations in African highlands (Lindblade et al. 2000).
Waterborne human illnesses often arise from contamination of domestic water by
poorly managed livestock. For example, Cryptosporidium, a parasite whose oocysts are
common in livestock, has been associated with various outbreaks of human illness in recent
years and is thought to aggravate the impact of HIV/AIDS (FAO 1977).
To ensure that productivity gains to reduce poverty are not offset by an associated poor
human health, there is a need to integrate human health into R&D related to water and
livestock management.
Conclusion: Emerging research priorities
Livestock are valued assets for the rural poor and marketing of livestock products is a
practical and effective pathway out of poverty. Opportunities exist to increase the water
productivity of livestock at scales ranging from households to river basins. However,
surprisingly little integrated research has been done on this subject, and little of the existing
knowledge has been translated into policy and technology to improve the livelihoods of the
poor. Livestock interact both positively and negatively with the management of water and
other natural resources. A number of critical human health issues are linked to water and
livestock management. Research is needed to better understand the role of livestock in
integrated water management, and strong evidence exists to suggest that this must be
addressed in the implementation of Ethiopia’s poverty reduction strategy.
64 MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop
Peden et al.
References
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Astatke A. and Saleem M. 1997. Effects of different cropping options on plant-available water of
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Bhaskar V. and Glyn A. (eds), The North, the South and the environment: Ecological constraints and the
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(International Food Policy Research Institute), Washington, DC, USA. 72 pp.
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systems. In: Pimental D., Westra L. and Noss R. (eds), Ecological integrity. Island Press,
Washington, DC, USA.
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Plasmodium infection of Anopheles mosquitoes in southern Ethiopia in relation to use of
insecticide-treated livestock for malaria control. Transaction of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine
and Hygiene 95(6):584–586.
ILRI (International Livestock Research Institute). 2002. Livestock—A pathway out of poverty: ILRI’s
strategy to 2010. ILRI, Nairobi, Kenya.
Kijne J., Tuong T., Bennett J. and Oweis T. 2002. Ensuring food security via improvement in crop water
productivity. Challenge Program on Water and Food: Background Paper 1. IWMI (International
Water Management Institute), Colombo, Sri Lanka. pp. 1–42.
Lindblade K., Walker E., Onapa A., Katungu J. and Wilson M. 2000. Land use change alters malaria
transmission parameters by modifying temperature in a highland area of Uganda. Tropical
Medical Institute of Health 5(4):263–274.
Meissner R. 2002. Regional food security: Using the concept of virtual water. African Security Review
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Molden D. 2002. Integrating research in water, food and environment. Challenge Program on Water and
Food: Background Paper 4. IWMI (International Water Management Institute), Colombo, Sri
Lanka. pp. 115–160.
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Agriculture Organization of the United Nations), Rome, Italy.
Postel S. 2001. Growing more food with less water. Scientific American 284(2):46.
Rowland M. 2001. Control of malaria in Pakistan by applying deltamethrin insecticide to cattle: A
community randomised trial. The Lancet 357:1837–1841.
Steinfield H., de Haan C. and Blackburn H. 1997. Livestock–environment interactions: Issues and options.
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MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop 65
Improving the water productivity of livestock: An opportunity for poverty reduction
Water resources for livestock in Ethiopia:
Implications for research and development
Zinash Sileshi,
1
Azage Tegegne
2
and Getnet Tekle Tsadik
1
1. Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organization (EARO), Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
2. International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Abstract
Ethiopia is home to about 35 million tropical livestock unit (TLU), and on average, one
TLU requires about 25 litres of water per day. Based on this calculation, the total daily water
requirement for livestock is estimated at 875 million litres. This amounts to about 320
billion litres per year. Ethiopia has about 173 thousand km
2
of water bodies that include
lakes, rivers, reservoirs, small water bodies, swamps and flood plains. The total lake area in
Ethiopia is estimated at 750 thousand hectares. There are nine major rivers, totalling 6400
km with an annual discharge of 63 billion cubic metres, of which the Blue Nile accounts for
80%. Contrary to this however, water is a very scarce commodity for many of the
smallholder farmers and their livestock, and the situation is aggravated by seasonal
variations in availability of water.
Research and development work on water as a limiting nutrient to animal production
and management practices to increase efficiency is rare in Ethiopia. This paper assesses
water resources in Ethiopia, examines water requirements for different species of animals
and attempts to identify some research and development issues related to development of
the livestock sector in Ethiopia. The climatic and environmental conditions in the country
are variable. Temporal and spatial distributions of rainfall with consequent large
fluctuations in the quantity and quality of feed and variations in ambient temperatures and
water availability result in variations in body composition and have a profound influence on
the productivity of animals in their environment. It is therefore necessary to undertake
studies on water metabolism and requirements for livestock under the relevant
environmental conditions and physiological states. Water quality both with respect to
drinking water for animals and animal management practices that affect the water resources
are other areas of concern that deserve attention. Research has to focus on environmental
pollution specifically in waste management in densely populated areas of livestock such as in
the highlands and urban and peri-urban areas. Moreover, research should provide
information on improving the environment and management techniques to increase water
use efficiency and raise animal productivity.
66 MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop
Introduction
Ethiopia is one of the African countries endowed with huge water resources, which include
rivers, lakes, reservoirs, small water bodies, swamps and flood plains. These resources are
important for fisheries and aquatic resources development, livestock resources, irrigation,
power generation etc. The rains in the highlands of Ethiopia, which supply these waters,
have significant influence in the livelihoods of downstream countries such as The Sudan
and Egypt. As a result, the highlands of Ethiopia are considered as the water towers of
Africa. Contrary to this however, water is a very scarce commodity for many of the
smallholder farmers.
Livestock are major components of the livelihoods of both pastoralists in the arid and
semi-arid lowlands of the country, and the crop–livestock farmers in the highlands. Access
to water during the major part of the year is variable and both human and livestock suffer
from its shortage. In many parts of the country, animals are trekked to distant watering
points once in two or three days. Watering animals is a major occupation for pastoralists
and shortage of water often leads to social conflict. In most instances, the quality of available
water is poor and is a major source of parasitic infestation to animals. Where both human
and animals consume water from the same source—as it happens in most cases—this poses a
major risk for public health. Water requirement for animals in urban and peri-urban
centres has never been considered in urban planning; and as a result, animals are often
forced to consume wastewater with high health risks. This will have significant implications
on product quality and public health.
Water resource is pertinent and vital for the existence and development of the livestock
sector. It should be recognised that the multiple use of land and water resources lead to
various conflicts that arise from the shared use of these limited resources. It is noted that, of
a whole variety of purposes of water resources development, which include inter alia, rain
water harvest, irrigation, hydropower generation and water storage often relegate the
fisheries and its ecosystem. It should be stressed that planners and policy makers should be
continuously made aware of the importance of livestock in the overall rural development
schemes. This paper highlights water requirements for livestock and specifically focuses on
opportunities and constraints related to water resources research and development.
Water resources for livestock use
There are three sources of water for the animal: (1) drinking water (2) water contained in
feeds and (3) metabolic water. Water contained in feeds consumed (preformed water) is
highly variable from feed to feed according to the moisture content, which can range from as
low as 5% in dry feeds to as high as 90% or more in succulent feeds (Sirohi et al. 1997).
Water derived from dry feeds may be insignificant compared with the total water intake,
while that obtained from succulent feeds can supply all the water needs. Sheep would drink
little or no water when the water content of the feed is over 70% (Degen 1977; Sirohi et al.
1997). When water content of the feed ingested is low, drinking water is the major source of
water intake, and its provision for livestock becomes the main concern. Most of the water
MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop 67
Water resources for livestock in Ethiopia: Implications for research and development
that is utilised by the animal’s body is ingested either as drinking water or as a component of
the feed (Woodford et al. 1984).
The oxidation of organic nutrients during metabolic processes in the body leads to the
formation of water (metabolic water) from the hydrogen present. On the average fats,
carbohydrates and proteins respectively yield 1.07, 0.56 and 0.40 ml water per gram oxidised,
or an equivalent of 0.12, 0.14 and 0.10 ml water per kcal metabolisable energy derived from
oxidation (Maynard et al. 1981). For most domestic animals, metabolic water comprises only
5 to 10% of the water intake. Metabolic water may account for up to 15% of the total water
intake in sheep (Aganga et al. 1989; Abdelatif and Ahmed 1992; Sirohi et al. 1997) and
remains constant provided metabolic rate is constant (Maynard et al. 1981). In certain cases,
and in animals consuming less food than required, the production of metabolic water
becomes more important, since depot fat and tissue protein are catabolised to supply energy.
Water losses from the animal
Faecal water constituted the least avenue of water loss (18%), but in normally hydrated
sheep feacal water accounts for up to one-fourth of the total water loss (Degen and Young
1981; More et al. 1983; Aganga et al. 1989; Abdelatif and Ahmed 1992; Sirohi et al. 1997).
Urine water loss is the second avenue of water loss and studies show that it accounts for up
to one-third of the total water loss in sheep (Degen and Young 1981; More et al. 1983;
Aganga et al. 1989; Abdelatif and Ahmed 1992; Sirohi et al. 1997). It was also observed that
there is an increase in urinary water loss with supplementation, which could be related to
the higher dry matter intake (DMI) and nitrogen and ash intakes. The increased demand in
water turnover/requirement with supplementation was a reflection of the rise in water loss
through evaporation and urine, as observed from the decrease in the relative contribution
of faecal water loss, but an increase in relative contribution of urine and evaporative water
losses with supplementation.
Evaporative water loss represents the remainder of the water loss not collected in faeces
and urine, and includes water presumably lost through respiration, perspiration and
evaporation from the respiratory tract and the skin. Insensible perspiration and
non-panting respiratory water losses are obligatory, whereas losses by panting and sweating
come into picture in response to relatively higher thermal stimuli for thermoregulation.
Evaporation becomes the major avenue of water loss from the body, particularly under
tropical conditions, where evaporative cooling may account for up to three-fourth of the
total water loss in sheep (More et al. 1983; Aganga et al. 1989; Abdelatif and Ahmed 1992;
Sirohi et al. 1997). Study has shown that even at relatively moderate environmental
conditions, evaporative water loss still constituted the major avenue of water loss (55%), and
increases with supplementation. The increase in metabolic water loss with supplementation
could be due to high metabolic rate caused by high feed and/or water intakes/turnover
accompanying supplementation. It has been indicated that water requirement, respiratory
rate and evaporative water output are directly proportional to feed intake because of
increment in metabolic activities (Aganga et al. 1989). It, therefore, seems that the amount
of water used at low levels of feed intake during supplementation is less than at high levels of
68 MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop
Zinash Sileshi et al.
intake when metabolic rates and cooling requirements become greater. Generally,
evaporative water loss followed by urine water loss is considered as important sources of
body water loss during supplementary feeding of ruminants.
Functions of water
Accounting for about 99% of all molecules and 73% of the fat free empty body mass (King
1983), water is by far the largest single chemical component of the animal body. From a
functional point of view, no other chemical compound has so many distinct and vital roles
as water; by far the greatest number of life processes in the body takes place with water as a
key substance. Accordingly, water stands second only to oxygen of all environmental
constituents immediately necessary for life. While an animal may survive a loss of practically
all of its body fat and over half of its protein, a loss of one-tenth of its body water is fatal
(Maynard et al. 1981). Since relatively small changes in body water cause profound changes
in function, the body water content must remain reasonably constant.
Many of the biological functions of water are dependent upon the property of water
acting as solvent for numerous compounds. Water takes part in digestion (hydrolysis of
proteins, fat and carbohydrates), in absorption of digested nutrients, in transport of
metabolites in the body and in excretion of waste products. Many catabolic and anabolic
processes taking place inside the tissues involve the addition or release of water. Water also
plays an important role in the animal’s thermoregulatory mechanisms. The body
temperature is dependent partly on the high conductive property of water to distribute heat
evenly within the body and temperature is prevented by high specific heat of water.
Water requirements of livestock
Water requirement by livestock appears to be a very individual and specific characteristic.
Such differences are reflected in their respective abilities to withstand dehydration and in
their demand for free water. As the demand of the individual animal for water is variable,
only average estimates of water requirements in a specific climatic environment are
generally indicated (Tables 1 and 2).
Table 1. Some general guides to water intake of different class of animals.
Class of livestock
Daily water requirement
(gallons/day)
Beef cows 7–12
Dairy cows 10–16
Horses 8–12
Swine 3–5
Sheep and goats 1–4
Chickens 8–10/100 birds
Turkeys 10–15/100 birds
Note: Extremely hot heat-stress weather could increase the high values
another 20 to 30%.
MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop 69
Water resources for livestock in Ethiopia: Implications for research and development
Table 2. Estimated water requirement and voluntary intake of livestock under Sahelian conditions.
1
Species
TLU
2
Mean live
weight
DM
intake
Wet season air
temperature
(27°C)
Dry cold season air
temperature
(15–21°C)
Dry hot season air
temperature
(27°C)
Total
water
require-
ment
Voluntary
water
intake
Total
water
require-
ment
Voluntary
water intake
Total
water
require-
ment
Voluntary
water
intake
Litres/day
Camels 1.6 410 9 50 15 37 35 50 50
Cattle 0.7 180 5 27 10 20 19 27 27
Sheep 0.1 25 1 52 4 45 5
Goats 0.1 25 1 52 4 45 5
Donkeys 0.4 105 3 16 5 12 11 16 16
1. Volutary water intake has been calculated from the water requirements by assuming a water supply from the plants
corresponding to:
70 to 75% of moisture content of the plants during the wet season
20% of moisture content of the plants during the dry and cold season
10% of moisture content of the plants during the dry and hot season.
2. TLU = Tropical livestock unit is equivalent to an animal of 250 kg live weight on maintenance.
Source: Pallas (1986).
Ethiopia has an estimated livestock population of about 35 million TLU. Assuming an
average consumption of 25 litres of water/day per TLU, the estimated daily water
consumption is about 875 million litres. This adds up to about 320 billion litres per annum.
This requirement is expected to increase due to the increase in livestock population and
envisaged improvement in productivity (milk, meat, eggs). Improvements in the dairy sector,
for example, will require additional water for milk production and sanitary management.
The water requirement of domestic animals varies between species, between breeds or
varieties within species and between individuals within breeds. For example, heavy western
breed cows have a higher water intake (60 to 90 litres/day) than zebu cows (25 litres/day with
350 kg live weight (King 1983). The water demands of sheep, goats and camels are not as high
as those of cattle. Water requirement increases with growth, and with increases in productive
processes such as lactation and egg laying. Lactating cows consume more water to cope with
the water excreted with milk than cows of similar weight fed on maintenance level.
Water requirements also largely vary according to other factors such as food intake,
quality of the food and air and water temperature. Water consumption increases with
increasing dry matter intake and increasing temperature. Bos taurus cattle weighing 450 kg
and eating 10 kg dry feed per day drank 28, 41 and 66 litres of water per day when the
temperature is 4, 21 and 32°C, respectively (Maynard et al. 1981). Not only high ambient
temperature, but cold weather also influences water intake. Cold weather may reduce water
intake. This reduces water flow through the bladder and kidneys and reduced water flow
allows kidney stones to precipitate. When desirable weather returns, water intake increases.
The effect of ambient temperature on water intake varies between types of livestock; breeds
within the same type and acclimatised animals require less water than un-acclimatised when
managed at high ambient temperature. The direct effect of climate on the water intake of
70 MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop
Zinash Sileshi et al.
livestock is, however, very complex and the relationship between increased water intake of
livestock with increasing ambient temperature is not simple (Winchester 1964).
The type of feed plays a decisive role on water intake. Inclusion of legumes into tropical
diets was found to cause an increased water requirement (Zewdu 1991). This is because
water consumption increases with the level of roughage intake and its nitrogen content and
with the intake of other feeds that have laxative properties. Sheep reportedly require more
water on high- than on a low-protein diet, since the nitrogenous end products require a
larger urine volume for excretion (Wilson 1970; Bass 1982; Banda and Ayaode 1986;
Nuwanyakpa et al. 1986; Abdelatif and Ahmed 1992; Sirohi et al. 1997). Similarly, higher
proportions of salt or other minerals in the diet of sheep can result in more urine excretion
and, accordingly, more water requirement (Wilson 1970; Abdelatif and Ahmed 1992;
Sirohi et al. 1997). Studies with poultry have shown an increase in water consumption due
to increases in the fat, protein, salt or potassium contents in the diet.
It is generally agreed that water requirements are correlated with feed intake; as feed
intake decreases or increases, there is a concomitant change in faecal, urinary and
evaporative water losses and, accordingly, in water requirement (Wilson 1970; Degen and
Young 1981; Abdelatif and Ahmed 1992; Sirohi et al. 1997). Because of the close, direct
relationship between dry matter and water intake, it has been customary to express water
requirements as a ratio of dry matter intake. Such observation was a reflection of the
composition of the ingested dry matter, ash and in particular nitrogen. Given the strong
relationship between feed and water intakes, any feed improvement/supplementation
strategy should also consider the availability of water, or supplementation would rather
exacerbate dehydration and physiological stress at times of water scarcity. However, the
potential benefits of water economy should be realised in relation to productive parameters,
because there would be a trade-off between water saving strategies and production.
Existing published knowledge on factors of water requirement and turnover in the
tropics often relates to small ruminants and lacks information on the relationship among
water, dry matter intake, milk yield and other metabolic effects in large ruminants.
Ayantunde et al. (2001) derived the following equation in estimating water intake (WI) for
tropical cattle fed with fibrous diets in dry regions of West Africa:
WI
DMI LW
r
=
±× + ±×
=
?
?
?
?
?
?
492 32 397 28
1000 0 98
075
() ()
(.)
.
In Ethiopia, there are only few studies carried out on water turnover for instance in the
highlands, involving Boran cattle at Abernossa Ranch (Nicholson 1987) and Blackhead
Ogaden sheep at Jijiga (Zewdu 1991). Feed resources available in the highlands are mostly
crop residues that are bulky and of poor digestibility (Said et al. 1993). A study on water
turnover in Boran and Boran × Friesian cows at the ILRI Debre Zeit Research Station (Janet
et al. unpublished data) showed that the total water intake in early and late lactation was
49.2 and 54.0 kg/cow per day, respectively. The major part of the difference comes from a
difference in drinking water intake although the higher feed intake of the late lactating cows
was accompanied by a significantly higher extra water intake (+0.1 kg/cow per day). The
mean amount of metabolically generated water accounted for 3.1 kg/cow per day. Water
MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop 71
Water resources for livestock in Ethiopia: Implications for research and development
turnover, including water intake and metabolically generated water was also lower in early
(52.3 kg) than in late lactation (57.1 kg; Standard Error Mean (SEM, 1.53)). The percentages
of total water excreted through faeces, urine and milk were 38.0, 17.0 and 13.8%, and 45.0,
19.3 and 8.2% in early and late lactating cows, respectively.
Low milk yield in late lactation resulted in high water excretion via faeces (and urine).
The ratio of water excreted to water intake showed no change between stages of lactation.
The overall relation of water turnover to DM intake was 5.67 (±0.187). The quantity of
water consumed was with the range of 3.5 to 5.5 kg of water per kg of dry diet given for
ambient temperatures between –17°C and 27°C. The overall water turnover rate of cows
was 408.3 g/live weight per day, which was also in agreement with values calculated for
purebred zebu and western breed cattle (Roubicek 1969). Although occasionally extremely
deviating water intake and turnover rates are observed in tropical cows, variation between
animals remained astonishingly low, illustrating that estimates should be valid for a great
part of the population under the conditions of the study.
Water stress
Limitations on water intake depress animal performance quicker and more drastically than
any other nutrient deficiency. Water deprivation affects feed intake (Steiger et al. 2001),
metabolism and productivity. Domestic animals can live about sixty days without food but
only seven days without water. The provision of adequate quantities of clean drinking water
is a major prerequisite for satisfactory milk production, growth and animal health (Little
and Shaw 1978), but the minimum amount required is affected by various factors and
therefore seldom known exactly. There is no consensus on the frequency of drinking to
livestock. Usually, it is suggested under hot climate, cattle should be watered every day and
sheep and goats may be watered every second day. In the eastern lowlands of Ethiopia at
Jijiga, Zewdu (1991) found that Blackhead Ogaden sheep, watered once every three days,
could save 34% more water without any adverse effect on performance when compared
with daily ad libitum watering regime. Nuwanykapa et al. (1986) also concluded that
watering highland sheep once every three days instead of ad libitum is an economical and
labour-saving ‘drought response’ watering frequency. Pallas (1986) quoting the study made
in Niger indicated that water intake every second day may be profitable for cattle when the
distance from the grazing areas located 10 km away from the water supply. However, in
pastoral areas the distance between grazing and water is so big and animals often have to
walk long distances. Camel has an outstanding capacity to withstand infrequent watering
interval. Camel can withstand the loss of up to 27% of its body weight and is able to drink
exceptional quantities of water at a time. There are some indications that goats will survive
better when food is in short supply provided sufficient water is available and sheep suffer
comparatively severe hyperthermia relative to goats.
In moisture stressed areas, the major problems are seasonality of the pasture, the
possibility of low nutrient intake and water deprivation during the dry season. In dry season,
the nutrient content of available feed may decrease and this may lead to further decrease in
voluntary DM intake and physiological problem in maintaining body temperature. The
72 MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop
Zinash Sileshi et al.
cumulative effects are the nutrient intake of the animals would be inadequate and thus has a
pronounced effect on production and productivity of the animals in this environment. In
extreme cases, signs of dehydration can occur which can be seen as tightening of the skin
(skin folds), loss of weight and drying of mucous membranes and the eyes.
Importance of water quality for livestock production
There is a significant amount of knowledge regarding chemicals found in water supplies and
their effect on livestock. The total salt content of water is regarded as one of the major
important characteristics that may reduce suitability and palatability of water. The
expression Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) is often used to denote the level of water salinity.
Commonly present salts include: carbonate, bicarbonates, sulphates, nitrates, chlorides,
phosphates and fluorides. High levels of specific ions in water can cause animal health
problems and death. Substances that are toxic without much effect on palatability include
nitrates, fluorine and salts of various heavy metals. Excess fluoride causes degeneration of
the teeth. One gram of sulphate per litre may result in scours. Salts such as sodium chloride
change the electrolyte balance and intracellular pressure in the body, producing a form of
dehydration. Salts also place a strain on the kidneys. The National Academy of Sciences
offers upper limits for toxic substances in water (Table 3) and levels of total solids and effect
on livestock and poultry are given in Table 4.
Table 3. Recommendations for levels of toxic substances in drinking water for livestock.
Constituent Upper limit Constituent Upper limit
Aluminium (Al) 5.0 mg/L Lead (Pb) 0.1 mg/L
1
Arsenic (As) 0.2 mg/L Manganese (Mn) No data
Beryllium (Be) No data Mercury (Hg) 0.01 mg/L
Boron (B) 5.0 mg/L Molybdenum (Mo) No data
Cadmium (Cd) 0.05 mg/L Nitrate + nitrite (NO
3
–N +
NO
2
–N)
100 mg/L
Chromium (Cr) 1.0 mg/L
Nitrite (NO
2
-N)
10 mg/L
Cobalt (Co) 1.0 mg/L Selenium (Se) 0.05 mg/L
Copper (Cu) 0.5 mg/L Vanadium (V) 0.10 mg/L
Fluorine (F) 2.0 mg/L Zinc (Zn) 24 mg/L
Iron (Fe) No data Total dissolved solids (TDS) 10,000 mg/L
2
1. Lead is accumulative and problems may begin at threshold value = 0.05 mg/L.
Sources: NAS (1972), Ayers and Wescot (1976).
Highly mineralised waters (high solids) do not have much effect on health as long as
there is no objectionable continuing laxative effects and as long as normal amounts of water
are consumed. High salt concentrations that are less than toxic may actually cause an
increase in water consumption. Animals may refuse to drink high saline water for many
days, followed by a period where they drink a large amount. They may then become sick or
die. The tolerance of animals to salts in water depends on factors such as water
MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop 73
Water resources for livestock in Ethiopia: Implications for research and development
requirements, species, age, and physiological condition, season of the year and salt content
of the total diet and the water. Animals, however, have the ability to adapt to saline water
quite well, but abrupt changes from water with low salt concentration to high concentration
may cause harm.
Table 4. The use of saline waters for livestock and poultry.
Total dissolved
solids in water
(mg/l)
Comments
<1000 These waters have a relatively low level of salinity and should present no serious burden
to any class of livestock or poultry
1000 to 3000 These waters should be satisfactory for all classes of livestock and poultry. They may
cause temporary and mild diarrhoea in livestock not accustomed to them or watery
droppings in poultry (especially at the higher levels), but should not affect their health
or performance
3000 to 5000 These waters should be satisfactory for livestock, although they might very possibly cause
temporary diarrhoea or be refused at first by animals not accustomed to them. They are
poor waters for poultry, often causing watery faeces and (at the higher levels of salinity)
increased mortality and decreased growth, especially in turkeys
5000 to 7000 Avoid the use of these waters for pregnant or lactating animals even if non-lactating
dairy and beef cattle, sheep, swine and horses may tolerate these salinity levels. These
waters are not acceptable for poultry, almost always causing some type of problem,
especially near the upper limit, where reduced growth and production or increased
mortality will probably occur
7000 to 10,000 These waters are unfit for poultry and probably for swine. Considerable risk may exist in
using them for pregnant or lactating cows, horses, sheep, the young of these species, or
for any animals subjected to heavy heat stress or water loss. In general, their use should
be avoided although older ruminants, horses, and even poultry may subsist on them for
long periods of time under conditions of low stress
> 10,000 The risks with these highly saline waters are so great that they cannot be recommended
for use under any conditions
Source: Peterson (1999).
The microbial quality in drinking water can also be important. There are many
micro-organisms in water supply; most of them are quite harmless. There are, however,
certain organisms where caution should be used. Green scum that builds up in livestock
drinking troughs and tanks is algae. Some blue-green algae are toxic. Most blooms of
blue-green algae contain either brain toxins (neurotoxins) or liver toxins (hepatotoxins). Just
over 1 litre of water can be fatal to a 100 kg calf, depending on the toxin present in the
blue-green algae bloom. No good method exists to predict whether the algae will produce
the toxins. The only practical way is to monitor livestock behaviour when algae bloom
heavily. Occasionally putting baking soda in water troughs will help prevent algae growth.
Copper sulphate or other commercial copper containing products will also kill the algae for
a period of several months. In troughs or small tanks, a safe dosage is one level teaspoon of
copper sulphate per 1500 gallons of water. Generally, treatment is done only when algae
growth is heavy or if a toxicity problem occurs. Livestock should be allowed to drink the
treated water source at least after 24 hours. One of the most effective ways to avoid problems
with blue-green algal toxins is to water cattle out of troughs rather than direct watering.
74 MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop
Zinash Sileshi et al.
Knowledge of the effects of disease-causing micro-organisms on livestock is limited.
However, to achieve benefits in terms of herd health and performance, one must avoid
contamination of watering supplies for livestock and possibly treating water supplies to ensure
that the water is clean or contains only low concentrations of disease-causing micro-organisms.
Impact of livestock production practices on water
quality and forage availability
Water quality parameters related to livestock management include nutrients (nitrogen and
phosphorus), micro-organisms (e.g. bacteria, faecal coliforms, Cryptosporidium, Giardia and
organic materials such as livestock waste. Water quality concerns include impacts on
receiving streams and aquatic life, and reuse of the water downstream for agricultural,
recreational and drinking water (Cooke 1997).
Watering practices that can impact water quality include destruction of riparian
ecosystems through over-grazing and direct cattle access to waterways. Belsky et al. (1999) in
their review have shown the impacts of grazing on water quality and quantity. Water
contamination from grazing includes increased sediment and bacterial counts in runoff.
High runoff is due to the compaction of the soil from cattle’s hooves and grazing practices.
Direct access to water sources for cattle allows for direct deposition of wastes and
increased erosion. Waste management and disposal can also impact water quality. Localised
concentration of animal waste is considered a point source of pollution for surface or
ground water. Mismanagement or improper storage of animal waste can contaminate water
sources. Ground water contamination can result from infiltrated livestock wastewater. A
study in North Carolina investigated nutrient runoff from animal waste as the source of
surface water contamination that resulted in large blue-green algal blooms, fish kills and
declining commercial and sport fisheries. Flushed manure into ponds caused high
ammonia concentration and high biochemical oxygen that resulted in a fish kill. Higher
stream temperatures reduce the survival of some aquatic organisms. Livestock use can also
increase in stream temperatures (Cooke 1997).
In Ethiopia, the potential causes of environmental degradation and pollution and their
effect on extent aquatic resources is not documented. The potential source of major
pollutants affecting Ethiopian lakes and rivers are factories, agriculture and sewage. Recent
survey work on 16 industries with respect to their practices of discharging of effluents
indicates that only two of them are not discharging effluents of various contents to water
bodies (Table 5).
Table 5. Industries using and discharging effluents of unknown content to water bodies.
Factories visited No. of factories %
Discharge treated effluents to surface waters 6 37.5
Discharge untreated effluents to surface waters 8 50.0
Discharge not released to water bodies 2 12.5
Total 16 100
Source: EARO (2001/02).
MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop 75
Water resources for livestock in Ethiopia: Implications for research and development
Water is a major determinant of livestock distribution in rangelands. Animals graze
from a water point to a distance they can afford depending on the availability of forage and
their dependency on water. Many authors have reported changes in rangeland conditions
around water points. The impact of over-grazing and trampling shows a pattern of
decreasing effects with distance from the water. It is reported that heavy grazing pressure and
trampling in the vicinity of the water point killed sensitive perennial grass species resulting
in a zone dominated by annual plants. Problems of the impact on rangeland condition near
water points are likely to cause soil erosion because of the reduced protection of soil surface
during the dry seasons and enhanced bush encroachment. If livestock are allowed to
overuse watering points, an impact on the vegetation is expected, or cannot be avoided.
Increasing water access to livestock
Improvement of water resources has a significant impact on the livelihood of farmers and
improving the productivity of the animals. Water availability for livestock is critical in the
lowlands. Most of the year, animals have to walk long distances in search of water, and are
usually watered once in two to three days. The effect of water stress can be simply stated in
the energy loss in long distance walking in search of water and low nutrient intake. Water
stress is also pronounced in highland areas of the country especially in areas that receive low
rainfall (both in amount and distribution).
Animals that are economical in water consumption and efficient for meat and meat
production are highly desirable in drought prone areas. Increase in total body water content
in animals under hot climatic condition is considered an adaptive reaction to ameliorate
heat stress. Heat-tolerant animals are those that manifest the least changes in most of the
physiological functions including body water content when subjected to a hot climate. Thus
selections of animal that have such characteristics are desirable for breeding in hot desert
areas. Pastoralists in Ethiopia select breeding camels based on their ability to withstand
drought (shortage of feed and water) and resist diseases (EARO 2001/02).
There are a number of ways of increasing water availability, including construction of
wells, pumps, canals, boreholes, tanks, cisterns, reservoirs, water yards, dams and
water-harvesting systems. Selection of the method in increasing the water availability should
be based on the production system and socio-economic situation of the farmers. The
rehabilitation and up keep of water sources are usually a challenge in most of the areas. The
process for developing water points for farm communities need to incorporate equitable
arrangements for sharing the water and facilities, and account for the legal framework of use
as the potential for conflict is high. The role of institutions such as community-controlled
co-operatives or herders’ associations and mode of operations for efficient utilisation of
water resources need attention.
It should be stressed that water economy has significant implications for ruminant
animal production where and when water supply is limited in total amount and/or
frequency of distribution. The limited availability water, especially during the dry seasons,
compels herders to economise water use in livestock production. One possibility would be
to control factors that aggravate water requirement of animals, so as to save water and serve
76 MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop
Zinash Sileshi et al.
more animals on a daily basis. During adverse conditions, such as drought, when water is
required for survival than production, such water saving option will help more animals
survive and transit dry/drought periods to normal and rainy seasons.
Research areas
The following research issues warrant future action:
• water in the physiological ecology of ruminants: There is a need to develop water
requirement for the different class of animals under their own environment. This will
assist in designing management practices based on demand of the livestock farming and
available resources. Water resource utilisation programme should take into account the
current and future demands of livestock and fish production and productivity
• appropriate water source selection, management and protection of these sources are all
critical issues to ensure that a safe water supply is used for livestock. It is necessary to
define the standards of quality required for each particular use to determine the degree
of pollution control necessary and to forecast the probable effect of augmented or new
discharges of effluents. Establishment of water quality criteria for freshwater fish need to
be undertaken
• aquatic resource laws should be developed to incorporate a system of user rights and to
control access to productive waters. Legal arrangement should address all the different
uses of aquatic ecosystems including fisheries, aquaculture, waste disposal and
recreation. They should address the ownership of the resources and the surrogates (for
example, sites, stocks, waste emissions levels) that can be used in each production system
to support quantitative use right. They should define the mechanisms (economic,
administrative, collective) and the structure required for allocating use rights to optimise
use and ensure conservation of resources
• improve water sources such as utilisation of water harvesting techniques, developing
water holes etc. and management practices to improve the utilisation
• define number and spatial distribution of water points in the rangeland; expanding and
improving the network of water points
• selection and breeding animals for drought tolerance and
• community empowerment for effective range and water resources.
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cows. In: Illinois dairy report. University of Illinois, Urbana, USA. pp. 25–28.
Zewdu Sisay. 1991. Effects of watering frequency on water budget, feed intake, nutrient utilization,
body weight change and subsequent survival of Blackhead Ogaden sheep. MSc Thesis. Alemaya
University of Agriculture, School of Graduate Studies, Alemaya, Ethiopia. 226 pp.
MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop 79
Water resources for livestock in Ethiopia: Implications for research and development
Managing water for livestock and fisheries
development
Sileshi Ashine
Senior Economist, Ministry of Agriculture, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Introduction
Ethiopia has an agrarian dominated economy, with 85% of the total employment, 98% of
the total calorie supply, 70% of industrial raw material supplies, over 45% of GDP and 90%
of the foreign currency earning. Despite its important roles, however, it fails to meet the
minimum food requirements of the population.
Ethiopia hosts the largest livestock population in Africa and can produce over 51,500 t
of fish per annum. However, their exploitation and consequently their contributions to
food security and growth in the country is minimal despite the technologies capable of
resolving the problems of livestock and fisheries production.
Livestock production in the past had been almost stagnant and thus failed to keep pace
with the rapid population growth and in effect leaves the demand for meat and milk
considerably unsatisfied. Current per caput meat and milk productions are 8 and 17 kg per
year, which were 14 and 25 kg in the early 1970s. Even under the present low level of
resource use, livestock account for about 30% of the agricultural gross domestic product
(GDP), and 16% of the national foreign currency earning (second to coffee). Its
contribution to the entire traction power to over nine million hectares of cropped land, to
rural transport, soil fertility and household energy are substantial though these benefits are
not valued properly.
Fisheries production is also under-exploited whilst current demand exceeds supply by
about four-fold. One of the big and immediate challenges of our country is addressing the
problems of food security and poverty. Currently, about 45% of the total population are
living under poverty and the level of impoverishment is worse in rural areas, where 85% of
the total inhabitants dwell.
It must be noted that under-development of the country’s water resources towards
increasing and sustaining agricultural production, which has a two-track interaction in the
whole economy, contributes to the low level of socio-economic development in the country.
This paper is therefore devoted to make critical assessment of the current water resources
use status, prospects, constraints and improvement measures in relation to livestock and
fisheries development in the country.
80 MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop
General role of water in socio-economic
development
Cox (1987) viewed socio-economic development as general advancement of a given society
to a higher level of welfare or well-being. The role of water resources to achieve this level of
development is fundamental because of the wide-range and two-track interaction between
water and socio-economic activities. First and foremost, water is a basic component of
welfare for people, animals and fish. From a development perspective, water supply is a
socio-economic infrastructure essential to the various productive processes, such as
irrigation, fisheries, industries, tourism, hydropower, navigation and waste disposal. In
turn, these development activities involve modifications of the quality and flow
characteristics of water. One must understand from this that the total absence or shortage of
water supply is a great menace for growth and development. Water resource must therefore
be viewed as a dynamic element along all the development process.
Apart from its beneficial aspects, water has adverse effect on socio-economic
development when it causes flood, soil erosion, crop failure, suffering and death of people
and animals. So, there must be a water management policy and administration mechanism
capable of maximising the beneficial uses and minimising the non-beneficial aspects of
water (World Bank 1984).
Influence of water on the livestock production
system
Based on the physical and socio-economic environments, two broad production systems are
distinguished: mixed and pastoral. Livestock is integrated with crop in the highlands of the
country. Expansion of croplands at the cost of pastureland (reduced by 1% every year) and
recurrent drought result in increasing deterioration of grazing lands. The highland areas
have generally good access to alternative sources of water and receive adequate rainfall
though some localities are still in short of water, and affects livestock productivity.
The situation is much different and complex in the lowland areas of the country, which
broadly comprise all lands that lie below 1500 metres above sea level (masl), with some
exception that goes up to 2000 masl. The pastoral farming systems are generally located in
drier and fragile lowland areas, where rainfall is relatively low, poorly distributed and highly
erratic thus impeding cultivation and sustainable livestock development. Despite the harsh
environment and holding a lower abundance of animals than the highlands the
contribution of the pastoral farming system to the national livestock economy is significant;
beyond serving as basic source of livelihood for the people, it supplies 90% of the legal
export of live animals and 20% of the draft animals to highlands (MOA 1996).
Shortage of water and feed, particularly during the dry season, constantly force nomadic
pastorals to migrate together with their livestock long distances to maintain their sources of
subsistence. The situation put the people increasingly impoverished and vulnerable to
droughts and famine.
MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop 81
Managing water for livestock and fisheries development
Out of the total rangeland available (781 thousand km
2
), 88% lies on the lowland. But
this extensive pastureland remains under-utilised due to shortage of drinking water. Where
permanent or temporary water sources are available for the dry season the pastureland near
and around the supply sources are subjected to over-grazing and environmental
degradation. Just contrary to this, in areas where water supplies are short, an extensive area
of pastureland is left under-utilised. There is also a health factor that affects the efficient use
of the available water and rangeland as many parts of the lowland areas are infested by a wide
range of animal diseases, including tsetse and Rift Valley fever, which reduce the traction
power of animals and restrict exports, respectively. The main problem for over- or
under-exploitation of the ecology is lack of harmony among the different actors.
Drinking water for livestock also plays key role during transport and marketing of live
animals from points of surplus to markets. In effect, individual animal lose 25 to 30% of its
liveweight during the journey.
Drinking water requirement increases at a higher temperature and low humidity.
Depending on season, cattle must be watered at least every second day at a rate of 10 to 40
litres/head, and camel must consume 100 to 150 litres/head at a time every 5–6 or even 8
days. Against the requirements, however, animals in the lowland drink every four days, and
perhaps insufficiently. So, the impact of under-watering is very clear—poor animal health
and under-productivity. When seen from the large livestock population of the country the
demand for drinking water is substantial and its provision is expensive.
The practice of using water bodies for fisheries
One of the primary tangible benefits which water can offer is the living asset—fish stocks.
Fishing activities contribute directly to human welfare, for example, by providing source
food (animal protein), which is urgently needed particularly by the poor rural population.
Almost 120 thousand km
2
of the total land constitutes water and water courses, which
may be exploited for fisheries directly or through enhancement. However, knowledge on
their stock sizes and the means to exploit them are still to be known for each fishery waters.
Despite this limitation, as indicated before, empirical estimates put the country’s total fish
potential to 51,500 t per year, with a current exploitation of 30%. This leaves considerable
potential for expansion.
Under-exploitation of existing fisheries potential contained in the natural water bodies
of the country is a great concern. Even if the available stocks of these fishery waters will be
fully exploited in the near future, both current and future demand for fish by the population
cannot be met. For instance, current total demand for fish is about 67 thousand tonnes,
which is envisaged to grow nearly to 95 thousand tonnes in 2015, and 118 thousand tonnes
in 2025. To fill this gap, therefore, new alternative fish supply sources must be found.
In the country, small to large size man-made water bodies have been and will continue to
be built for drinking water supply, hydropower generation, irrigation and fisheries. In
practice, however, almost all those multi-purpose water development programmes and
projects overlook fisheries as a component whilst it would be possible to bring additional
82 MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop
Sileshi Ashine
fish supply for local consumption and is capable of improving the overall efficiency of the
programme at large.
Integration of fisheries with other components may only require minor engineering
modifications to meet biological requirements of the important fish stocks, in return to
provide a wide range of socio-economic benefits, which include food, income and
employment.
Almost entirely, all pertinent institutions which are active in water resource or
watershed area development and management unintentionally neglect the roles and
conservation requirements of the fisheries because they are either little aware of the
significance or lack the necessary knowledge in the field of aquatic living resources, in
general, and in fisheries, in particular.
Despite the technical limitations, efforts have been made in the past to stock or enhance
known creator lakes, reservoirs and other small water bodies in different parts of the
country, and are shown success, for instance at Lugo, Koka, Fincha and Ashengie. Yet there
are several water bodies of similar kind, which need stocking or enhancement with good
performing fish species, but data on the geographic distribution, physico-chemical
characteristics and socio-economic features of these water bodies are lacking. The Ministry
of Agriculture, due to lack of capacity, has not undertaken a baseline survey, nor do the
developers of these water bodies communicate the information to the Ministry.
If current practices are allowed to continue, the country’s water bodies, which exist now
and those to be developed in the future will remain under-exploited for fisheries.
Integration of water development schemes with fishery requires developing capacity for
stocking, enhancement and monitoring. Parallel to this, emphasis must be given to further
increase the awareness and fish consumption levels of the public at large. Unless this is
done, fish production, which will come from new water bodies, will lack adequate and
effective demand, and thus the envisaged benefits will not be fully realised.
In addition to extensive fish culture system on reservoirs and ponds, there are greater
possibilities to introduce and expand rural and commercial aquaculture within controlled
environment. Technically, the diverse ecological zones, availability of by-products as feed,
and the genetic resource (the three top cultured fish species in the tropics are found in
Ethiopia) provide the opportunity for aquaculture development in Ethiopia. The present
and future socio-economic conditions in the country equally support fish development.
However, aquaculture practice is almost new to the country and hence this remains to be
addressed to allow fish culture in the country to take off. Aquaculture requires sufficient
water supply of the required quality.
Recreational fishing is an additional opportunity that water resources can provide and
to be integrated with tourism. This however requires introduction of fish species into
natural or artificial water bodies, which are deemed to be suitable for sporting purposes.
Water related and water management constraints
Water management—dealing with scarcity or abundance of water with some objectives in
view—faces problems ranging from inadequacy to supply water for drinking and agricultural
MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop 83
Managing water for livestock and fisheries development
use to inadequate control over water related problems which cause suffering and death of
people and animals, and ecological degradation from abuse of watershed areas.
Severe water supply shortage in the lowlands and some pockets of the highland areas call
for water management activities, of course, along side other complementary activities.
However, the activities and capabilities of water management system are generally
constrained by technical inadequacy, fund limitation and institutional weakness.
In livestock and fisheries production the following constraints are identified:
1. Drinking water and pasturelands are not available harmoniously, which results in
under-utilisation of the extensively available pastureland, on the one hand, and
over-grazing and environmental degradation, on the other.
2. The unpredictable, infrequent and low rainfall patterns on most of the semi-arid areas
limit agro-pastoral farming systems. Even certain pockets of land along the river basins,
which have the potential for mixed farming, remain unused, and prevent the possibility
for sedentarisation. The situation leaves most of the lowland population relatively
dispossessed of socio-economic infrastructures or disadvantaged from public
investment programmes.
3. The capital outlay required to improve the condition of water supply and rangelands
management is substantial. In addition, available water-harvesting technologies and
knowledge are limited.
4. Past and present polices and programmes in livestock system lack effective co-ordination
and integration inter- and intra-institutions. So, returns from investment on rangeland
and water supply management were not only low but also not sustained.
5. Socio-cultural factors in water resources development or even improvement of the
livestock system are not sufficiently considered due to lack of understanding.
6. A large number of, small- to large-size, man-made water bodies of good potential for
fisheries have been built but knowledge about them is scanty. Besides, they seldom
consider the needs and requirements of fisheries in their design and construction. Low
awareness and lack of technical capacity in the field are identified as major drawback.
7. Lake and river fisheries as part of the watershed system are not sufficiently considered by
watershed area developers and managers, and therefore the aquatic system, in general,
and the fisheries, in particular, absorbs various unintended adverse effects from other
water or watershed area users. These are related dam construction, diversion, irrigation,
deforestation and release of toxic effluents. As said before, the root cause of the
problems are weak institutions with absence of the required technical capacities in the
field of living aquatic resources.
Recommended pathways for integrated water
resource management
The objective of managing multi-purpose water resources is beyond reduction of hunger
and poverty through its effects on increasing agricultural production, including livestock
84 MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop
Sileshi Ashine
and fisheries. Its role as socio-economic infrastructure helps achieve establishment of
agricultural settlements, industrialisation and economic growth. The return from
multi-purpose water development programmes is commutative and much higher than from
single purpose scheme. This can best be achieved through effective co-ordination and
integration between the various activities using common resources—water and the
watershed area. This approach can only provide the possibility to achieve resource use
efficiency and environmental sustainability.
Under this general framework, the following specific recommendations are drawn to
make better use of water resources to the needs and requirements of livestock and fishery
development.
1. Research. Sufficient and accurate data is seldom available to base sound planning and
informed decision on natural resources and their uses. We know for sure that we lose
our natural resources but the degree of the loss, the root causes and mitigating measures
are rather less clear. This implies that existing researches and studies poorly meet the
needs of resources management, water, agricultural land, rangeland, livestock and
fisheries. In addition to limited expertise and fund, research management either lacks
focus, continuity, coherence, participation, or the research outputs themselves are not
effectively disseminated to ultimate users.
Therefore, strengthening research management capabilities that recognises the
interdependence between water supply and water use activities, and the interaction
between these activities should deserve priority. More specifically, assessment of both
the ecological, technical, economic and socio-cultural environments within which the
country’s livestock system can realise its potential needs to be researched. The problems,
needs and potentials of water supply to meet current and future requirements by the
livestock system should be critically evaluated.
Baseline survey. Identification and characterisation of the present and future man-made
water bodies for further stocking or enhancement is essential. Based on the knowledge
from the study, fish seed supply and propagation centres must be created at strategic
areas of the country.
2. Policy and planning. Policies and plans that address the underlying cause than the
symptom of environmental degradation are effective. So to meet food requirements and
preserve the future resources base urgent action is required to the livestock
development, and the actions should combine education and motivation, local level
institutional building and empowerment, zoning and property right regime.
In addition, clear objectives, target groups and priorities must be set for livestock and
fisheries within the broad multi-purpose water management policies and programmes.
Because resource is scarce, the choice and decision between competing water use
activities must be based on good technical and economic justifications and stakeholders
participation. To achieve this, horizontal linkages between pertinent sectors and
departments having interest in water and watershed area must be established or
strengthened and implemented with the aim to exchange information and discuss
matters of common interest.
MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop 85
Managing water for livestock and fisheries development
3. Beyond the convention. Socio-cultural environment within which the development
processes take place determines success. Initially, the development effort will be
influenced by culture, which will, at a later stage, affect the culture in return. However,
such a two-track interaction remains the missing element in most development
activities, including efforts to supply water for agricultural use, animal drinking or for
integrated activities. This must be corrected through increasing understanding and
capacities on how to integrate this sensitive and powerful factor.
4. Water harvesting. Drinking water from natural pools will dry out in a short period. So,
temporary water courses must be exploited by creating and improving water-retaining
structures, and must be complemented with artificial pools to allow herds to graze the
dry pasture within a walking distance. In areas where the rains are rare but heavy, it is
advantageous to harvest the runoff water at a lower point, the surface of which is
established by a bed of concrete and then the water will be pulled to water trough by
pump or gravity for the herd. Where drinking water from permanent and temporary
surface water sources are difficult or insufficient then ground water should be exploited
by establishing wells and bore holes.
5. Integration. There must be harmony among water supply, feed, and herd size, and an
equitable distribution of the opportunities among the target communities. These avoid
encroachments, promote peace and settlement among the pastoralists.
6. Transformation. Pocket lands suitable for irrigation development along the rivers
should be developed, and the productivity of dry land farming can be improved using
water-harvesting techniques. However, the backbone of the economies of the lowland
area will remain extensive livestock system till the available rangeland is exhaustively
utilised and calls for a change towards mixed or intensive farming. Developing a system
for a gradual transformation of the nomadic pastoralists towards sedentarisation helps
build assets for relatively rapid and sustained development for the well-being of the
population and rejuvenation and balance of the ecology.
7. Early warning. Establish an early warning mechanism for combating possible events of
natural catastrophe.
8. Assistance. The hope to realise the potentials of the country’s livestock and fishery
productions demands external assistance in addition to government support. The
assistance may be extended to meet the need for integrated water supply infrastructure,
improved rangeland management, effective veterinary service, research and extension,
and credit and marketing services.
References
Cox W.E. 1987. The role of water in socio-economic development of rangelands. UNESCO (United Nations
Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization), Paris, France.
World Bank. 1984. Towards sustainable development in sub-Sahara Africa. Joint program of action. The
World Bank, Washington, DC, USA.
86 MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop
Sileshi Ashine
Livestock grazing impact on vegetation, soil
and hydrology in a tropical highland
watershed
Girma Tadesse and D. Peden
International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Abstract
The aim of this research was to establish vegetation, soil and hydrologic responses to grazing
pressure; and determine thresholds for optimum herbage utilisation of pastures and grazing
land resources conservation. The treatments were no grazing (NOG, control), where animal
grazing was excluded using 10 m by 10 m fenced enclosure, moderate grazing (MDG) and
heavy grazing (HVG). During free grazing period (January–May) stocking rate on medium and
heavily grazed plots depends much on the preference of grazing animals, and in some cases the
stocking rate in controlled or medium grazing pressure exceeds that of the heavily grazed plots.
The biomass yield on non-grazed plots varied from 2.84–4.13 t/ha, and on grazed plots from
0.84–2.25 t/ha. Grazing pressure increased the percentage cover of annual plant species and
composition as compared with no grazing pressure. Particularly, in medium-grazing pressure
annual plant species coverage has improved significantly. The soil loss at 4–8% slope was high
in heavily grazed plots. Besides, the soil loss in grazed plots was below the soil tolerance limit
for natural pasture. The infiltration rate was lower in heavily grazed plots.
Introduction
In livestock production systems at smallholder levels, the overriding considerations are to
increase the efficiency of using local natural resources that are not directly beneficial to
human unless converted to useful products (Daniel 1988). A successful livestock
development strategy, therefore, needs to fit into the overall resource management plans
and complement the wider economic, ecological and sociological objectives. The
combination of moderate temperature, adequate rainfall and freedom from many tropical
diseases has encouraged the growth of large human populations and diverse farming
systems (Jahnke and Assamenew 1983). Grazing of pasture and rangelands is an integral
component of livestock production systems in many countries (Johanston et al. 1996).
Livestock grazing stimulates nutrient mobilisation and uptake through consumption of
vegetation, in that mobilisation of nutrients to the growing points per root biomass is
enhanced by frequent defoliation (Mohamed Saleem 1998). It is clear that the degradation
MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop 87
of the highlands relates to the combination of human exploitation exceeding the natural
carrying capacity of the land resources systems, and inherent ecological fragility of the
systems (Mohamed Saleem and Abyie 1998). Investigations into how grazing can induce
different bio-physical process including vegetation and hydrological changes that are related
to bio-diversity, nutrient uptake and cycling in the grassland ecosystems are required for
developing models to predict levels of primary productivity to meet grazing requirements of
livestock and also predict vegetative cover required to protect soil from degradation. The
general objectives of this research are, therefore, to establish vegetation, soil, and hydrologic
responses to grazing pressure; and determine thresholds for optimum herbage utilisation of
pastures and grazing land resources conservation.
Materials and methods
Study description
The study was conducted for four years starting from 1996 at Tero Jemjem watershed in
Ginchi, 80 km west of Addis Ababa, Ethiopia (38°13?9?E and 9°1?5?N) in Yubdo Legebatu
Peasant Association where farmers graze their livestock within and around Tero Jemjem
watershed. The annual rainfall is 1150 mm and the rainy season starts in June, peaks in
August and tails off in September (Figure 1). The mean annual temperature is about 17°C
with insignificant seasonal variation; however, the period from October to March is slightly
warmer and June to September is cooler. The elevation of the Tero Jemjem watershed ranges
from 2190 to 2770 metres above sea level (masl), and the study area is approximately 350 ha.
Figure 1. Mean annual rainfall of the study area.
The area has clay soils of the Vertic Cambisol Association (55–78%) on <10% slopes
(Kamara and Haque 1988). Due to high smecite clay content, these soils have marked
88 MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop
Girma Tadesse and Peden
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1996 1997 1998 1999 2000
Year
Annual rainfall
(mm)
swelling and shrinking properties. Clay soils of the Chromic Cambisols Association
(55–72% clay) occur on the upper slopes (>10% slope).
The vegetation was largely dominated by Andropogon abyssinicus, Bothrichloa inscuplta,
Eleusine floccifolia, and Eragrostis tenuifolia grass species and by Acacia abyssinica. The balance
of the vegetation is composed of a very diverse assemblage of grass and forbs species most of
which are readily accepted by grazing livestock.
The treatments were no grazing (NOG, control), where animal grazing was excluded
using a 10 × 10 m fenced enclosure, moderate grazing (MDG) and heavy grazing (HVG).
The grazing pressure at MDG was regulated by opening flexible fencing around the plots for
three days a week to allow free access for farmers’ animals. There was no fencing around
plots subjected to HVG. The NOG plots were fenced and kept closed to livestock grazing
throughout the experiment. The number and type of animals and duration of grazing in the
MDG and HVG treatments were recorded daily to determine the stocking rate and grazing
intensity. Similar cultural practices as used by surrounding farmers were imposed; manure
was collected from grazed plots by the herders and used as source of fuel.
Stocking density was expressed as animal units per hectare (AU/ha) and calculated as
proposed by Scarnecchia (1985). An animal unit (AU) is defined as a 450 kg steer at 30
months of age (Edwards 1981; Le Hou’erou 1989). Animals kept were local zebu cattle,
donkeys and horses, sheep and goats that belonged to the farmers in the watershed.
Vegetation assessment
Metal quadrants (0.5 × 0.5 m) were used for vegetation sampling. Two samples were taken
on monthly basis by clipping the herbage in the quadrants to the ground level from each
plot within and outside of the movable cages to measure regrowth, residual and biomass
consumed by the animals. After clipping the herbage the cages were moved at random each
month to a new spot along transect, but outside a3×6marea demarcated to study the soil
erosion (Figure 2). The clipped samples were oven-dried at 70°C for 24 hours, weighed and
biomass was converted to t/ha. Within each plot every year in September, October and
December a total of 100 points (10 × 10 m), usinga1mlong metal frame species richness
and botanical composition were determined. Every year botanical composition and species
richness were measured in August, October and December.
Hydrological studies
In mid-October the effect of livestock trampling on water infiltration was measured in three
replicates on each plot using a double-ring infiltrometer (Bower 1986).
Surface runoff measurement
To measure runoff and soil loss, each plot had an installation consisting of a metal gutter at
the lower end of the plot, a sedimentation box, and a drum connected to a collection drum.
MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop 89
Livestock grazing impact on vegetation, soil and hydrology in a tropical highland watershed
The metal gutters intercepted runoff and directed it to the collection tank. The
sedimentation box also acted as a multi-pipe divisor with seven pipes. Only the middle pipe
was connected to the runoff-collecting tank through a 12.5-mm diameter plastic hose, thus
allowing only (in theory) 1/7 of the runoff to be collected during each rainfall event. The
actual amount going into the drum was determined using a calibration curve. The box and
tank were shielded from direct rainfall and animal trampling by an iron sheet cover. Each
plot was also provided with up-slope runoff by run-on barrier and an interceptor drain at the
upper end on the plot.
Sediment and water samples were collected after each rainfall event that produced runoff
in the treatment. Samples were collected from the sedimentation box and the overflow drum
after stirring the mixture vigorously. Concentration of suspended material was determined
using the fixed-volume method (Barnett and Holladay 1965). Runoff was measured in the
field as soon as possible after each rainfall event that produced runoff. The total amount of
runoff consisted of the amount collected in the sedimentation box, the amount collected in
the drum and the amount drained through the six pipes. In theory, the total volume
overflowing from the sedimentation box (OVcal) is equal to seven times the amount collected
in the drum. The actual total amount overflowing from the sedimentation box (OVactual) was
determined using the calibration curve shown in equation (1).
OVactual = OVcal × F (1)
where, OVactual is the actual volume of runoff overflowing from the sedimentation box;
OVcal is 7 times the amount collected in the drum and F is the multiplication factor, which
varied from plot to plot.
90 MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop
Girma Tadesse and Peden
0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
0–4 4–8 35–45
Slope (%)
NOG MDG HVG
Biomass yield
(t/ha)
Figure 2. Effect of grazing on mean biomass yield (t/ha) at different slopes (1996–2000).
Soil loss measurement
The total weight of a fixed volume of soil and water is equal to the weight of water with soil
plus the weight of soil, minus the weight of water dispersed by the soil:
W
s+w
=W
w
+W
s
–W
s
/S
g
(2)
where W
s+w
is the total weight of water and soils; W
w
is the weight of water in fixed volume
without soil; W
s
is weight of soil; and S
g
is specific gravity of soil assumed to be 2.65. After
making an allowance for the water displaced by soil, the weight of the soil in the sample was
calculated. Then the weight of the soil was converted to sediment yield in tonnes per hectare
(Heron 1990; Hudson 1993).
Data analyses
General Linear Model/multivariate and simple linear correlations were used for data
analysis (SPSS 1999).
Results and discussion
Grazing pressure
Grazing pressure on natural pasture in the Ethiopian highlands follows four distinct
patterns (Table 1). During free grazing period (January–May) stocking rate on medium and
heavily grazed plots depends much on the preference of grazing animals, and in some cases
the stocking rate in controlled or medium grazing pressure exceeds that of the heavily grazed
plots. As a result, the stocking rate in medium grazing pressure was higher even than the
heavily grazed plots. Except draft animals, most of the livestock species are moved from
bottomland of the communal grazing lands to upper slopes (Jahnke and Assamenew 1983;
Daniel 1988). October to December is the period when sown crops get maturity and gradual
cessation of natural pasture begins, and the stocking rate on the natural pasture rises again.
After crop harvest predominantly free grazing on agricultural field is resumed, and burden
on natural pasture is reduced. During this time cattle are needed for threshing the harvested
crops, and donkeys are needed for transporting harvested crops from agricultural field to
nearby settlement areas, and the available crop stalks can be kept for winter as
supplementary feed (Mwendera et al. 1997; Mohamed Saleem 1998; Mohamed Saleem and
Abyie 1998).
Influence of grazing pressure on biomass production
As grazing pressure increases biomass production decreases. The biomass yield on
non-grazed plots varied from 2.84–4.13 t/ha, and on grazed plots from 0.84–2.25 t/ha
MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop 91
Livestock grazing impact on vegetation, soil and hydrology in a tropical highland watershed
(Figure 2). Biomass yield decreased as the slope increases. Biomass production over time varies
and therefore causes seasonal variation in forage availability (Holechek et al. 1998). Likewise,
grazing pressure varies across time because of differences in forage production among spatially
separated plant communities (Zerihun 1986). Under heavy grazing pressure, plants may not
compensate sufficiently for the biomass removed by grazing animals (Wood and Blackburn
1984; Zerihun 1986). Hence, net primary production (NPP), which is the difference between
non-grazed and grazed biomass production, is a useful tool to establish the defoliation level of
plant vegetation (Dawson 1974; Mills and Lee 1990).
Table 1. Grazing pressure as expressed per animal unit (AU/t).
Year
0–4% slope 4–8% slope
MDG HVG MDG HVG
1996 20.69 41.28 118.01 336.73
1997 22.99 60.38 124.08 351.8
1998 60.75 160.31 108.66 455.6
1999 88.29 161.83 97.82 389.95
2000 95.1 170.31 115.75 367.5
Plant species and species richness
Botanical composition of plant species and productivity of the pasture are highly influenced
by animal species, intensity of grazing and edaphic factors. Under very high stocking rate
plant species such as Pennisetum sphacelantum-Commelina africana type may develop to
Andropogon abyssinicus-Hyparrhenia arrhenobasis type when grazing is relaxed (Zerihun 1986).
Grazing pressure increased the percentage cover of annual plant species and composition as
compared with no grazing pressure (Table 2). Particularly, in medium-grazing pressure
annual plant species coverage over the grazed area has improved significantly. At 4–8%
slope, the vegetative cover of annual species in no grazing plots was almost nil.
Predominantly perennial plant species were observed in no grazing treatment at both slopes
compared with the grazed plots. Grazing has demonstrated positive effect on species
composition and diversity (Janzen 1982a, b). The species richness was high in medium
grazed plots compared with the rest of the treatments (Figure 3). The species richness in the
lightly to moderately grazed plots remained relatively high as this was encouraged by
selective grazing in the growth of the vegetation species.
Runoff, soil loss, bare-ground and infiltration rate
The overall mean annual soil loss in non-grazed and heavily grazed plots varied from 0.65–1.1
t/ha per year, and from 3.1–5.52 t/ha per year, respectively. The soil loss at 4–8% slope was
high in heavily grazed plots (Figure 4). Besides, the soil loss in grazed plots was below the soil
tolerance limit for natural pasture (Belay 1992; Mwendera et al. 1997). This was due to low
formation of bare-ground patches. Moreover, no bare-ground patches were observed on
92 MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop
Girma Tadesse and Peden
non-grazed plots (Figure5). T heinfiltration ratewas lower in heavilygrazed plots (Figure6).
T he type and amount of vegetative cover alter surface runoff and water intake rate (Figure
7). Livestock grazing effects on infiltration, runoff, erosion, on-site water use, and
consequent downstream impact are of great concern particularly in highland agriculture
(Mwendera and Mohamed Saleem 1996). W hen vegetation cover declines, soil bulk density
increases, rate of water infiltration decreases and sediment production increases.
T able 2. Effect of grazingpressureon dominant plant species cover* (%) at different slopes (1997–2000).
Area Life form of
dominant species
0–4% slope 4–8% slope
1997 1998 1999 2000 1997 1998 1999 2000
NOG Annual 0 5 8 11 0 0 10 14
Perennial 70 82 71 80 45 31 73 81
MDG Annual 45 33 10 11 32 22 14 20
Perennial 23 27 70 75 31 35 61 69
H V G Annual 18 2 10 12 18 8 15 17
Perennial 27 18 65 70 27 25 64 67
* Plant species with  5% cover are included in the data.
Figure 3. Effect of grazingpressureon mean species richness (%) at different slopes (1996–2000).
The nutrient balance
T he nutrient balance under natural pasture in the absence of fertiliser or manure was
negative for each nutrient. As the soil nutrient pool has to offset the negative balance, it
implies that the grazing system is mining soil nutrients and not sustainable (G irma et al.
2001). T he farmers removed the cow dungfor fuel. T his had negative impact on nutrient
recycling and biomass improvement (T able 3).
MoW R / EAR O/ IW MI/ ILR I W orkshop 93
Livestock grazingimpact on vegetation, soil and hydrology in a tropical highland watershed
94 MoW R / EAR O/ IW MI/ ILR I W orkshop
Girma Tadesseand Peden
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
0–4 4–8
Slope (%)
NOG MDG HVG
Soil loss 
(t/ha)
Figure 4. Effect of grazing pressure on mean soil loss (t/ha) at different slopes (1996–2000).
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
0–4 4–8
Slope (%)
NOG MDG HVG
Bare ground 
(%)
Figure 5. Effect of grazing pressure on bare ground formation (%) at different slopes (1996–2000).
T able 3. Mean nutrient balanceof thenatural grazed pastureat smallholder farmer’s level (kg/ ha per year), 1996–99.
T reatment
0–4% slope 4–8% slope
In–Out In–Out
NPK NPK
NOG 52.2 8.7 62.66 –104.06 –13.69 –93.71
MDG –361.07 –43.37 –234.52 –804.57 –116.26 –514.43
H V G –587.87 –82.01 –383.73 –1043.36 –115.92 –671.71
Source: Adapted from G irma et al. (2001).
MoW R / EAR O/ IW MI/ ILR I W orkshop 95
Livestock grazingimpact on vegetation, soil and hydrology in a tropical highland watershed
Figure 6. Effect of grazing pressure on mean inflitration rate (1998–2000).
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
0–4 4–8
Slope(%)
NOG MDG HVG
Infiltration rate 
(cm/hr)
Figure 7. Effect of grazing pressure on runfall (300 mm rainfall) at different land slopes.
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
0–4 4–8
Land slope (%)
NOG MDG HVG
Surface runoff 
(mm)
Conclusions
The biomass yield on non-grazed plots varied from 2.84–4.13 t/ha, and on grazed plots
from 0.84–2.25 t/ha. Particularly, in medium-grazing pressure annual plant species
coverage has improved significantly. The soil loss at 4–8% slope was high in heavily grazed
plots. The infiltration rate was lower in heavily grazed plots.
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96 MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop
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Johanston P.W., McKeon G.M. and Day K. 1996. Objective ‘safe’ grazing capacities for South-West
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MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop 97
Livestock grazing impact on vegetation, soil and hydrology in a tropical highland watershed
Community health, water supply and
sanitation
Getachew Begashaw
Ministry of Health, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Abstract
Ethiopia is a developing country with a predominantly rural population. The health status
of the people is very low compared with other low-income countries (largely attributable to
potentially preventable infectious diseases and nutritional deficiencies) and a high rate of
population growth. Widespread poverty along with general low income level of the vast
majority of the population, low education levels, inadequate access to clean water and
sanitation facilities and poor access to health services have also contributed to the burden of
ill-health.The level of water supply and sanitation development coverage in rural and urban
areas of the country continues to be low. According to official estimates, only 32% of the
people have access to safe water supply. The sanitary situation is considered even worse, with
only 17% having access to adequate latrines. The figure for waste disposal is still worse.
Community health
Any social service rendered in a given country is a direct reflection of the socio-economic
system of that country. The health service that the Ethiopian people received has proved this
truth.Ethiopia is a country sadly affected by frequent outbreaks of disease, drought, famines
and conflicts and continues to suffer from its age-old challenges of infectious diseases,
malnutrition and illiteracy.The health status of the people is very low accompanied with the
high rate of population growth. An estimated 60 to 80% of the health problems are due to
infectious and communicable diseases and nutritional problems. The health system is
under-developed and able to provide health care to only about half of the population. Much
of the rural population has no access to health care, leading to inability of the health care
delivery system to effectively respond to the needs of the people.
The country remains one of the poorest nations in the world. As a result, life expectancy
at birth is the lowest (54 years), and infant and under-five mortality rates are among the
highest in the world (97/1000 live births and 140/1000 live births, respectively). The total
fertility rate stands at 5.9 children per woman while the crude birth rate is 40%.
Acute respiratory infection, malaria, nutritional deficiency, diarrhoea and Human
immuno-deficiency virus/Acquired immuno-deficiency syndrome (HIV/AIDS) account
for the large share of the disease. HIV/AIDS has emerged as a major problem of public
health posing a serious threat to the nation.
98 MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop
The health service coverage compounded by poor quality of services is very low
(51.24%). Antenatal care coverage is estimated at 20.7%, while institutional delivery is
about 10%. The number of health care facilities and the ratio of health personnel to
population is very low. One hospital serves a population of 594,036 while a health centre
covers an estimated population of 171,057. Similarly one medical doctor serves 47,976, one
nurse serves 8460, and one health assistant serves 8847 people.
The uneven geographical distribution of health personnel and health facilities at all
levels has exacerbated these conditions. Most facilities and health personnel are
concentrated in urban centres at the expense of the health needs of most of the population
that lives in the rural area.
Environmental health profile
Environmental health services have a long history in Ethiopia. But data on environmental
health conditions and the magnitude of environmental health problems are scanty.
However, some studies, reports from various health units and experiences of health
professionals indicated the seriousness of the problems. They attribute the problems to the
occurrence of 60–80% of the communicable diseases that are prevailing in the country
thereby resulting in high mortality and morbidity, especially among infants and children. In
other words, about 80% of the diseases in Ethiopia are communicable in nature, which can
be easily prevented or controlled by applying simple sanitary measures such as provision of
safe and adequate food and water supplies, safe and adequate waste disposal system, vector
control and the promotion of personal, family, neighbourhood and community hygiene
and sanitation.
Other environmental health problems that Ethiopia faces are those emanating from
both under-development and adverse consequences of developments. It is moving to
situations of advanced pollution problems before control over the traditional pollution
sources is achieved. Complex problems evolving from modern development schemes such
as population growth, urbanisation, industrialisation, modernisation of commerce and
trade, mechanisation of agriculture, uncontrolled uses of agro-chemicals, mining etc. are
emerging. Another case in point is the pollution of water bodies by discharges of wastewater
from industries, cesspools, septic tanks and solid wastes etc. Thus, the environmental and
ecological problems continue to threaten the health, productivity and quality of life
requiring an urgent need for devising comprehensive control measures against
environmental pollution.
Water supply and sanitation
The water supply and sanitation situation in Ethiopia is very poor, as most of the population
does not have access to safe and adequate water supplies and sanitation facilities. As a result,
three-fourth of the health problems in Ethiopia are due to communicable diseases
attributable to unsafe/inadequate water supply, and unhygienic/unsanitary waste
MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop 99
Community health, water supply and sanitation
management, particularly excreta. Diarrhoeal diseases caused by improper management of
water and sanitation is among the major causes of infant and child morbidity and mortality.
Water and sanitation programmes have a direct bearing on the prevalence of diarrhoeal
diseases in the population. Projects, which are properly designed and implemented, have
the potential of attenuating diarrhoea morbidity by approximately 25% and reducing
diarrhoea-caused deaths by 55%. The combination of safe water supply, sanitation facilities
and hygienic practices demonstrated a potential in contributing to a remarkable decrease in
the prevalence of a child and maternal morbidity and mortality.
Despite the significant water resources available in the country, the status of water
supply in the country is poor particularly in the rural areas. It was estimated that only 28.3%
of the total population, 75.7% of urban population and approximately 19.9% of the rural
population had reasonable access to adequate water supply. Adequate water supply is
defined as 20 litres per capita per day made available within a range of one to two kms from
the dwelling. Average per capita water consumption varies between 10 and 20 litres per day
in some areas. However, in most rural areas of Ethiopia, depending upon seasonality and
location of source and availability of water, daily consumption is as low as 3–4 litres per
capita per day. Women and children particularly girls have to fetch water, often walking for
3–8 kms from their dwellings.
Lack of sufficient quantities of clean water critically impairs the ability of most rural
populations to engage in appropriate personal, food and environmental hygienic practices
which would greatly assist in stemming the tide of infectious diseases. The inaccessibility of
protected and improved water supplies to about 80% of the rural population and about
24% of the urban dwellers clearly indicates that the health and well-being of the population,
in general, and that of women and children, in particular, is at risk from a multitude of
water-borne or water-related diseases. Although it is difficult to quantify morbidity and
mortality related to unsafe and inadequate water supply because of lack of an effective
monitoring and surveillance system and country-wide baseline survey, limited information
on disease prevalence reported indicates that water-borne or water-related diseases are
among the major causes of sickness and death. Women and children particularly girls as the
main water carriers are in frequent contact with contaminated water. They are, therefore,
the segment of the population most vulnerable to water-related diseases which, according to
the World Health Organization (WHO) estimates, are accountable for 80% of all morbidity
in the developing world. Among the major water related diseases is diarrhoea, which alone
is accountable for 46% of under -five-child mortality. Therefore, the strongly held opinion
of public health experts is that the provision of safe water is a prime importance to public
health.
Sanitation, both urban and rural, has been accorded little importance in the promotion
of environmental health programme in the country. The sanitation conditions of both
urban and rural areas are very poor; the situation in the latter is one of the worst in the
world. In the rural areas, the sanitation service is virtually non-existent in most parts of the
country. Use of open field for defecation/urination is a common practice for almost all the
rural population. National sanitation coverage is estimated to be 10.4%. The urban and
rural sanitation coverage is estimated to be 46 and 3.9%, respectively. Even in the capital
city, Addis Ababa, 30% of the populations have no sanitary facilities of any form, while 70%
100 MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop
Getachew Begashaw
have varying types of sanitation facilities. Only a portion of the city has an underground
sewerage system with stabilisation pond treatment device serving only the smallest portion
of the population in part of the city centre and some planned housing areas. Nonetheless,
the current coverage is less than 1%. In the past, efforts had been made through external
support from non-governmental organisations (NGOs) to provide pit latrines of various
designs, such as traditional dry pit latrines and VIP latrines to the rural communities in
particular in the form of demonstration and/or pilot projects. These efforts ended in failure
in most parts of the rural areas once assistance has been withdrawn. Other major reasons
include unaffordability of most of the community to replicate the technology; the
insufficient provision of pre- and ongoing hygiene education to the beneficiary
communities to enable them develop a latrine culture.
Many diarrhoeal diseases such as cholera, typhoid and hepatitis caused by poor
sanitation conditions are serious threats to life, particularly childhood diarrhoea, which is a
leading cause of morbidity and mortality in children under five years. The high prevalence
of intestinal parasites among the population, especially worm burden in children is the
direct results of faecal contamination of food and water.
Countrywide, solid waste management facilities coverage is estimated at 2%. Refuse
disposal sites in urban areas are often insufficient and unorganised. As a result, in the urban
centres including the capital city, solid wastes are not properly stored, collected, transported
and disposed of, but accumulated in drains, on open lands thus providing breeding areas for
disease vectors. In rural areas, solid waste disposal system of any form is almost non-existent.
Indiscriminate disposal of waste-water (liquid waste) in both urban and rural settings is a
common practice.
In summary, sanitation, both urban and rural, has never received the emphasis it
deserves. It has not been seen as a priority area of concern. Policies on community
participation, ownership, management etc. taking into account the special needs of women
and children, have not been a focus for sanitation projects and this sustainability of
interventions such as sanitary facilities has not been achieved.
In general, the sanitation sector has met with many setbacks in the past due to many
varied reasons. A few of these reasons are:
• lack of or low awareness of the communities particularly the rural ones about health
implication of sanitation practices; insufficient government commitment to the sector;
lack of or insufficient government funding to the sanitation programme
• lack of or inadequate or not clearly defined sector policies, legislation, regulation
strategies, guidelines, and standards to promote the sector services, programme and
projects
• lack of integration and networking among key sectors such as health, water, education
and NGOs
• inadequate or lack of support for research and experimentation on low-cost, affordable
and sustainable sanitation technology options
• inadequate technology choice. No appropriate sanitation technologies, which take into
account cost, weather, ground water level, availability of water, construction materials,
culture/religion and special needs of women and children.
MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop 101
Community health, water supply and sanitation
The level of hygiene education and general awareness of the communities concerning
safe water and environmental hygiene is very low. Lack of awareness of the health
implications of water and sanitation and hygiene practices particularly by the rural
population have resulted in high water, sanitation and personal hygiene-induced morbidity
and mortality affecting all ages. The low level of consciousness of communities is also
responsible for the unsustainability of most of water supply and sanitation schemes
developed in the past.
Safe water and adequate sanitation not only are the bases of life and health, but they also
are essential contributors to human dignity. Improved sanitation and water supply must be
an important goal if improved health and sustainable development in Ethiopia is to be
ensured.
102 MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop
Getachew Begashaw
Managing sustainable rural water supply
in Ethiopia
Getachew Abdi
Ministry of Water Resources, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Introduction
General
Ethiopia is a country with a current population of 63.5 million and with a 3% population
growth rate. In rural Ethiopia, which comprises 85% of the total population, water supply
and sanitation coverage are limited to 23 and 7%, respectively (MoWR 2002). In a country
where rural settlement is dominantly rural, a lot of effort is required to change the low
profile as indicated in Table 1 below.
Table 1. Comparison of selected indicators.
Selected indicators
Ethiopia
Low income
countries
GNP per capita US$ 91.5 US$ 360
Life expectancy (LE) 49 years 56 years
Adult illiteracy 65% 46%
Source: World Bank (1996).
Figure 1 shows the trend of water supply coverage of selected African countries as
compared with Ethiopia. The gross national product (GNP) increase to more than US$ 300
to cross the 50% coverage line set to be the global target for the poor.
Figure 1. Trend of water supply coverage for selected African countries.
MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop 103
y = –3E–06 x
3
+ 0.0014 x
3
–0.0384x + 13.527
R
2
= 0.3458
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
0 100 200 300 400
GNP in US$
Ethiopia
Water supply
coverage
Background
CSA (1998) reported that in rural areas, less than 15% of the people had access to safe water.
The difficulty in finding appropriate water sources coupled with scattered settlement
patterns and nomadic lifestyles significantly influence the opportunity to increase and
sustain access to water for the rural population.
This study is aimed at finding solutions to the anticipated problems that were hindering
sustainability in four pilot regions, i.e. Amhara, Benshangul, Oromiya and Southern
regions where access to water supply has declined as per the Central Statistical Authority’s
(CSA) 1998 data.
Physical resources base
Water resources potential
The annual runoff from 12 river basins is estimated at 123 billion m
3
whereas the ground
water potential is about 2.6 billion m
3
. Ethiopia contributes >85% of the Nile River water
(MoWR 2000).
Water quality
Turbidity, fluoride and nitrate are the major problems.
Issues
The major issues in the Ethiopian rural water supply intervention are the following:
• sustainability (more than 30% of the schemes are not functional)
• ability to pay
• stakeholder participation
• capacity building
• technology choice
• livestock watering.
Problems
The study based on the actual conditions of the 40 typical schemes surveyed in the four
sample regions has proved that the problems of rural water supply reliability fall under:
• lack of finance
• lack of skilled manpower
• inadequate stakeholders participation
• lack of co-ordination amongst stakeholders
104 MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop
Getachew Abdi
• lack of well institutionalised set up and appropriate regulatory framework and
• poor infrastructure.
The study further indicates that the software and hardware aspects of rural water supply
are not treated in a balanced manner. This has an adverse effect as population is increasing
at 3% while sanitation is at a virtually non-existent level. The study also highlights that social
work incorporating sanitation awareness, birth control, gender, community ownership and
management that addresses these problems to the grassroot level shall soon be launched
thereby ensuring the reliability of access to safe water sources. Neglecting software aspects is
putting a snare that thwart the relentless effort of some regions that have partially succeeded
in constructing a relatively larger number of schemes (Getachew 2002).
Objectives of the study
The initial objective of this study is the building of community management models that
could contribute to the strengthening of management at scheme level thereby ensuring
improved reliability of water supply service in the four selected regions.
The ultimate objective is the replication of findings to other regions to improve access to
water supply through community management at a national level.
Accordingly, three-fold partnership amongst the community, as owners of the schemes,
the government as the creator of enabling environment, Environmental Site Assessments
(ESAs) and non-governmental organisations (NGOs) and donors as support organisations
is presupposed to achieve sustainability.
Methodology
The methodology of the study included the following:
• problem identification using the problem tree
• setting of objective using the objective tree
• survey on performances in relation to sustainability and coverage
• literature review on reliable community managed schemes, stakeholder participation
and appropriate technology
• sustainability assessment in the four pilot regions using spread sheet and SWOT analysis
• spread sheet and Multivariate analysis of the collected data for confirming correlation.
Use of SPSS version 8
• building scheme level management models and determination of resource requirement.
Analysis of sustainability performance
The analysis has shown that emphasis on:
• community management supported by three-fold partnership
MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop 105
Managing sustainable rural water supply in Ethiopia
• cost recovery
• software (social) aspects
• technology choice and
• research and development is required.
Sustainability performances of the typical schemes in Amhara, Oromiya, Benshangul
and Southern regions have displayed a correlation of high order. Therefore, more or less
similar scheme level management models can be prepared for the four sample regions.
Management models
In harmony to the findings, community management models that can address the software
and hardware aspects in a balanced manner are developed as shown in the two options
below. Option 1 (Figure 2) makes use of woreda council, co-operative Watsan committee
and village water committees among others.
Source: Getachew (2002).
Figure 2. Watsan committee structure (Option 1).
Option 2 (Figure 3) encourages public–private partnership by involving artisans,
small-scale independent providers (SsiPs), individuals, garage owners etc.
106 MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop
Getachew Abdi
Woreda (sub-district) Watsan Office
Co-operatives’ Watsan co-ordination
Committee
Farmers co-operative level Watsan
Committee
Village (‘tabia’) level Watsan
Committee
Woreda Council
Chairman
(Manager)
Finance and
Administration
(Cashier)
Supplies and
Procurement
(Purchaser
Storekeeper)
Operation and
maintenance
(Caretaker
Social worker)
Secretary
(Internal
Auditor)
Source: Getachew (2002).
Figure 3. Watsan committee structure (Option 2).
Moreover, it would be worthwhile to introduce an organisational structure that looks as
the one shown in Figure 4 below to have good co-ordination at all levels.
Resource requirements
As a supporting exercise, manpower that are required to provide safe water to 71% of the
rural population by the year 2015 were estimated and shown in Figure 5.
The financial requirement as per the Water Sector Development Program is more than
US$ 2 billion ascertaining the need for cost sharing mechanisms as shown in Figure 6.
MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop 107
Managing sustainable rural water supply in Ethiopia
Woreda (sub-district)
Watsan Office
Co-operatives’ Watsan co-ordination
committee
Farmers co-operative level Watsan
Committee
Village (‘tabia’) level Watsan
Committee
Woreda Council
– Chairman (Manager)
– Social worker
– Secretary
– Finance and Administration
–Groupofartisans
– Group of SsiPs (mobile
garage owners)
– Individuals
– Operation and maintenance
Source: Getachew (2002).
Figure 4. Proposed organisational chart.
Appropriate technology and use of renewable energy
The huge resource requirement to develop sustainable water supply calls for the use of
appropriate technology and renewable energy that focuses on shallow wells, springs, Village
Level Operation and Maintenance (VLOM) hand pumps, windmills, solar pumps etc.
108 MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop
Getachew Abdi
Ministry of Water Resources
(Co-ordinator and creator of enabling
environment at
federal level)
Regional Water Bureaux
(Creator of enabling environment
at regional level)
Zone level
offices
Donors, ESAs
and NGOs
Woreda Watsan
office
WRWATSAN
section
URWATSAN
section
FCWATSANCO
VWATSANCO
Rural water supply
schemes
Urban water
supply schemes
Private sector
Woreda Watsan
council
CCWATSANCO
Rural water supply (RWS) fund model
In early 2002, the water resources fund designed for urban water supply and irrigation was
established in Ethiopia. Rural water supply that is put aside for government investment
would require a fund model as shown in Figure 7 if a considerable improvement is required
(Getachew 2002).
Source: HoWR (2002).
Figure 5. Scheme and manpower requirement to increase coverage from 23–71% by the year 2015.
Source: MoWR (2002).
Figure 6. Investment requirement in (US$ 10
6
) up to the year 2015 to increase coverage from 23–71%.
MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop 109
Managing sustainable rural water supply in Ethiopia
0
200
400
600
800
1000
Short term
549.5
Medium term
716.15
Long term
820.47
Investment requirement (US$ × 10
6
)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
D
e
e
p
w
e
l
l
s
(
d
r
i
l
l
e
d
)
S
h
a
l
l
o
w
w
e
l
l
s
(
d
r
i
l
l
e
d
)
H
a
n
d
d
u
g
w
e
l
l
s
S
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i
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b
s
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r
f
a
c
e
d
a
m
s
Quantity (Nos) No of caretakersAccountants/Treasurers
(× 10
3
)
Figure 7. Rural water supply (RWS) fund model.
Sustainability process
Figure 8 summarises how sustainability could be achieved in Ethiopia. The figure considers
sustainability as a continuous cyclical process. The more the cyclical process the better the
sustainable and reliable water supply services would become (Getachew 2002).
Conclusion
Building financial capacity requires a three-fold partnership amongst the regional states as
the creators of enabling environment, the community as owners of the schemes and ESAs
and NGOs as support organisations as highlighted by the National Water Sector
Development Program once the models are introduced. A well-organised and equipped
woreda office that can play a leading and productive role in tackling the problems shall
replace remote follow-up from the regional and zonal offices. A water supply and sanitation
fund that will have its branches at least at regional level shall be established to build its own
financial capacity. International donors are also expected to support the effort by providing
soft loans and grants possibly through the Nile Initiative Programme, donor conferences
and poverty alleviation programmes. Technically, the launching of adaptive research and
110 MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop
Getachew Abdi
Water Supply Fund
Issuing Development Bank
Intermediaries
– NGOs
–ESRDF
– Regional States
– Trust to be formed
Local (rural banks)
Sponsors
–FCWATSANCO
– CCWATSANCO
VWATSANCO
Community
development in the water sector that enables the use and provision of appropriate
technology, VLOM pumps and spare parts at an affordable rate is required.
In conclusion, a dedicated effort that involves community empowerment, full-scale
community participation and the mobilisation of all stakeholders in integrated
development with water as a focal point is required to improve access to reliable rural water
supply services in Ethiopia.
MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop 111
Managing sustainable rural water supply in Ethiopia
Towards sustainable rural
water supply service
Establish co-ordination and
commitment amongst
stakeholders
Create three-fold
partnership
Create a vision and develop a road map
for reaching the vision
Translate policy and strategy statements in
regard to sustainability into action.
Modify as required
Launch demand driven
sustainability programmes that
address both software and
hardware aspects
Develop sustainability
indicators
Monitor and evaluate
progress
Make
necessary
adjustments
for the way
forward
Figure 8. Sustainability process.
The way forward
For success in the improvement of sustainable water supply coverage, the country needs to
give attention to the following major actions:
• accelerated and integrated development of sustainable and reliable rural water supply
services
• formation of co-operatives or water user’s association
• balanced action on software and hardware aspects
• replacement of supply driven approach with demand responsive approach that could
start with affordable cost sharing initiative
• implementation of the models and the above-mentioned prerequisite activities for
achieving reliable service
• replication of the findings to other regions based on consultative process
• integrated development to boost up the economy
• promote public–private partnership that will eventually lead to privatisation
• establish three-fold partnership amongst the community, government and support
organisations and
• special consideration for the drought affected and nomadic community.
References
CSA (Central Statistics Authority). 1998. CSA Statistics. CSA, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Getachew Abdi. 2002. Management aspects of rural water supply sustainability in Ethiopia. MSc thesis.
IHE, Delft, The Netherlands.
MoWR (Ministry of Water Resources). 2000. Summary report on water availability, ESP component 3.
MoWR, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
MoWR (Ministry of Water Resources). 2002. Water Sector Development Program (WSDP) reports.
MoWR, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
World Bank. 1996. World Development Report. The World Bank, Washington, DC, USA.
112 MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop
Getachew Abdi
Water and the environment in Ethiopia
Mateos Mekiso
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Abstract
It is generally recognised that fresh water is regarded as one of the most important natural
resources for all socio-economic development and a basic input for environmental
management. Failure to successfully develop and appropriately utilise this resource leads to
a progressively declining economy and degraded environment.
In Ethiopia, despite the huge potential of fresh water resources, recurrent droughts and
rapidly progressing desertification have disrupted food and fibre production systems. Food
shortage and starvation is ever increasing. The national economy is either stagnant or
declining while population size is rapidly increasing. Domestic water supply is at its infancy.
Potentials in irrigation and hydropower are also hardly exploited. The cumulative effect of
these has reflected on overall poverty and associated environmental degradation.
In view of the above-mentioned issues, the need to develop and utilise the available
water resource in the country is discussed in this paper. The discussion is focused on the
relationship between water resources, the environment and poverty.
Introduction and background
Water is a precious natural resource, vital for life, development and the environment. It can
be a matter of life and death, depending on how it occurs and when it occurs and how it is
managed.
Irrespective of how it occurs, if properly managed, water can be an instrument for
survival and development. It can be an instrument for poverty reduction. Access to safe
water and sanitation to meet human and livestock needs is a prerequisite for sustainable
development.
However, when inadequate in quantity and quality, it can rather serve as a limiting
factor in poverty reduction and overall national development, resulting in poor health and
low productivity, food insecurity and constrained economic development. It is therefore
imperative that the linkages between water development initiatives in the agriculture, food,
energy, health, education and decentralised governance sectors be clearly understood and
carefully managed to benefit from the inherent synergies and to minimise or avoid negative
cross-sectoral impacts.
It is on this basis that water is one of the most essential substances for the sustenance of
life. It is generally recognised that fresh water is the most important natural resource in all
MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop 113
socio-economic development endeavours and indispensable input for environmental
management. It is an important component of every type of environment where life is
found. Successful management of the environment, therefore, can never be achieved in
isolation from appropriate management of water resources. Water is a product of the
environment, and vice versa, as it comes as rain from the environment and goes through
land, which is the major component of the human environment and ends up in the sea or in
the land. Managing water is thus intimately linked with managing the environment—all
terrestrial, aquatic and atmospheric resources including human welfare.
Based on the bond between water resources and the environment, integrated water
resources management is gaining paramount importance worldwide. In pursuit of
integrated solutions, it is observed that decision-makers and planners tend to be oriented
towards the management of water while preserving the environment through appropriate
legal tools and sustainable actions of development.
Integrated management of water resources entails co-ordinated development of water,
land and related resources to maximise socio-economic benefits and preserve the
sustainability of the ecosystems. Being viewed as comprising an ecological system of
interdependent components, the water system interacts with land, environment and other
related political and economic systems. The whole process should be directed towards the
assessment of water needs, sources, the causes of water related problems, and means to
optimise the utility and equitability among stakeholders throughout the water system
management.
Although implementing water resources in an integrated manner is important, its
management is complex. The complexity also differs across place and time because the
integration entails needs and equitable distribution of water for all domestic utilisation and
agricultural and industrial use together with the need for ecosystem management. These
require co-ordination, harmonisation and reducing temporal availability constraints and
situational pressure. Effective co-ordination and integration between the water system and
other systems require efficient decision and controlling mechanisms that are based on
knowledge of water acquisitions, development and efficient allocation to different
socio-economic and ecosystems management activities. The need for such connection in
the water system is due to the fact that water has economic, ecological, social, cultural and
religious value.
The state of water resources in Ethiopia
Ethiopia has 12 major river basins/valleys, 11 lakes, 9 saline lakes, 4 crater lakes and over 12
major swamps. The total mean annual flow from all the 12 river basins is estimated to be
123.25 billion m
3
. Based on this information, it is always stated and often quoted that
‘Ethiopia is the water tower of East Africa’. The country can only be a water tower in terms of
receiving ample water and donating it to neighbouring countries but not in terms of ample
water resources that is readily available for use. This is because, most of the major rivers have
created deep gorge in the country and the water they contain passes to neighbouring
countries, thus constraining development and utilisation of the water resources in the
114 MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop
Mateos Mekiso
country. In addition, uneven spatial and temporal distribution of the available water
resources either demand huge investment to develop and extend to the water scarce areas or
constrained the utility at required time and place. This is again due to the fact that most
perennial springs and streams exist only in the highlands comprising just over 40% of the
country’s geographic area, whereas there is hardly any surface runoff and perennial springs
and streams in areas below 1500 metres above sea level (masl) that comprise over 55% of the
country. Even the country’s estimated 2.6 billion m
3
ground water which, fairly distributed
in the lowlands, could not be appropriately developed and utilised because of financial and
capacity problems. Such failures in developing and utilising the country’s water resources
and mismanagement to the sparsely available water have already been reflected as a root
cause for overall environmental degradation.
Problems associated with water management and
the environment
Environmental risks and/or benefits are often related to the way natural resources are
managed. Environment is defined as related to a range of natural resources it contained, the
interactions between the different resources and the state of resources in space and time. All
living organisms and their habitats are dependent on the availability and quality of water
resources. Therefore, there is no such thing as managing environment without managing
water resources and vice versa. We therefore could conclude that environmental risks and
benefits are often related to the way in which natural resources, in general, and water
resources, in particular, are managed.
The important interacting variables in environmental management is the water
management system we choose; the use we make of the water; the quality and quantity of the
water; and the nature and quality of the environment. The interactions between these
variables often emanate problems in water resources management and utilisation because
the process of water resources management and utilisation would modify the natural water
systems. The process may also affect the quality and quantity of the water at the envisaged
users level.
The water resources management, therefore, has to consider the heterogeneous nature
of the environment, i.e. the nature of changing from place to place, that is spatial and
temporal, or fragility of resources’ associations and their environment. Different
environmental issues would demonstrate this idea. For example, irrigation often causes
severe salinity in arid lowlands while its environmental and socio-economic benefit in the
humid areas is far greater than its adverse impact on the environment, with the assumption
that the design and management of the irrigation in both areas are similar. However, good
designs and pre-informed management actions avoid the adverse impact at any place.
Similarly, mass deforestation of an area creates adverse impacts on water resources quality
and quantity and the environment. It leads to soil system impediment and adversely affects
the process of infiltration creating temporal floods, soil erosion and general environmental
degradation. Reforestation and increased organic contents in soil acts inversely. They
MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop 115
Water and the environment in Ethiopia
increase water infiltration rates; create clear and sufficient water; improve general
environmental conditions in which diversity of terrestrial and aquatic organisms flourish.
The water management and utilisation problems as related to the environment in
Ethiopia are not limited to uneven distribution of water resources and human actions.
Natural calamities have also posed severe problems. Ethiopia and its eastern neighbouring
countries were severely stricken by recurrent droughts from 153 to 242 BC, during which
water flow in the river Nile was tremendously reduced. These droughts, however, affected
small portion of the country and imposed less famine in Ethiopia. The extent and frequency
of the famine has gradually grown until 1975, when thousands of people lost their lives.
This called not only for national attention but also for global attention that after then some
actions on the idea of conserving and managing environment and water resources has
emerged. By the time, however, the water systems and the environment in most parts of the
country had lost or severely reduced their resilience that the resources were susceptible for
slight touches. The emerged actions have not been able either to reverse or stop the resource
degradation and climate problems such that currently aridity has widened its scope in the
country. Now it is estimated that 65 to 70% of the country’s total geographic area fall under
the United Nations’ definition of desertification.
Although desertification is degradation of land in arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid
areas, the main element of desertification is unavailability of water resources. This renders
the ecosystems in the affected areas fragile. Desertification does not refer only to the
expansion of already existing desert but also over-exploitation and inappropriate use of
resources in dry ecosystems. Deforestation, overgrazing, misdesigned and mismanaged
irrigation practices, poverty, political instability and inappropriate macro policy directions
can all adversely affect natural resources and land productivity leading to desertified
environment. The results are often loss in biological productivity, disturbed and
deteriorated water cycling, and loss in economic productivity, famine, starvation and
general poverty ranging from household to national level. Thus poverty goes back to further
over-utilisation of resources including water, and to environmental deterioration creating
vicious circle to the process.
The above stated environmental problems have already taken place in Ethiopia.
Clearing of forests, over-grazing and other reductions in the vegetation of the country has
increased considerably during recent years. Increased silt and nutrient load of the
watercourses due to increasing populations and the above-stated negative environmental
products have posed serious socio-economic and environmental problems. The episodes
that encourage soil erosion (depleted forest, inadequate plant cover, poor soils, improper
farming methods etc.), and inappropriate management systems of water resources (at
micro-level) have alarmingly taken place and most of the water systems and the environment
have suffered from the consequences of the linked processes (Zinabu 1998).
The overall product of the problems is poverty. Of a total population of about 67 million
people, it is estimated that close to 30 million live in absolute poverty. A report prepared for
the ‘World Summit on Sustainable Development’ reveals that the household income,
consumption and expenditure survey conducted in 1995/96 and published in 1999,
estimated that:
i. forty-six percent of the population subsists below the poverty line
116 MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop
Mateos Mekiso
ii. although poverty is widespread in the country, it is more prevalent in the rural areas
where 47% of the population is poor compared with 33% in the urban areas
iii. average per capita income (US$ 167) obtained from the survey is very close to the
national poverty line (US$ 165) indicating that the whole nation is on the verge of
poverty.
Several indicators raise the alarm that poverty is further deepening. For example, per
capita food production has been declining since the 1960s indicating that the ability of the
rural population to feed itself has been deteriorating. The average annual yield of cereals in
the years from 1980 to 1995 showed no improvement showing that agricultural
performance was stagnant throughout the 1980s and most of the 1990s while population
growth is increased by 3% annually. Furthermore, the number of relief recipients is
increasing tremendously both in the urban and rural areas. Poverty also hampered the
provision of social services. The level of satisfaction in the basic needs such as water supply
and sanitation, health, education and even shelter is low. For instance, only less than a
quarter of the rural population has access to drinking water supplied from protected
sources. Electricity is used as a source of energy for cooking by only 0.38% of the
households. The rest depend on woody biomass, crop residues and cow dung. These had
multiple adverse impacts both on water resources management and the environment.
Actions taken to reverse the trend
Policies and strategies
Although the severe poverty at micro-level creates problems on wise management and use of
natural resources, the Government of Ethiopia is well aware of the problems. Accordingly,
the constitution and many sectoral and cross-sectoral policies have given due attention to
sustainable development, in which the management of natural resources and the
environment are focus areas. A couple of policies and strategies are raised as example.
The constitution of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (FDRE) set clear
economic development policy in general and gave due consideration to environmental and
socio-economic issues in particular. All sectoral and cross-sectoral policies developed and
legislation enacted have been based on the general statements in the constitution.
The economic policy emphasises sustainable development that shall be based on
integrated approach to rural development. It clearly states that all development actions
should consider the wise management of natural resources and the environment. It pays
due attention to water resource development and management with statement ‘without
water agriculture is unthinkable’. It further states that if the supply of water is higher or less
than the required amount or if it is not available at the right time, production would
significantly decrease or even be zero.
Environment policy and conservation strategies of Ethiopia on their part provoke
people-centred and environmentally sustainable development. The policy affirms the need
to ensure sustainable use and management of environmental resources and the wise use of
MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop 117
Water and the environment in Ethiopia
non-renewable resources. It cautions stakeholders to the extent possible when managing the
trade-off between short-term economic growth and long-term environmental protection.
Additionally, it underscores the need to correct for market failures, and ensure social equity
in the use of environmental resources. It further advises that regular and accurate
assessment and monitoring of environmental conditions be conducted and the public be
duly informed on the outcome. On the investment side, the environmental rights are
safeguarded by a legal requirement that deploys the Investment Authority to ensure that the
intended investment activity complies with conditions in the environment protection laws.
As regards to water resources management, comprehensive and considerate of all sector
and cross-sector development water policy or strategy and 15 years development and
management programme have been prepared that are now ready for action. The water
resources management policy reinforces the prosperity, harmony and environmental health
elements of the unstated vision through the policy’s fundamental principles, which
recognise that water is a commonly owned economic and social good that should, as much
as possible, be accessible to all in sufficient quantity and quality to meet basic human needs.
The principles further emphasise, among others, the need for a rural-centred, decentralised,
integrated and participatory water management system. They also emphasise the
attainment of social equity, economic efficiency, empowerment of water users,
sustainability of water management, promoting self-financing and cost recovery. In using
water resources, ensuring environmental soundness of all water resources development
activities, and ensuring sound water governance regimes at all levels of governance are
further required.
Conservation and development
Many different environmental management actions including forest resources
management and development, soil and water conservation, dry lands water and pasture
resources development and management etc. received attention since the 1970s. The
actions were conducted in isolation from each other that integrated management systems
were not designed and developed. The failure to design and implement actions in an
integrated manner has contributed to less than effective actions.
Currently, however, an integrated approach to resource development and
environmental management has been designed into the River Basin Master Plans. Resource
inventories have been conducted for most of the river basins and compiled at individual
river basin levels. The compilations indicate the state of all resources including land, water,
floristic and faunistic resources and existing management options and constraints. Based
on the knowledge of resources, management constraints and options, long-term (30–50
years) priority areas of intervention have been proposed in each master plan from which
priority actions have already been adopted in the so far prepared water sector development
programme. Again, the water sector development programme considers integrated
socio-economic development with water resources playing a major role in development.
Furthermore, the Sustainable Development and Poverty Reduction Programme
Ethiopia calls for the water supply coverage of urban, rural and country level at 82.5, 31.4
118 MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop
Mateos Mekiso
and 39.4%, respectively, from 2002–05. The programme has planned to annually increase
urban sewerage coverage by 3.5% from its current level of 7%. It has further planned to
develop irrigation schemes that cover 29,043 ha and small-scale irrigation that cover 23,823
ha with expected total beneficiaries of 207,900 households.
Conclusions
Different natural resources in Ethiopia complement one another. Any successful
management of the environment depends on the management and utilisation of other
resources, especially water resources. Again, water resources cannot be successfully
managed in isolation from other resources. Integrated approach to the resources
management is indispensable for sustainable management of all individual resources
including water resource in particular and the environment in general. The approach in the
River Basin Master Plans is encouraging and it should be strengthened.
The country has enacted a number of legal tools that are very important for the
successful management of water resources and the environment. The major drawback is
failure in implementation of the prepared programmes, policies and strategies, which are
based on dependable information and deep consultative processes.
Furthermore, poverty affects not only socio-economic performance and human welfare
but also the natural environment at large. Combating poverty has already received attention
from the Government of Ethiopia and a poverty reduction strategy and programme has
already been prepared. One among many issues of the strategy and the programme is water
resources development for irrigation and other uses. This is basic for countries like Ethiopia
that are frequently stricken by droughts.
However, although all scales of irrigation are important for Ethiopia’s agricultural
productivity and production, planning for the irrigation development should consider
short- and long-term irrigation components. In the short-term, small-scale irrigation,
especially those, which complement local knowledge and affordability, should receive
greater attention for many different reasons including the system efficiency and
environment friendliness.
One, therefore, strongly argues that the water resources management process should be
started and strengthened at the grassroot/community level because local people understand
that water is a precious natural resource, vital for life. Attention should, therefore, be given
to small-scale irrigation, which is already known and practised by the local communities.
The only need is to encourage and strengthen the practice and avoid possible conflicts
during irrigation water use. Furthermore, small-scale irrigation is efficient in water resource
utilisation (less evaporation and percolation wastage, less salinity to soil and ground water,
less conflict arising with down-stream users, environmentally friendly in general etc.). The
short-term food production programme and water resources management programme thus
should consider small-scale irrigation in all possible vicinities.
In addition, there should be a greater effort to expand capacity and satisfy energy needs,
at least in urban areas, so as to reduce fuel wood pressure from woody biomass, crop residues
and cow dung that should be returned to the soil and enhance land productivity and
MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop 119
Water and the environment in Ethiopia
production. Water resources, as far as financial resources allow, should primarily play this
role.
Reference
Zinabu G. 1998. Human interactions and water quality. In: Proceedings of the 1997 AAAS (American
Association for the Advancement of Science) symposium on emerging water management issues,
Philadelphia, USA. AAAS, Philadelphia, USA.
120 MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop
Mateos Mekiso
Water and health in irrigated agriculture
E. Boelee
Health and Irrigation Specialist, International Water Management Institute (IWMI), Colombo, Sri Lanka
Abstract
Irrigation impacts on human health in many different ways. Often yields in irrigated
agriculture are higher than in rainfed agriculture, thus making more food or income
available to farmers. This may lead to better nutrition, making people more resistant to
diseases. Increased welfare may also be spent on better health care and protective measures
such as vaccines and bed nets. However, irrigation canals, drains and hydraulic structures
can also become breeding sites for agents of disease, such as malaria mosquitoes and snail
hosts of schistosomiasis. Other diseases, such as skin and eye infections, may be reduced by
the introduction of irrigation, simply because more water is available for hygiene and
sanitation. In fact, water destined for irrigation of crops is often used for all kinds of
domestic activities, including consumption. Though the quality of irrigation water usually
does not meet the standards for drinking, it may be the only water available in remote arid
regions. In some cases, seepage from irrigation canals recharges the groundwater and
provides fresh water pockets in an otherwise saline aquifer or dilutes chemical pollution
from geological origin, such as fluoride. Consequently, investments in water resources
development could be more cost-efficient if multi-purpose systems were conceived, catering
for agricultural and domestic water needs.
Health benefits
Higher and more diverse food production in irrigated agriculture brings health benefits to
farmer families in the newly irrigated areas. People may gain access to more varied and
higher quality nutrition through increased income from cash crops, though this effect is not
always very clear (Benjelloun et al. 2002; Parent et al. 2002a). The construction or
rehabilitation of irrigation systems has other positive impacts on the human environment
through increased employment possibilities, which would raise income and subsequently
increase access to health services and education. However, an increased income is not always
spent on health care. Access to health services, water supply and sanitation can be facilitated
if with the planning of a new irrigation system these additional services are included.
Irrigation can also influence the wider physical environment in a positive way and thus
increase human well-being. For instance, seepage from earthen irrigation canals may
improve the quality of the water as it filters into nearby wells.
MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop 121
Water-related diseases
Most of the reported impacts of irrigation development on health consist of water-related
diseases. Generally, four groups of diseases are distinguished based on their way of
transmission (Cairncross and Feachem 1993):
1. water-borne or faecal—orally transmitted diseases, such as cholera, typhoid and diarrhoea
2. water-washed diseases, such as louse-borne infections and infectious eye and skin diseases
3. water-based diseases with an intermediate host living in water, such as guinea worm and
schistosomiasis and
4. water-related insect-borne parasitic diseases such as river blindness, filariasis and malaria.
Water-washed diseases may be reduced dramatically with the development of water
resources. The availability of water, regardless of quality, enhances personal hygiene
practices. This effect is especially widespread in arid and semi-arid regions, where irrigation
systems may be the main source of water for all purposes. The use of irrigation water for
cooking and consumption, despite its often questionable quality, may even diminish
hygiene-related diarrhoeal diseases, as water quantity is believed to be more important than
quality (van der Hoek et al. 2002).
Unfortunately, water-related diseases transmitted through vectors or intermediate hosts
sometimes increase with irrigation development. Canals and drains may create ideal
breeding sites for malaria mosquitoes or for snails, bringing both the vectors and the disease
closer to people. Many field studies have described the influence of irrigation on the spread
of these water-related diseases (for overviews see e.g. Oomen et al. 1988 and 1990; Bolton
1992; Hunter et al. 1993; Steele et al. 1997; HarmancioÈlu et al. 2001).
Specifically, many studies report on large-scale irrigation and malaria. Breeding sites for
Anopheles malaria mosquitoes are found in clear surface water well available in irrigation
systems and an increase in vectors usually leads to an increase in malaria. Wet rice fields are
ideal breeding sites and rice field breeding Anopheles account for a great deal of the malaria
transmission in rice-growing areas of the world (Gratz 1988). Irrigation often facilitates
double or even triple cropping of rice, allowing for year-round transmission. As a result,
mosquito abundance and density increases while the mosquitoes may live longer, allowing
malaria parasites to complete their developmental cycle in the adult insect so they can be
passed on to another host. Mathematical modelling has shown that these two factors
together with possible changes in feeding habits, determine whether epidemics break out.
Or it could lead from a situation of low and irregular transmission to a situation with
continuous high transmission that will put a heavy toll especially on young children, who
have not yet built up any resistance (Bradley 1995). The linkages between irrigated
agriculture and malaria are complex: African case studies show that malaria transmission
may increase, decrease or remain largely unchanged as a consequence of irrigation (Ijumba
and Lindsay 2001). In West Africa for instance, intensified rice cultivation in the semi-arid
savannah has led to an increase in Anopheles but with the high population densities, the life
span of the mosquitoes was reduced and less mosquitoes were found infected with malaria.
Moreover, mosquito abundance was high, creating a demand for bed nets, which farmers
could afford through their improved income. Consequently, malaria transmission did not
122 MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop
Boelee
increase with irrigation development in several West African countries (e.g. Parent et al.
2002b). In Ethiopia, the construction of small dams in Tigray led to increased spread of
malaria, even at higher altitudes. Seasonal transmission changed to year-round transmission
because of the continuous availability of surface water. Children living near small dams had
a 7–14 times higher risk of getting infected than children living further away (Ghebreyesus
et al. 1999). However, this effect may be reduced over time as people benefit economically
from irrigated agriculture and gain access to medication and preventive measures.
The high incidence and wider spread of disease resulting from an increase in vectors or
intermediate hosts is observed for several water-related infections other than malaria.
Mostly the mechanisms that play a role in increasing transmission rates are complex and
dynamic. The farming system and subsequently the entire biological and human
environment are often drastically changed with the introduction of irrigation. The process
of mutual influences and interactions leading to disease transmission then becomes
fundamentally different (Boxes 1 and 2).
Multiple use of irrigation water
The use of irrigation water for non-agricultural purposes
In most open canal irrigation systems, water is used not only for agricultural purposes, but
also for all kinds of agricultural, domestic, municipal, industrial and recreational purposes
MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop 123
Water and health in irrigated agriculture
Box 1. Complex health hazards of irrigation development in
northern Senegal
In the lower Senegal river basin, the replacement of traditional earthen dams by large
concrete dams in the 1970s influenced the hydrological and ecological situation in the
valley. At the same time, the sugar factory in the town of Richard Toll expanded. Since
the construction of the dams, a canal that had stable and high water levels replaced the
Meandering River transporting water from Lake Guiers to the sugarcane fields. In the
old riverbed, dead arms with plenty aquatic vegetation provided excellent breeding sites,
massively invaded by Biomphalaria snails, intermediate host of Schistosoma mansoni. The
sugar factory attracted thousands of labourers from all over the country. In twenty years,
the population in Richard Toll increased more than ten-fold from 5000 to 60 thousand
in 1994. Water supply and sanitation facilities for the booming population were
inadequate and, as a consequence, river and irrigation canals were the only sewers and
the main sources of water for many people. The entire health situation has deteriorated.
Malaria was the most important public health problem in the area before the
construction of the dam and the irrigation system. Now schistosomiasis has become an
increasing burden to the local health system, with almost the entire population infected
with very high worm loads. Other health problems that simultaneously increased are
typhoid fever, cholera, rift valley fever, sexually transmitted diseases and malnutrition
(Kongs and Verlé 1994; WASH 1994; Stelma 1997).
(van der Hoek et al. 1999). These activities may influence the water quantity, quality or both
(van der Hoek et al. 2001a). At river basin level, the allocation of water resources to different
sectors in an approach of integrated water management is becoming common practice (e.g.
Berkoff 1994; Heathcote 1998). Water from large dams and reservoirs is often used for
hydropower, industry, municipal water supplies, and irrigation. In inter-sectoral
negotiations over water, irrigation often comes after energy, municipal water supply and
industrial supply, because of the low expected revenues from irrigated agriculture. This
could change if all actual uses of water would be included in the calculation of economic
benefits of irrigation (Meinzen-Dick and van der Hoek 2001).
Often, the multi-purpose use of irrigation water is not formally recognised and, for water
quality reasons, perceived as a sensitive matter. An irrigation agency or water users
association may ignore or even deny the ad hoc or systematic use of irrigation water for
unplanned purposes. Other activities such as fishing in canals are hardly ever considered a
problem because these normally would not interfere with the functioning of the irrigation
system. The use of canals for laundry is usually tolerated too, or even facilitated through
special steps that prevent damage to the canals. Water from irrigation canals can also
contribute to the development of local economic activities, be it small-scale and informal
124 MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop
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Box 2: Malaria and schistosomiasis in Gezira, The Sudan
Oomen et al. (1988) gave extensive details on the history of malaria and schistosomiasis
in The Sudan. Since the Gezira Irrigation System began in 1924, malaria has been closely
linked to agricultural development. During the first 25 years reasonable malaria control
was possible through good water management and larviciding. After 1950, when the
irrigation system expanded and created more breeding sites, an intensification of
cropping added water continuously to the larvae-producing minor canals. At the same
time, large-scale applications of chemicals both against agricultural pests and for malaria
control had caused pesticide resistance in malaria mosquitoes. Together this led to severe
malaria outbreaks in 1973 and 1974. Later in the 1970s the communications and control
systems in the main canals broke down. Combined with heavy aquatic growth due to
inadequate maintenance, all canals had to be full to deliver water to the crops. Without
precise regulation they were prone to overflowing. Another complicating factor was the
large labour forces that come from malarious areas. These people were often outside
health programmes and could easily bring infections into the area.
The Gezira irrigation systems have resulted in a similar increase of schistosomiasis.
The same minor canals that favoured mosquito development also stimulated high snail
populations most of the year. These canals with clear water and dense vegetation
provided night storage and were close to villages, so water contact was high. Urinary
schistosomiasis has increased from less than 1% before World War II to affecting almost
a quarter of the adults and half of the children in the 1950s. Intestinal schistosomiasis
rose even more from 5% in 1949 to 86% in 1973, in children of 7 to 9 years old, often the
group with highest infection rates. Another vulnerable group consisted of the canal
cleaners, who stayed daily for long hours in the infested water (Hunter et al. 1993).
such as butchers, car washing or market places, or medium-scale with formal water rights
such as ice factories in Pakistan or brick factories in Morocco. These rural industries may
contribute to regional income generation. Irrigation canals can also be sources of high
quality protein and micronutrients in the form of aquatic plants, fish, crustaceans and
snails. The presence of an irrigation system enables people, often women, to divert water to
their home gardens. These gardens may have trees bearing nutritious fruit, giving shade and
providing wood for fuel. Livestock rearing, be it cattle, sheep, goats or chicken, may depend
directly on water from irrigation systems, in addition to profiting from the higher
availability of fodder from crop stubble. In India and Pakistan for instance, milk production
is significantly better when irrigation water is available than when saline groundwater is the
only source (Meinzen-Dick 1997).
In semi-arid and arid countries, where irrigation systems are often the only available
source of water for all purposes, tanks for community water supply may be fed directly from
the irrigation system. In many villages in the Punjab of Pakistan and in Central Morocco,
such tanks may be the only available source of water (Laamrani et al. 2000a; Ensink et al.
2002). The water taken from these tanks is sometimes treated at home, but often it is used
for drinking, cooking or other household uses without any treatment or precaution (Jensen
et al. 2002). When irrigation water is used for human consumption without any treatment,
faecal-orally transmitted diseases such as diarrhoea, dysenteries, poliomyelitis and
hepatitis-A may spread. Eggs or larvae of intestinal parasites are, in the absence of sanitation
facilities, often excreted with faeces close to irrigation canals, especially when people use
water for anal cleansing. Crops may be contaminated during irrigation or the water may be
used further down the system for washing, cooking and drinking. Water contaminated with
excreta increases exposure to schistosomiasis. Still, the higher availability of water,
regardless of its sometimes-disputable quality, has a beneficial impact on children’s health
(van der Hoek et al. 2002).
Implications for planning and design of water
resources development
Environmental control recommendations
In the literature, it has been argued that designing irrigation systems that avoid stagnant
water could prevent negative health impacts of irrigation (see e.g. Speelman and van den
Top 1986; de Weil et al. 1990; Tiffen 1991; Hunter et al. 1993; Slootweg 1994). However,
few recent examples are available of actual implementation (Laamrani et al. 2000b;
Laamrani and Boelee 2002). Measures for environmental control have been applied for ages
in many countries till the first half of this century (Takken et al. 1990; Konradsen et al.
2002). With the introduction of DDT in the 1940s, environmental management seemed
no longer necessary. Excessive spraying of fields, bushes, and houses replaced the
inter-disciplinary co-operation and at that time almost eradicated malaria in some
countries. In a similar approach, the snail host of schistosomiasis was attacked with
MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop 125
Water and health in irrigated agriculture
molluscicides. Consequently, increased resistance of vectors to pesticides and unwanted
effects on non-target organisms occurred. Drugs that are more efficient have been
developed, but the distribution is difficult, re-infection is not prevented and parasites
become resistant to the treatment.
Nowadays the health sector has come to rely on environmental management again as a
part of integrated disease control approaches (Boelee 2003). Most of the recommendations
are focused on preventive measures that can be incorporated into the design of new
irrigation systems. Good construction practices are crucial in the implementation of a new
irrigation system. Fields that are evenly laid out require less water than poorly prepared
lands, while puddles and other breeding sites are less likely to form. Canals with the right
elevation, size and slope will be less prone to erosion and can convey water at higher
velocities without overtopping. For Ethiopia, this offers a great opportunity for integrated
planning and design of water resources development projects. Apart from avoiding the
characteristics that foster the development of vectors and intermediate hosts, the location of
villages and drinking water supply are important factors. The distance between irrigation
infrastructure and residences may determine how often and how intensely the population is
exposed to vectors or infested water. For several mosquito and fly species, the flight range is
known and when houses are located at a larger distance from the breeding sites, people will
be less exposed to possibly infective bites.
In existing irrigation systems, the main options to control vector breeding and
water-related diseases lie in maintenance and water management. Good cleaning and
preventive maintenance of all irrigation infrastructures such as canals, structures and drains
will reduce the breeding of vectors and intermediate hosts, and improve irrigation
performance. The periodic removal of aquatic weeds from canals reduces friction and thus
increases conveyance efficiencies, while it can significantly control vector mosquito larvae
and aquatic snails as well. IWMI is currently evaluating the impact of rehabilitation of a
natural canal on malaria mosquitoes (based on recommendations by Konradsen et al. 1998;
Matsuno et al. 1999).
In Asia, where vectors are restricted to rice fields, a locally adapted farm water
management system has been shown to reduce mosquito and snail populations (van der
Hoek et al. 2001b). With the so-called intermittent irrigation method, exact water
quantities are applied at field level. This requires accurate water deliveries from the canals
and influences the organisation of water management up to system level (Mutero et al.
2000).
Adequate facilities should be provided to increase the safe use of irrigation water for
other purposes and hence improve health. Especially in arid and semi-arid regions, separate
drinking water supply may not always be feasible. In Ethiopia, the reverse situation also
occurs, as sometimes overflow from drinking water systems are used for the irrigation of
coffee plants. In both cases it could be considered to acknowledge and incorporate other
water uses in irrigation systems. Instead of planning agricultural water systems separately
from drinking water supply, the different sectors should work together at national and local
level and plan for integrated multi-purpose systems. This would reduce overall investments
and contribute significantly to improving the health of rural populations.
126 MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop
Boelee
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MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop 129
Water and health in irrigated agriculture
Research and development capacity
building issues in the water sector of
Ethiopia
Abebe Mekuriaw
Ethiopian Science and Technology Commission (ESTC), Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Abstract
Cognisant of the fact that research and development in the water sector is minimal and
fragmented with little or no impact on the development of the sector, the National Mines,
Water, Energy and Geoinformation Science and Technology Council designed a terms of
reference for a consultancy study of the problem. The Ethiopian Science and Technology
Commission and the Ministry of Water Resources jointly submitted a project to the
Government for approval and Metaferia Consulting Engineers PLC was commissioned to
carry out the study in July 2000 through funds secured from the United Nations
Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) and the Government.
The consultant’s findings have led to the conclusion that the establishment of a Water
Resources Research and Development Institute is of crucial national importance for
integrated management of R&D in the water sector. The institute is proposed to be an
autonomous organisation having the overall responsibility and power for co-ordinating,
guiding, funding, prioritising and undertaking R&D activities in the water sector at
national level. The long-term (21–50 years) organisational objective of the institute is to
establish a national R&D institute capable of undertaking most of the research needs of the
water sector with a few centres of excellence being co-ordinated and funded by it.
The need for such an institute and its proper development and management is not only
mandatory, but also urgent. This is because of the fact that gaps in the understanding of the
characteristics of the water resources of the country limit the opportunities for judicious
development of the sector, a task, we cannot afford to postpone for obvious reasons. The
trans-boundary nature of the country’s water resource base further complicates the
situation. A well-managed R&D capability in the sector will therefore significantly
contribute towards practical and multi-disciplinary solutions for such structural
constraints.
The major short-term activities of the proposed institute include the legal and physical
establishment of the institute; establishment of linkages with relevant national and
international organisations; undertaking of R&D activities through its own programmes
and co-ordination and funding of R&D activities of other centres in the sector.
130 MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop
Introduction
Ethiopia has a total area of about 1.13 million square kilometres and a total population of
64 million that is growing at an average rate of 2.95% per annum. Almost all economic and
social indicators show that the country is one of the least developed countries in the world
with an annual per capita income of about US$ 110. Agriculture accounts for about 50% of
GDP and 90% of export earnings and is the means of livelihood for about 85% of the entire
population. The contribution of the industrial sector to GDP is only about 12%. The
dependence of the country on imported capital goods is very high. The import of
manufactured consumer goods and capital goods, and some intermediate input for the
manufacturing sector dominate the foreign trade sector. The export side is almost totally
composed of primary agricultural products mainly: coffee, oil seeds, livestock and related
products.
Traditional methods and tools of production predominantly characterise the
agricultural sector of the country. Inputs from modern science and technology are
insignificant. Recurrent drought and significant loss of soil due to environmental
degradation have made the country a land of persistent poverty and famine. All
socio-economic problems of the country are deep rooted largely in the absence of
well-established scientific and technological base to generate and/or select and adapt
scientific and technological knowledge to solve its development and environmental
problems.
Historical background of R&D in Ethiopia
The systematic application of modern scientific methods to create and use modern
knowledge in Ethiopia is of a relatively recent origin. Hence, the history of research and
development in Ethiopia can go back only to the early 1950s when the Junior Colleges of
Agriculture and the University College of Addis Ababa (UCAA) were established. Various
records show that expatriate staff of the Colleges and the University College did most of the
research published from 1960–70 as the teaching was started with only expatriate staff
members. The research carried out during that time was mainly of theoretical nature.
However, a small but growing body of Ethiopian scholars and scientists had begun to apply
modern methods of scientific investigation to problems within Ethiopia by the early 1970s.
And this had laid the foundation for the present R&D activities undertaken by the
institutions of higher learning and other specialised research organisations (Bhagavan
1989).
The major institutions involved in the national R&D system of Ethiopia include higher
education institutions where research is carried out to generate new knowledge. Most
(though not all) of the research work undertaken in the universities is basic research. There
are some specialised research institutions and/or centres within the Addis Ababa
University (AAU) and the Alemaya University where multi-disciplinary research activities
are carried out. There are also national institutions that carry out R&D for the government.
The Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organization (EARO), together with the regional
MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop 131
Research and development capacity building issues in the water sector of Ethiopia
agricultural organisations and the Ethiopian Nutrition and Health Research Institute
(ENHRI) are the major ones engaged solely in R&D activities. The capacity building efforts
of these institutions and the results obtained from their efforts so far are in fact appreciable.
Although the government allocates annual budgets to R&D institutions in the
agriculture and health sectors, much of the projects and programmes undertaken by the
universities are largely dependent on funds from foreign donors. The Ethiopian Science
and Technology Commission (ESTC) channels part of the funds for the R&D activities
undertaken by these institutions from the government treasury and/or bilateral and
multilateral co-operations. The funds obtained from external donors are used mainly for
import of equipment, instruments and other consumable supplies and for research training
and travel of researchers abroad. Local funds mostly cover just salaries and local travel costs.
The local research grant scheme
The local research grant scheme, which has been instituted by the ESTC since 1999 is one of
the mechanisms devised to make available government funds for the research community.
The major objective of this grant is to encourage institutions and young researchers to
engage in applied research. Through this scheme, a project can be granted up to Ethiopian
Birr (ETB)
1
25 thousand for research and up to ETB 50 thousand for prototype
development. ETSC granted about ETB 9.5 million up to the 2001/2002 fiscal year for
about 438 research and development projects. The scheme has definitely played a useful
role in initiating R&D activities in a number of government institutions. It has also enabled
new graduates to acquire experience on how to propose, plan, and undertake R&D project.
Some useful results and information for further research have also been obtained from the
scheme (ESTC 2002a).
The ESTC-SIDA/SAREC research co-operation
The most important source of research funding in Ethiopia to date is the Ethio-Swedish
(ESTC-SIDA/SAREC) research co-operation programme, which began in 1979/80. This
Swedish support aims at manpower training and research capacity building in Ethiopia.
The participants in the Ethio-Swedish Research Co-operation framework include
universities and autonomous research establishments within ministries on the Ethiopian
side and university departments on the Swedish side. The co-operation supported about 70
research projects and the country has received over ETB 300 million in the last 22 years.
The Ethio-Swedish research co-operation has made a significant contribution in
building research capability and strengthening the higher education sector of the country
through MSc/MA and PhD postgraduate training programmes. It has also impact in the
various research areas. For instance, registration of the Ethiopian plant species has been
done through the Ethiopian Flora Project. A considerable capacity in selection and testing
of medicinal and economically important plant species has also been built at the Chemistry
Department of the Addis Ababa University through the Natural Products Chemistry
132 MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop
Abebe Mekuriaw
1. In 2002, US$ 1 = ETB 8.50.
Program. The research capacity built in the area of pest control through non-chemical
integrated pest control at Awassa College of Agriculture is also one of the commendable
achievements. In general, the SIDA/SAREC collaboration has contributed to enhancing
scientific research tradition in the country, building and strengthening research capacity in
relevant fields, producing an increased number of qualified researchers and upgrading of
R&D infrastructure (ESTC 2002b).
Other organisations that provide research support in Ethiopia include:
• International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)
• International Foundation for Science (IFS)
• United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)
• International Development Research Centre (IDRC) of Canada
• United Nations Development Program (UNDP)
• Russian Academy of Science, Third World Academy of Sciences (TWAS)
• Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO)
• European Union (EU)
• German Academic Exchange Service (DAAD)
• German Development Cooperation (GTZ) and
• International Development Association (IDA).
R&D in the water sector
Water scarcity and degradation in water quality are growing concerns for many countries
around the world and the demands and pressures on global water resources are accelerating
rapidly. Fresh water is limited and, for many people, insufficient to meet their daily needs,
and yet global demand for water is expected to double within the next 15 years. According to
World Bank estimates, US$ 70–80 billion are invested each year in the water sector in
developing countries. If water consumption patterns continue at the present rate, it is
estimated that two out of every three people will be living in a water-stressed environment by
2025 (IAEA 2002). The solution to these global water resource and water quality challenges
is dependent on the development and sustainable management of water resources wherever
and in whatever form they occur. Sustainable development and management of water
resources are, in turn, critically dependent on our capability to generate new knowledge
and/or new applications of the existing knowledge through scientific research.
Unlike the agricultural and health sectors, institutionalised water research is not known
in Ethiopia. The first attempt to initiate R&D activities within the water sector was in fact
made in 1978 when the Rural Pumping Technology Research Group, later renamed the
Research and Development Services, was established under the then Water Works
Construction Authority. The activities of the service were limited to the area of R&D on
water lifting systems—mainly on hand and wind pumps. The service does not in fact exist at
present. Apart from the R&D efforts of the service, higher education institutions such as
the Addis Ababa University and Arbaminch Water Technology Institute, the Ministry of
Water Resources and the Geological Survey of Ethiopia undertake limited R&D activities.
Research areas covered by these institutions include multi-purpose water resources
MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop 133
Research and development capacity building issues in the water sector of Ethiopia
development, water resources potential evaluation, defluoridation and water treatment.
Research activities in irrigation systems, irrigation water demands and crop–water
interrelationships undertaken by the Melka Werer Center of the Ethiopian Agricultural
Research Organization are also worth mentioning. Research carried out from 1982 to 1985
by the Water Resources Development Authority on ground water level rise and soil salinity
of the Amibara Irrigation Development project has also resulted in some useful outputs
(ESTC 1998).
Nonetheless, examination of the R&D efforts that have been carried out by various
institutions in the water sector reveals that the efforts are very limited when viewed from the
point of the water resources potential and the problems related to its management. The
problems observed include absence of an institutional body to co-ordinate and undertake
R&D activities in the water sector, inadequate recognition of the role of R&D in water
resources management, absence of mechanisms to disseminate research results,
dependency on foreign funding and inadequacy of the linkages between R&D and
development activities in the sector.
Consultancy study on R&D activities in the water sector
The National Mines, Water, Energy and Geoinformation S&T Council recognised the fact
that research in the water sector is at its infancy stage, and it identified the issue as its top
priority. Hence, the Council designed a terms of reference for a consultancy study to address
the problem. Following this, the Ethiopian Science and Technology Commission and the
Ministry of Water Resources jointly submitted a project to the government funding and the
study was carried out by Metaferia Consulting Engineers PLC from July 2000–October
2002 through funds secured from the government and UNESCO.
Objective and scope of the study
The main objective of the study is to assess and review relevant information and, based on
the findings, to provide recommendations for the development of R&D capability and its
institutionalisation in the water sector. The major activities accomplished in the study
include:
1. Review of water resources potential, utilisation, and R&D policy framework
2. Evaluation of the water sector R&D needs
3. Formulation of R&D strategy and prioritisation of R&D programmes
4. Formulation of institutional framework and
5. Preparation of implementation strategy and programme.
134 MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop
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Major outputs of the study
Understanding of the sectoral situation
The review of the existing situation has revealed wide-ranging issues including the problems
of drought; inadequate capacity for resource assessment, operation and maintenance; lack
and inadequacy of standardisation; unavailability of skilled manpower; low level of
participation by stakeholders; environmental problems of the sector and, of course, lack of
adequate R&D capability. The study concluded that the R&D activities of the sector are
fragmented, un-co-ordinated and lacking any visible achievements so far.
Proposal for a consolidated water R&D policy
The analysis of the existing policy and strategy frameworks, with relevance to R&D in the
water sector, revealed the need for a consolidated R&D policy and the study has come up
with some important guiding principles, and ‘policy elements’, together with appropriate
strategies. The general policy framework is the promotion of water resources development
through the establishment of appropriate institutions with proper management, including
co-ordination of R&D activities/projects at the national level. The identified policy
elements encompass:
1. management structures
2. availability of adequate and dependable budget
3. enhancement of stakeholders participation
4. effective support to actual water resources developments
5. enhancement of water quality
6. effectiveness and efficiency of resource utilisation
7. means of water allocation and utilisation and
8. information and knowledge build-up in regard to international waters and review of
institutional frameworks, including international aspects that impact on the water
resources of Ethiopia.
Identified and prioritised R&D programmes
The constraints facing the management of the water resources of Ethiopia are the
summations of a number of problems each of which require appropriate solutions that are
technically feasible, economically viable and socio-politically acceptable. The solution to
these questions can only be found through a concerted and well-formulated research
programmes that are practical and targeted towards development of technologies that will
enhance sustainable development and integrated management of water resources within
the framework of sound environmental conservation practices. To achieve this overall
objective of R&D in the water sector, the study has identified wide-ranging and
MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop 135
Research and development capacity building issues in the water sector of Ethiopia
multi-disciplinary topics that need to be addressed in a well-co-ordinated national effort.
These are classified into four major divisions, according to their respective fields of research.
The four fields of research are: water resources assessment and management; water
resources development; engineering and technology; and socio-economics or the social
sciences. Twenty-three R&D programmes have been identified and classified within the
four divisions based on disciplinary approach (see Table below).
Prioritisation of R&D programmes
Categories/divisions First priority Second priority Third priority
Water resources
assessment and
management
Water quality
management
Ground water hydrology
Watershed management
Surface water hydrology
Climatic characteristics
Water resources
development
Water supply
Irrigation
Water supply for livestock
Sanitation
Multi-purpose projects
Rainwater harvesting
Hydropower
Drainage
Engineering and
technology
Hydraulic structures Choice of technology
Technology management
Traditional technology
Technology development
Construction site and
materials investigation
Socio-economics Policy and legislative issues Finance and economics Institutions and
stakeholders
Capacity building
Total 5 8 10
The R&D programmes are prioritised to ascertain that they are in line with the current
sectoral priorities of the national science and technology policy, the water resources
management policy and other relevant government policies and strategies.
Prioritisation of R&D programmes
The consultants have categorised the R&D programmes into three priorities within each of
the four major R&D divisions (see Table above). Accordingly, the high priority programmes
include water quality, water supply, irrigation, hydraulic structures, and policy and
legislative issues. Implicit within these priorities is the need to address urgent
developmental needs of the sector, with particular emphasis on meeting the basic needs of
the population.
It should be emphasised that all of the 23 R&D programmes are important and need to
be undertaken both for their own significance and for their integrative requirements with
other R&D programmes. It is anticipated that the responsible body can revise and update
the prioritisation of programmes according to changing needs and circumstances. As such,
the prioritisation undertaken, by the consultants, should not be taken as an absolute rather
than as a reasonable starting point to focus on.
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Establishment of the water research and development
organisation
The overall review and analysis of the national water sector R&D capabilities, and its
minimal achievements have led the consultants to the conclusion that the establishment of
a water resources research and development institute is of crucial national importance. The
need for such an organisation in the water sector is not only apparent, but is also becoming
more urgent as sectoral objectives and planned development programmes are receiving
enhanced attention by the government, the public and concerned international bodies. The
increased sectoral emphasis is a direct outcome of its substantial resource base and its
potential to significantly contribute towards the improvement of the desperate
socio-economic status of the country.
The need for a comprehensive and integrated management of R&D in the water sector
is demonstrated further by the lack of awareness about research activities undertaken and
the results achieved. Co-ordination and follow-up of R&D activities in the sector is
therefore critical as the existing national capability is, with a few exceptions, negligible,
particularly in view of the requirement and the level of development achieved by other
countries such as Egypt and India. The consultants have therefore recommended the
establishment of water R&D institute with the following objectives and responsibilities.
Objectives of the Institute
The overall objective of the proposed water R&D institute is to contribute towards the
implementation of the country’s long-term policies and development objectives within the
sector itself, and in related development programmes. The specific objectives include:
• contributing towards strengthening the national capability to undertake R&D activities
in all fields of the water sector
• undertaking, and cause the undertaking of, multi-disciplinary research to resolve
problems, alleviate constraints and maximise opportunities in the development of the
country’s resources
• taking the overall responsibility for all water sector R&D undertakings through selection
and prioritisation of research, funding and co-ordination
• promoting utilisation of research results to enhance sectoral development and
• operating as depository and documentation centre for data, information and research
undertakings related to the water sector.
Duties and responsibilities of the institute
The major duties and responsibilities of the envisaged R&D institute include:
• initiating and conducting R&D on water resources particularly in the fields of
assessment, management, development, engineering, technology and socio-economics
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Research and development capacity building issues in the water sector of Ethiopia
• guiding, planning, prioritising, funding, co-ordinating, integrating and monitoring all
R&D activities in the water sector
• studying the application of various research results carried out in other countries, and the
maintenance of a collection of materials, literature and scientific data relating thereto
• disseminating research findings through reports, publications, workshops, seminars,
and other appropriate media; and acting as a forum for constructive dialogue on water
resources development and management
• operating as a national depository and documentation centre for all research activities
that are related with water resources development
• undertaking effective training of R&D manpower, locally and abroad, as necessary, on
the basis of the sub-sectoral needs and plans to produce the desired quality and quantity
of skilled manpower and
• establishing and strengthening R&D co-operation with international organisations and
foreign governments in such a way as to contribute to national water sector R&D
capability building.
Organisational requirements of the institute
The Water R&D Institute is proposed to be an autonomous organisation having the overall
responsibility and power regarding all national R&D efforts in the water sector. The
organisational set-up is formulated in view of the development potential and needs of the
water sector; the requirements of a R&D organisation; existing situations and intentions;
the problems and constraints of the existing limited research capabilities; and formulation
of conducive career structures and incentives. Four alternative organisational set-ups were
considered before the elaboration of the selected one. The difference between the
alternatives was in the extent of R&D activities carried out by the institute itself; and those
carried out in various organisations, but co-ordinated and funded by the institute. The
chosen alternative comprises the following five R&D programmes to be established directly
under the institute at its initial stage of formation:
• water quality management R&D programme,
• water supply R&D programme
• irrigation R&D programme
• hydraulic structures R&D programme and
• policy and legislative issues R&D programme.
The institute foresees, in time, to develop almost all R&D capabilities within itself,
while other continuing co-ordination and funding of R&D activities being undertaken by
others.
Funding requirements of the institute
The funding requirements, for the establishment and subsequent operation of the R&D
organisation, will be comprehensive and all encompassing. As the establishment is, largely,
138 MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop
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for new and non-existent requirements, the development will necessarily be phased over a
long-term period. The short-term financial requirements of the proposed institute have
been estimated to be in the order of ETB 62.9 million. This amount does not include
budget allocations for actual R&D activities/projects during the five-year period. The
requirement will depend on the type and number of research undertakings, which can only
be determined by the institute, probably starting in the second year.
The long- and short-term programmes
The long-term (21–50 years) organisational objective is to establish a national R&D
institute capable of undertaking most of the research activities of the water sector. This
involves:
• a gradual build-up of institutional capability, starting with establishment of the institute,
co-ordination and funding of R&D activities by existing organisations
• undertaking studies for the establishment of own capabilities, starting with selected and
critical fields of research and for gradual expansion to encompass all the research fields
envisaged to be handled by the central institute. Those few fields of research that remain
in the centres of excellence shall be strengthened, coordinated, and funded by the
Institute.
The major short-term (five years) activities of the proposed institute include:
• establishing its legal and physical framework
• establishing linkages with relevant national and international organisations for
technical co-operation and funding
• undertaking R&D activities, both through its own programmes and through existing
centres in the various organisations
• co-ordinating and funding of all R&D activities in the water sector
• preparatory works to construct the institute’s headquarters
• undertaking organisational matters including staffing, funding, collection of
information and data and
• working the details of the institute’s management, administrative and financial systems
including manuals and guidelines.
The institute will have to start its short-term activities in rented premises, until it builds
its own headquarters complex.
Conclusions
The activities that have been carried out towards building capacity in water resources
management R&D in Ethiopia are encouraging. The consultancy study has evaluated the
prevailing situation and clearly indicated the way forward. The logical next step is the
implementation of the results of the study as soon as possible. It is strongly recommended
that all current and future bilateral and multilateral co-operations in the area of water
management R&D should focus on building the organisational, infrastructural, and
MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop 139
Research and development capacity building issues in the water sector of Ethiopia
manpower capacities of the proposed water R&D institute. Training of the appropriate
research personnel in the desired quantity and quality should in fact be at the core of such
collaborations. Another important step that needs to be taken as soon as possible is defining
the framework of the envisaged guidance, co-ordination and funding of the R&D activities
undertaken by the various federal and regional institutions. This has, of course, to be
worked out with the participation of all the stakeholders.
References
Bhagavan M.R. 1989. Ethiopia: Development of scientific and technological research and SAREC’s
support 1979–88. SAREC Documentation. SAREC (Ethio-Swedish Research Cooperation),
Stockholm, Sweden.
ESTC (Ethiopian Science and Technology Commission). 1998. Assessment of science, technology
and innovation system in Ethiopia. (Background report for Science, Technology and Innovation
Policy Studies by UNCTAD). ESTC, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
ESTC (Ethiopian Science and Technology Commission). 2002a. Evaluation of the local research
grant scheme from 1985–93 EC. (Draft report). ESTC, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
ESTC (Ethiopian Science and Technology Commission). 2002b. Internal assessment of activities
undertaken by the ESTC from 1986–94 EC. (Draft report in Amharic). ESTC, Addis Ababa,
Ethiopia.
IAEA (International Atomic Energy Agency). 2002. The IAEA and the challenges of sustainable
management of global water resources: Contributions of isotope hydrology. IAEA, Vienna,
Austria.
MCE (Metaferia Consulting Engineers plc). 2002. Report on the consultancy study of R&D
activities in the water sector. MCE, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
140 MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop
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Challenges and opportunities in capacity
building for water resources development
and research in Ethiopia: The AWTI
experience
Sileshi Bekele
Arbaminch Water Technology Institute (AWTI), Arbaminch, Ethiopia
Abstract
This paper presents the past and present activities and contributions of the Arbaminch
Water Technology Institute (AWTI) towards water resources development capacity
building, particularly in human resources development and research. The crucial
bottlenecks for inadequate undertakings in water resources research in Ethiopia are
identified as insufficient institutional set-up, inadequate skilled human resources, and
insufficient finance and facilities. Approaches such as human resources capacity building
combined with research-oriented teaching and sufficient emphasis for water resources
research are the key issues for the way forward. Furthermore, the establishment of a water
research institute addressing various sub-sectors of water needs is emphasised.
General
The Arbaminch Water Technology Institute (AWTI) was established in 1986 with the
general objective of promoting the advancement of water resources development of the
country.
Among the many specific objectives, the main ones are:
• providing theoretical and practical education designed for producing low, intermediate,
and high level manpower in various aspects of water technology
• conducting research that can ensure the utilisation of water resources for the nation’s
progress and development and
• preparing, planning and conducting refresher courses in response to the specific
training needs forwarded by relevant water sector organisations
The programmes of the institute have undergone certain modifications now that the
institute is in the state of transformation to a university.
The future objectives and missions of the institute as a full-fledged university (i.e.
Arbaminch University (AMU), which is under articulation), include: focusing on technical
subjects in training and educating the manpower needs among others in water technology,
MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop 141
engineering, applied sciences and business and management, which have high relevance for
capacity building programmes in Ethiopia.
The AWTI contribution in capacity building
Although the institute will in future grow to a university level, it will continue and retain its
unique set-up in eastern Africa as a water technology institute. Since 2001, the institute has
opened additional water related programmes in Meteorology in BSc degree and advanced
diploma levels, and Hydraulic/Hydropower and Irrigation Engineering in postgraduate
programmes.
Since its establishment, the institute has trained a substantial number of professionals
and skilled manpower, which would serve the water sector and conduct a number of
research projects. The alumni have found wide acceptance within the country and abroad.
Table 1 shows the achievements in the number of graduates who are trained at AWTI to
date, which shows a total of 1371 engineers and aid engineers of which over 95% are related
to the water sector development. Furthermore, there are over 1100 admitted students in
water related fields at AWTI.
In addition, AWTI has contributed significantly in training water and related
technicians serving in the country. In this regard, in about 22 short-term courses leading to
certificates training and refresher programmes, about 1285 people are trained for a period
of three to nine months.
Water resources research challenges in Ethiopia
Major drawbacks
Water resources research in Ethiopia is not adequately addressed, though there is
tremendous need for it. Research is a vital tool for the exploitation of sustainable water
resources. The necessities and preconditions are not set for water resources research to be
effectively conducted for meaningful contribution in the sector. Among the necessary
requirements are: institutional capacity, financial, human resources and facilities.
Institutional arrangement
• until recently the water sector in general was not given adequate emphasis and did not
mature institutionally to attain the status it deserved
• the sector arrangement was not stable, and institutional arrangements within the sector
have not been permanently established
• almost no regard was given to research:
? there is no establishment within institutions such as the then Water Resources
Commission/Natural Resources and Environmental Protection or the existing
142 MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop
Sileshi Bekele
Ministry of Water Resources. The office of Research and Publication in Arbaminch
Water Technology Institute has no financial resources of its own.
? there is no independent institute of research for the water sector
• whatever existed as research are results from study documents geared towards project
development or ad hoc or sporadic research conducted individually or institutionally
mainly focusing on something else such as education and training.
Table 1. Number of students, by discipline, who graduated from the Arbaminch Water
Technology Institute (AWTI).
Field of study
Period since first
graduation No. of graduates
Degree
Hydraulic Engineering 1991–1995,
1998–2001
231
Irrigation Engineering 1991–1995,
1998–2001
179
Sanitary Engineering 1992–1995 65
Water Resources Engineering 1996–1998 106
Civil Engineering 2001 39
Electrical Engineering 2001 17
Mechanical Engineering 2001 20
Total 657
Advanced diploma
Irrigation and Drainage 41
Water Supply and Sewerage 165
Hydraulic Engineering 156
Irrigation Engineering 47
Sanitary Engineering 75
Water Resources Engineering 26
Civil Engineering 2001 27
Building Technology 2001 41
Total 578
Diploma
Hydrology Technician 1988–1990 52
Water Laboratory Technician 1988–1990 39
Soil Laboratory Technician 1988–1990 45
Total 136
Grand Total 1371
Financial resources
The financial resources for water resources research purposes in Ethiopia are usually
obtained through either the Ethiopian Science and Technology Commission (ESTC) on
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Challenges and opportunities in capacity building for water resources R&D in Ethiopia
the Ethiopian Government side, or from non-governmental organisations (NGOs). The
other sources, which might be available, are not directly accessible to researchers.
Human resources
Human resources for the purpose of research is not adequately developed and organised.
Those institutions like AWTI have no adequate manpower to cover all the teaching,
training and research activities. There is always a tendency to provide research a last priority,
thus, research suffers as a consequence.
Facilities
Research facilities needed for the purpose of applied research are not established in a given
centre. Research facilities like physical modelling facilities, numerical modelling facilities
etc. would be needed. Those institutions, established with relevance to water, have serious
deficiency not only in faculties but also in facilities and infrastructure to competitively
undertake research.
Thus, to undertake a meaningful research contributing towards a water resource
development, the above major drawbacks need to be addressed. It is important to mention
here that currently there is enough recognition for the water resource sector in Ethiopia. For
example, water is considered as a third important pillar for the Agricultural Development
Led Industrialisation (ADLI) strategy of the country, next to labour and land. There are also
many other useful policy statements relevant to research and development like that
included in the Water Resources Management Policy and ESTC Priority Programmes.
The need for water resources research
While on the one hand Ethiopia is a water tower of Africa, it is also a drought affected and
water scarce country. Water is indeed the most important resource that needs to be
researched, developed and utilised for the well-being of the Ethiopian people and to speed
up socio-economic development.
Water resource has positive and negative roles. Positively it can be used for drinking,
irrigation, hydropower etc. Water can also negatively influence socio-economic
development in the form of flood, erosion, sedimentation etc. To appropriately utilise water
means to enhance the positive and minimise the negative roles of water. To utilise water in a
sustainable manner, it is necessary to understand the quantity and quality in space and time
through studies and research and technological, financial and human resource potential.
In Ethiopia, since there is no established research endeavours contributing towards
sustainable use of the water resources, it is high time to move ahead and give due emphasis
for water resources research.
144 MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop
Sileshi Bekele
Research and dissemination activities in AWTI
General
Although highly imbalanced by the teaching need, there is a strong interest in AWTI to
conduct research. There are some completed research projects mainly focused on the
southern part of Ethiopia. These outcomes including other research outputs are
disseminated through a yearly symposium on ‘Sustainable water resources development in
Ethiopia’. This symposium is now in its seventh cycle. Proceedings of the previous
workshops can be obtained from AWTI.
ESTC and the German Development Cooperation (GTZ) mainly support the research
activities conducted in AWTI. Almost all of the sponsorships are not with earmarked
budget but with competitive application. Most of the research undertakings are also geared
with research based human resource capacity building and research-oriented teaching in
collaboration with partner universities abroad.
To look into the research activities in AWTI, the following few paragraphs show an
example of group research activities undertaken with the support from GTZ. The joint title
of this group research can be described as ‘Abaya and Chamo basin water resources
research’. The research has got a number of components (Figure 1).
Figure 1. Ongoing research projects (in rectangles) based on the initial concept and completed project entitled
‘Investigation of water resources aimed at multi-objective development with respect to limited data situation’.
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Challenges and opportunities in capacity building for water resources R&D in Ethiopia
Modern
lake level
changes of
Lake Abaya
Investigation of water resources aimed
at multi objective development with
respect to limited data situation
Research on integrated
water resources
management in Lake
Abaya–Chamo basin
Integrating GIS
with hydrological
and sedimento-
logical models for
storm water
management and
planning
Modelling of
sediment
transport and
morphological
processes in
rivers
Optimisation
of water
quality
management
network
Hydrologic
modelling for
the design of
hydraulic
structures
Soil
erosion
and soil
erosion
modelling
Hydraulic
characteristic
and
sedimentation
of Lake Abaya
Results of Abaya–Chamo basin research
The Abaya–Chamo lakes drainage system, physical characteristics, meteorological and
hydrological data, water use information, potential information, interaction of nature and
man etc. were not known or not put together in a systematic manner usable to any
meaningful purposes such as development or research. Figure 1 shows the conclusion of the
first investigation, and what has been identified as possible research areas.
Systematic and appropriate methodologies are followed and results in water resource
assessment under limited data situation are obtained. The outcome helps to
comprehensively understand the water resources, assess the available potentials and design
projects whereby the use of this vital resource can be enhanced and impacts can be
evaluated. These have been undertaken by using the Abaya and Chamo lakes drainage
region, which is the sub-basin of the Ethiopian Rift Valley lakes basin, as a case study (Figure
2). The assessment started from basic identification of the rivers and drainage system.
The region has been modelled using the geographic information system (GIS) and
hydrologic model. Subdivision of the drainage areas into sub-basins/watersheds enabled
identification of gauged and ungauged sites and thereby derivation of detailed physical
parameters, which can be used as inputs to various hydrologic and hydraulic modelling. The
basic development of the drainage area under GIS enabled easy addition of layers for
updating and management of additional water resources data and analysed information.
Using echo-sounder and Global Positioning System (GPS) both Abaya and Chamo lakes
have been surveyed. Through transferring the data into digital form, various morphometric
characteristics and water resources capacity curves of the lakes have been derived for the first
time.
Using the collected and compiled data, spatial distributions of parameters such as
rainfall and temperature elevation are developed. Homogenous regions based on rainfall
have been identified. Evaluation of simplified relationship of rainfall and runoff provided
146 MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop
Sileshi Bekele
N
200 0 200 Kilometers
N
EW
S
Ethiopian basins map
10 0 10 20 30 Kilometers
N
#
##
#
#
Abaya–Chamo basin
Bilate river
Abaya lake
Gidabo river
Gelana river
0 200 Kilometers
Rift valley basin
Basin polygon coverage
Stream arc coverage
Basin polygon coverage
Figure 2. The Abaya and Chamo Lakes drainage region.
inadequate basis for runoff estimation. A new conceptual, two-parameter, rainfall–
evaporation–soil moisture–runoff–monthly water balance model is developed, calibrated
and evaluated. The model is particularly useful for simulating runoff in cases of limited
hydrometeorological and physical data and where climatic conditions lead to large rainfall
variations. The results of both calibration and validation show that the model performs
quite well, and is employed to generate runoff for ungauged areas and extension of runoff
data.
Various procedures and methodologies are derived or adopted to estimate parameters
in assessment of demand and potential and design of water projects. These include
estimation of expected runoff, its reliability and methods of its control; regional flood
growth curves which can be used to estimate magnitude of flood for small structures in the
region; expected water demands in drinking water supply and irrigation; and general
identification of irrigation and hydropower sites. Through developing a general
lake/reservoir water balance model, simulation of the lakes’ water level and other time
varying parameters (such as area and volume) are made possible. The model is used in
assessment of various scenarios and impacts of various existing and future uses and
sediment inflow conditions. Furthermore, based on the prevailing conditions suggestions
are highlighted how to reverse the current deteriorating situations.
The adopted or developed underlying theories and obtained results could be applied to
other areas. Due to the fact that data are limited, the results have characters of assessment.
However, the results show clearly the sensitivity and vulnerability of the entire system.
Developed results provide wide understanding of the water resources system, the availability
of potentials, certain guidelines for the execution of projects, how impacts can be evaluated,
how urgently proper management system are needed and have to be developed.
Furthermore, the results of this research have strongly indicated the need for further
research and already founded basis for certain new research projects as schematised in
Figure 1.
The way forward and conclusion
In looking forward, water resources research in Ethiopia, which enhances development of
the country, should be given recognition. Sustainable development towards food and water
security can only be achieved through proper control and utilisation of water resource
whose technicality is supported through applied research, in combination with land,
human and financial resources. As can be seen in Figure 3, the rivers of Ethiopia are having
large flow volume throughout the year. To make use of water for development, water
distribution should be evened out temporally.
Sustainable and judicious development of the water resource of Ethiopia demand,
among other things, good scientific and technical capabilities which help to curb a number
of problems related to using the available water resources potential.
Water resources development that is not sustainable is ill planned. Fresh water
resources are scarce and finite. Consequently, there are many ways to jeopardise the future
use of water, either by over-exploitation or destroying resources. Besides physical aspects of
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Challenges and opportunities in capacity building for water resources R&D in Ethiopia
sustainability, there are social, financial and institutional aspects. Sustainability can be
defined as:
• technical sustainability (balanced demand and supply)
• financial sustainability (cost recovery)
• social sustainability (stability of population, demand and willingness to pay)
• economic sustainability (sustaining economic development or welfare and production),
institutional sustainability (capacity to plan, manage and operate the system) and
• environmental sustainability (no long-term negative or irreversible effects).
Such aspects could be checked and controlled through study and research.
Although it is imbalanced and erratic in its spatial and temporal distribution, Ethiopia is
blessed with ample amount of water resources that can be developed and utilised for the
wellbeing of the nation and its society. It is, however, unfortunate that this resource is not
yet exploited to the required level to secure the need for clean water, the demand for food,
the needs to provide the energy supply to enhance industrial growth and protect the balance
of deteriorating environment. In general, the ability in Ethiopia to use and enhance the
positive role of water and reducing the negative impacts has been very limited.
Today, the water sector has been taken as one of the top priorities by the government.
The sector strategy has also identified goals to be achieved in the near future to register
results. The endeavours should, therefore, be supplemented through appropriate research,
sustained through financial, manpower, and institutional and technical facilities.
148 MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop
Sileshi Bekele
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
4500
5000
5500
6000
Months of the year
Abay near Kessie
Tekeze near Embamider
Baro at Itang
Awash at Melka Humbole
Genale at Chene Masa
Wabi at Leghida
Omo at Omoratie
Flow volume
(× 10
6
m
3
)
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Figure 3. Average monthly flow of some major Ethiopia rivers.
Comparative advantages and research
interest areas of the Department of Civil
Engineering, Addis Ababa University
Yilma Sileshi
Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Technology, Addis Ababa University
Summary
The Department of Civil Engineering (DCE) was established in 1955 as part of the College
of Engineering. To date more than 1700 students graduated with a BSc degree in civil
engineering, and more than 45 students with an MSc degree specialising in structure,
hydraulic engineering and geotechnical engineering.
Currently the department runs a BSc degree programme in civil engineering (with 237
students already in the 3rd, 4th and 5th years), and three MSc programmes in the areas of
hydraulic engineering (11 students), geotechnical engineering (26 students), and structural
engineering (20 students).
The department has a very strong staff in the water sector. Out of 18 instructors with
PhDs, 8 are in the water sector creating a good composition in the hydrology, irrigation,
hydropower, water resources engineering, sanitary engineering, hydraulic engineering
areas.
The department is planning to launch two new MSc programmes in:
(1) Road and transportation engineering and,
(2) Construction technology and management.
Current activities of the department related to the
water sector
Research
Currently the department runs research in integrated water resources development using a
case catchment area of about 200 km
2
near Addis Ababa. The research project has three
components: the first is soil erosion and sedimentation study, the second is the study on
surface and groundwater resources assessment, and the third is a study on sanitation and
water supply.
MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop 149
Training
There is also a work-in-progress to open a new department in water and environmental
engineering, which envisaged running a BSc programme in water and environmental
engineering and three MSc programmes in:
(1) Irrigation engineering
(2) Hydropower engineering and
(3) Sanitary and environmental engineering.
Historical background
The Department of Civil Engineering was established in 1955 as part of the College of
Engineering. In 1961 the College of Engineering (the current Faculty of Technology) came
under the central administration of the University College of Addis Ababa (UCAA) later
named Haile Selassie I University (HSIU), and currently known as the Addis Ababa
University (AAU). The department was first located in the premises of the Technical School
at Mexico Square and moved to Arat Kilo Science Faculty in 1965. In 1969, it was
transferred to its present location around the Amest Kilo area. In 47 years of the
department’s endeavours, more than 1700 undergraduate and 45 postgraduate students
have obtained their BSc and MSc degrees in civil engineering respectively.
Programmes of the department
Educational programmes
The department provides a variety of courses, which can be studied either in a full time
five-year regular day programme or in an eight-year continuing education (evening)
programme leading toward a BSc degree in civil engineering. A five-year evening
programme is also provided leading to an advanced diploma in civil engineering.
Moreover, the department offers a two-year full-time postgraduate programme leading
to an MSc degree in geotechnical, hydraulic, and structural engineering. Preparations have
been finalised to launch MSc programmes in road and transportation engineering and
construction technology and management.
Research activities
Research is carried out in the department both in groups and individually. Major research
interests of the staff members are the following:
Rainfall-runoff modelling
• groundwater modelling
• application of GIS in hydrology and water resources
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Yilma Sileshi
• sediment transport mechanisms and modelling of erosion in watersheds
• water quality modelling
• performance of concrete
• concrete mix design using ordinary Portland cement
• precast slab-beam system
• improvement of quality of blocks
• management in construction
• structural design and optimisation
• fire safety for buildings
• low-cost housing
• dynamic soil-structure interaction
• reinforced-earth technology
• preparation of design aids for hollow reinforced concrete sections
Recently completed projects include:
• determination of optimum operating policy for Koka dam, Ethiopia
• use of scoria for the preparation of structural concrete
• use of geotextiles for stabilising soils
• evaluation of approximate methods for the analysis and design of columns under biaxial
bending
• establishment of the Intel Developer Forum (IDF) curves for northern Ethiopia.
Moreover, academic staff members prepare teaching materials and textbooks for the
various civil engineering courses offered in the department.
Facilities
The northern campus of the Faculty of Technology accommodates about 800 students. The
Department of Civil Engineering shares the available facility with other departments of the
faculty.
Laboratories: The department has laboratories for soil testing, structural testing,
material testing, hydraulics and hydrology, sanitary, highway and surveying. These
laboratories are used for educational/consultancy purposes.
Computers: The department has its own computer centre with Internet connections for
staff and postgraduate students. Undergraduate students share the Internet connection
facility of the Faculty of Technology.
Libraries: Two libraries for general and postgraduate readings with about 15,300
volumes are found in the northern campus of the Faculty of Technology. One may consult
other libraries of the AAU that consists of a Central Library (Kennedy Library) located in
the main campus, other eleven specialised branch libraries, and one periodical reference
library. The postgraduate library of the Faculty of Technology is also equipped with
computers with Internet connections.
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Comparative advantages and research interest areas of AAU
Staff profile
Currently, the Department of Civil Engineering has 30 academic staff on duty, of whom
one is a Fulbright professor and another one is Emeritus, and one is an expatriate professor.
Three academic staff members are on study leave. The department’s supporting staff profile
includes one secretary and six technical staff. The current (2002) department’s staff
qualifications and specialisations are given in Table 1.
Table 1. A profile of the staff qualifications and specialisations of the Department of Civil
Engineering (academic year 2001/2002).
Specialisation
Qualification
PhD MSc BSc
Construction management and materials 1 1
Geotechniques 4 – 1
Hydraulic and water resources engineering 7 (2) 1 –
Road and transport engineering 1 (1) 1 1
Structural engineering 6 1 1
Sanitary and environmental engineering 2 1 1
Total 21 (3) 4 5
N.B. The value in parenthesis shows the number of staff on study leave abroad working toward the
degree.
Students’ admission and entertainment
Admission to the Department of Civil Engineering is very competitive, and is based on
freshman and pre-engineering academic achievements.
Regular students are privileged to lodging, food and medical services. Facilities for
several outdoor sports and indoor entertainment are available.
Strategic plans
General
a. upgrade and streamline the curricula of the current undergraduate and postgraduate
programmes and develop new programmes relevant to the needs of the country
b. strengthen research focusing on priority sectors of national development
c. develop and offer short courses to industries on various topics
d. open other postgraduate and undergraduate programmes
e. give consultancy services to the public and private institutions.
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Yilma Sileshi
Current activities of the department related to the
water sector
Research
Currently the department conducts water related research in three main areas.
1. In integrated water resources development using a case catchment area of about 200 km
2
near Addis Ababa. The research project has three components: the first is soil erosion
and sedimentation study, the second is the study on surface and groundwater resources
assessment, and the third is the study on sanitation and water supply (rural and urban).
The research teams have established six-soil erosion surface runoff measuring stations in
the watershed of the Beresa River.
2. Study of the flow characteristics of selected rivers in Ethiopia
3. Study in IDF curve establishment for southern Ethiopia
4. Flow estimation for ungauged rivers.
Training
There is also a work-in-progress to open a new department in water and environmental
engineering which envisaged to run one BSc programme in water and environmental
engineering and three MSc programmes in irrigation engineering, hydropower engineering
and sanitary and environmental engineering.
Comparative advantages of the department
The comparative advantages of the department are: (1) its highly qualified and experienced
academic staff who know the country’s problems very well, and (2) research experiences
through currently running research projects especially in integrated water resources
development on an experimental watershed.
Research interest areas on short- and long-term basis:
1. micro scale—household/community and farm-level integrated water and land resource
development through:
? integrated micro watershed soil conservation (reducing soil erosion and enhancing
soil moisture)
? water harvesting (hydrology and technology)
? adaptation and use of low-cost (affordable) micro-irrigation technologies including
gravity drip irrigation system (for vegetable, fruits and crop production).
2. medium scale—Integrated watershed and natural resource management
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Comparative advantages and research interest areas of AAU
? flood forecasting
? study on irrigation and drainage scheme design and management
? water harvesting for small-scale irrigation and water supply for pastoral areas
3. large scale—River basin management including
? application of decision-support tools for water management
? drought and flood forecasting
? climate variability and its implications for long-term productivity
? design and management of large-scale irrigation schemes and other major water
infrastructure.
Conclusion
The Department of Civil Engineering has a long-time experience in research and teaching.
It currently runs a number of research projects. In the water sector, currently the
department conducts research on integrated water resources development on selected case
watershed, on IDF curve establishment for the country, and on monthly flow estimation for
un-gauged watersheds.
There is also a plan to open different new departments in water and environmental
engineering at undergraduate and postgraduate levels.
The department is also planning to conduct joint research on household/community
and farm-level integrated water and land resource development.
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Yilma Sileshi
Overview of the Ethiopian Rainwater
Harvesting Association (ERHA)
Meselech Seyoum
Ethiopian Rainwater Harvesting Association (ERHA) Secretariat, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Background
The global concern
Water is a finite and limited resource upon which human well-being and socio-economic
development depend. Given its limited availability and importance, efficient and effective
use of water resources is necessary for sustainable economic and social development. Access
to water of adequate quality and quantity is a fundamental human need and recognised as a
basic human right.
Water and water development are irretrievably connected with land use management,
rural and urban settlements, and agricultural and industrial development. This calls for the
necessity to integrate water management with these sectors in ways which are to the best
interests of a nation and its people. Such integrated water management are, in turn, most
readily achieved by recognising the need for efficient management at the lowest appropriate
level, and that water development decisions are best made in acknowledgement of the real
value of the water (UNDP 1990; DANIDA 1991; ICWE 1992).
Freshwater resources have been dwindling over the years, both in terms of quality and
quantity, while the demand for high quality water has been steadily increasing. Studies
carried out on a global basis indicate that only a small percentage of the available water is of
good enough quality for human use. As an element of social and industrial development,
water use has increased dramatically in importance. Thus, not only do we have increased
water use due to an increase in population size but there is also an increased importance of
water as a key determinant of development. In the past fifty years, the world’s population
has doubled, as did the per capita water consumption rate from about 400 m
3
/year to about
800 m
3
/year (Engelman and Le Roy 1993).
The countries of Africa, however, have been experiencing an ever-growing pressure on
their available water resources, with increasing demand and costs for agricultural, domestic
and industrial consumption. Of the 19 countries around the world currently classified as
water-stressed, more are in Africa than in any other continent. In the African context,
natural occurrences of hazards such as drought, desertification, and climate change and the
influences of human activities like agriculture, population growth, industrial development,
and land use changes are considered to constitute the major causes of the continuing
deterioration of freshwater resources. These pressures have caused both environmental
MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop 155
deterioration (including pollution of freshwater systems) and overexploitation of important
water catchments, resulting in lowered groundwater levels.
Falkenmark et al. (1990) have proposed a water scarcity index based on an approximate
minimum level of water required per capita to maintain an adequate quality of life in a
moderately developed country. One hundred litres per person per day is considered the
minimum for basic household needs to maintain good health in this index. The experience
of moderately developed and water efficient countries shows that roughly 5 to 20 times this
amount is needed to satisfy the requirements of agriculture, industry and energy
production. On the basis of these premises, a country whose renewable freshwater resource
availability on an annual per capita basis exceeds 1700 m
3
will suffer only occasional or local
water shortages. When freshwater availability falls below 1000 m
3
/person per year,
countries are likely to experience a chronic water scarcity in which lack of water begins to
hamper economic development and human health and well-being. When renewable water
supplies fall below 500 m
3
/person per year, countries will be likely to experience absolute
scarcity. Using Falkenmark’s definition, the situation in African countries with regard to
water scarcity shows that six African countries were already in a position of water scarcity or
water stress in 1990. This will increase to 16 by 2025. Of 20 African countries that have
faced food emergencies in recent years, half are either stressed by water shortages or are
projected to fall into the stress category by 2025 (Engelman and Le Roy 1993).
Water stress has several repercussions. Socially, human health is at risk, and
water-related conflicts are imminent. Economically, the cost of production and delivery of a
unit quantity of water has escalated, thus diverting investments from other productive areas.
Environmentally, sustainability of the ecological systems is threatened by overexploitation
or pollution. Some water-related problems are local, but others are regional. Most of the
water systems in Africa that are able to endure marked seasonality in climate are
international, while local water sources are generally prone to drought. Because nearly
two-thirds of the continent is arid to semi-arid, poverty and insufficient agricultural
production put pressure on freshwater management almost across the continent. A large
proportion of Africa’s population is affected by water shortages for domestic use.
Currently, responses to water stress risks range from traditional coping strategies
practised by individual families to global initiatives of networking, discussion forums,
research and training. International organisations have played a major part in catalysing
development in the water-resource sector, creating awareness and focusing sharply on the
problems and challenges in the sector by contributing funds; providing technical assistance
and training; and facilitating research, networking, and information dissemination. In
Africa, enhanced awareness of the problems, challenges, and opportunities in the sector
have been accomplished to some extent through international conferences, from which
workshop proceedings, protocols and binding statements have been produced to guide
efforts of mitigating water scarcity.
According to UNEP-IETC (1998), some of the key water resource management issues
on which contemporary research and development endeavours to address the prevailing
problems have been focused are:
• identifying models for alternative technical and management systems to address the
need for integrating the various socio-economic activities with sustainable water use
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• promoting different adaptation options at grassroots level including water-harvesting
technologies and more efficient water use systems
• establishing and strengthening local, regional and global alliances among individual
professionals and practitioners, interest groups and civil societies through networking
and information exchange on issues that address water scarcity
• identifying and revitalising indigenous technologies and practices of traditional
communities to augment their water supplies and agricultural production
• advocating and facilitating a decentralised and inter-sectoral approach to water resources
management at the appropriate lower levels in line with local interests and by mobilising
local resources and
• facilitating people’s attitudinal and behavioural changes towards creating a greater
opportunity to ensure sustainable development of resources, increase awareness,
involvement and responsibility among users.
Status of water resource potentials and constraints
in Ethiopia—Should we bother?
The natural resource bases of Ethiopia seem to have a potential for supporting a far greater
number of the population. Ethiopia’s geographic location and its natural endowment of
favourable climate have provided it with a relatively higher rainfall in the region. The
country’s annual surface runoff is estimated at about 122 billion m
3
forming 12 major river
basins, much of which are, however, carried away across the borders by trans-boundary
rivers. By virtue of its mountainous topography and higher altitudes relative to the
surrounding areas, Ethiopia is usually referred to as the ‘water tower’ of North and Eastern
Africa. Only a little part of its ground water potential, estimated at 2.9 billion m
3
,is
exploited. Ethiopia also has an irrigation potential of about 3.5 million hectares, while its
hydropower potential stands second in Africa. All these imply the availability of adequate
level of water resource base which, with optimum development, is capable of providing well
beyond the food, water supply, energy and export requirements of Ethiopia.
Nevertheless, the use of these water resources to meet the socio-economic needs of the
Ethiopian people is very limited due to various constraints. The major limitation lies in the
uneven distributions and mismatch of the available water resources with the agro-ecological
and settlement patterns of the country. Moreover, despite Ethiopia’s high aggregate annual
rainfall, it falls either too early or too late with a characteristic high intra- and inter-annual
variation in quantity and in terms of the spatial and temporal distributions of the seasonal
rainfall.
Annual rainfall in the country ranges between 2700 mms in the south-western
highlands and less than 200 mms in some parts of the northern and south-eastern lowlands
with a further decrease to 100 mm in the north-eastern lowlands. The southern, central,
eastern and southern highlands of the country have a bi-modal rainfall pattern while the
south-western and eastern areas are characterised by a mono-modal rainfall. Ethiopia has
five major agro-climatic zones, which are broadly defined on the basis of altitude ranges, viz.
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Overview of the Ethiopian Rainwater Harvesting Association (ERHA)
Bereha, Kolla, Weyna-dega, Dega and Wurch. Because of the favourable climate and absence of
many tropical diseases, the highlands of Ethiopia are favoured for settlement. The
Ethiopian highlands (areas above 1500 metres above sea level) harbour about 88% of the
human and 65% of the livestock population.
As the population density in the highland areas continued to increase more and more
marginal lands were put under cultivation which eventually resulted in the severe
degradation of the agro-ecological resource base and declining agricultural production.
Consequently, population expansion increased towards the extensive lowland (arid and
semi-arid) areas. Unfortunately, these areas are usually constrained by, among other things,
shortage of rainfall for optimum agricultural production. This calls for the use of suitable
technologies for improved and sustainable agricultural production (MOA 2001). Available
information indicates that nearly 70% of the total arable land in Ethiopia receives an
annual rainfall of less than 750 mm. The areas with an annual rainfall of 500–750 mm are
believed to support optimum levels of agricultural activities, if the annual rainfall
distribution is undisturbed and proper land management is applied. As of late, however, the
annual rainfall distribution of most parts of Ethiopia, including the highlands, is not only
lacking in uniformity but also highly unpredictable in terms of inter-annual variations.
Therefore, overcoming the limitations of these arid and semi-arid areas and making good
use of the vast agricultural potential under the Ethiopian context is a necessity rather than a
choice, which requires appropriate intervention to address the prevailing constraints.
Research findings and practices in many other countries and traditional farming
practices suggest possibilities for making good use of areas with an annual rainfall as low as
200 mm. This is achieved through the application of different technologies that can
improve the efficiency of moisture use which, if used at the right setting, can improve
situations. These include, among other things, improved water control and rainwater
harvesting. For the risk-prone areas such as those affected by recurrent drought, the main
opportunities for improving water use include small-scale irrigation, rainwater harvesting
and, above all, better use of available moisture in the rainfed farming systems on which the
bulk of farmers continue to depend.
Rainwater harvesting, in a broad sense, is the collection of the raindrops/runoff for
domestic consumption and/or food production purposes, which will otherwise cause soil
erosion. It could also be described as an act of maximising the use of the available rainfall by
applying different techniques. In fact, rainwater harvesting practices and their recognition
as alternative options to supplement other water sources is not new in Ethiopia.
The history of rainwater harvesting practices in Ethiopia dates back as early as 560 BC,
during the Axumite Kingdom. In those days, rainwater was harvested and stored in ponds
for agriculture and water supply purposes, which are evidenced with documented literature
and visual observations on the remains of ponds that were once used for irrigation during
that period. Even these days, there are several traditional rainwater-harvesting technologies
in Ethiopia, which have been used by communities in areas of water shortage. For many
traditional communities in rural areas where natural sources of water are lacking, collection
of rainwater from pits on rock outcrops and excavated ponds are common practices. In
many semi-arid lowland areas of Ethiopia, where rainfall is not adequate for crop growth,
farmers use runoff irrigation as a source of life-saving irrigation supplies.
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The promotion and application of rainwater-harvesting techniques as alternative
interventions to address water scarcity in Ethiopia was started through
government-initiated soil and water conservation programmes. It was started as a response
to the 1971–74 drought with the introduction of food-for-work (FFW) programmes, which
were intended to generate employment opportunities to the people affected by the drought.
The earlier rainwater harvesting activities included, among others, construction of ponds,
micro-dams, bunds, and terraces in most drought-affected areas in Tigray, Wello and
Hararghe regions (Kebede 1995). Non-governmental organisations (NGOs) involved in
Integrated Rural Development Projects (IRDPs) and the water sector in many parts of the
country also undertake rainwater-harvesting interventions. These interventions include
conservation of rainwater by making use of physical structures and rainwater harvesting for
domestic and irrigation purposes through pond and micro-dam construction and roof
catchment schemes.
Despite the enormous potential of its natural resource bases and the development
efforts being made by the various actors in the country, Ethiopia’s chronic food shortages
and drought-induced famines have continued to be common phenomena during the past
few decades (Asmare 1998). In the last two decades in particular, Ethiopia has been a regular
recipient of food aid from international aid sources. One of the latest estimates shows that
about 52% of the country’s population are food insecure, facing chronic and recurring
disaster-induced food shortages (Dagnew 2000). According to the estimation made in
1995/96, on the whole, 45.5% of the Ethiopian population are living in absolute poverty,
with a relative coverage of 47 and 33% of the rural and urban populations, respectively,
(FDRE 2000). Since about 85% of the country’s population dwell in the rural areas, poverty
is primarily a rural phenomenon. In Ethiopia, an average of only 25% of the population is
supplied with potable water which is only 19% in rural areas; while the sanitation is in much
worse condition where 92% of the population do not have access to adequate sanitation
facilities (NGOs on PRSP 2002).
For Ethiopia, much of whose river waters are carried away across the borders by
trans-boundary rivers, the issue of augmenting the available water resources to meet the
socio-economic needs of its people becomes a necessity and timely in light of two major
reasons. Firstly, attainment of food security through enhancing the productivity of the
agriculture sector, with a primary emphasis on building the productive capacity of the
smallholder farmers, has been an overriding objective of the Government’s Poverty
Reduction and Food Security Strategies (FDRE 2000, 2002). In line with this, the Ministry
of Agriculture (MOA) has been making some efforts towards the development and
promotion of rainwater-harvesting technologies as part of its extension programme.
Secondly, based on the current trend of population growth, by the year 2025, Ethiopia will
have nearly 120 million people and the per capita water availability will drop to about 947
m
3
/person per year (Falkenmark et al. 1990; UNEP/IETC 1998). This situation, according
to Falkenmark’s (1990) definition of water scarcity, will make Ethiopia among the eight
African countries facing water scarcity by 2025 (UNEP/IETC 1998).
The above facts strongly support the need to focus on development and promotion of
rainwater-harvesting technologies as one of the alternatives to enhance water availability for
different uses including domestic water supply, sanitation and food production.
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Overview of the Ethiopian Rainwater Harvesting Association (ERHA)
The need for intervention
Currently, Ethiopia’s population is facing serious challenges of resource depletion and the
need to survive under stress. Ethiopia has to strive to improve its health and sanitation by
improving the existing low level of clean water supply coverage, whilst its natural water
resources have been either deteriorated beyond repair or subjected to extreme pressure due
to the ever-increasing population. Ethiopia has to feed itself by enhancing its agricultural
production, yet its predominantly rainfed agriculture has been constrained by the
unpredictable variability of the rainfall pattern. Obviously, this situation brings about the
need to maximise the use of existing or unexploited sources of freshwater. There are many
modern and traditional alternative technologies for improving the utility and augmenting
the supply of water being employed in various countries, but with limited application
elsewhere due to lack of information transfer among water resources managers, planners
and end-users.
Given the good potential of Ethiopia’s agroclimatic resources, the prevailing limitations
in terms of rainfall distribution and amount could be effectively addressed if rainwater
harvesting is seriously taken. Applications of rainwater-harvesting techniques, however, are
constrained by the limited availability of information on the technologies and relevant
traditional practices, lack of resources to conduct local specific research on the performance
of available techniques and inadequate attention to avail and promote suitable extension
packages to the end users. In Ethiopia, only little has emerged from research that is suitable
for marginal and drought-prone areas, as few resources have been devoted to this topic,
perhaps reflecting the ill perceived profitability of such investments (Ephraim 2001).
For effective and efficient use of rainwater harvesting to address domestic supply and
food production, all concerned should give timely and adequate attention. Among other
things, such responses include:
• facilitation of wider public involvement in dialogues and discussion forums to address
the water scarcity issue which will eventually inculcate a mass transformation
demonstrated through conscious actions of efficient and effective water use habits of
community members
• focusing research and training initiatives as a basis for knowledge building on the
different aspects of rainwater-harvesting technologies at all levels
• emphasising on information availability, accessibility and dissemination to strengthen
the awareness and skills of professionals, practitioners and end-users
• integration of water resource management to the different sectoral initiatives as a
cross-cutting issue and
• facilitation of an enabling environment for collaborative initiatives and partnership
with the different development actors and interest groups.
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The Ethiopian Rainwater Harvesting Association
(ERHA)
Increased global concern about the ever-dwindling availability of freshwater resources has
recognised, among other things, the need for improved management of this most precious
of commodities and identification and promotion of freshwater augmentation
technologies. To mitigate the threat from water scarcity, there have been extensive efforts
and attention given towards rainwater-harvesting technologies because of its potential as a
viable option to address the problem. Accordingly, rainwater harvesting for both domestic
and food production purposes has been increasingly picking up as an alternative source of
water in sub-Saharan Africa where past efforts to get water at closer locations to the needy
people have been largely unsuccessful.
In connection with this, a number of associations, forums, networks and partnerships
have been evolved at global, regional and country levels for the sole objective of advancing
the rainwater-harvesting alternative. As of late, rainwater-harvesting associations have
emerged in most southern and eastern African countries to spearhead rainwater-harvesting
activities in their respective countries. The Ethiopian Rainwater Harvesting Association
(ERHA) is one of such organisations established by concerned Ethiopians as an expression
of their genuine interest to take part in the efforts to tackle the ever-worsening threats of
water scarcity.
Establishment of ERHA
The beginning of establishing rainwater-harvesting associations in many countries of the
southern and eastern Africa traces back to the efforts of the Regional Land Management
Unit (RELMA) of SIDA. RELMA’s different activities aimed at improved food security
included rainwater harvesting as one of the opportunities to enhance food security in the
region. By the emergence of the Kenyan Rainwater Association (KRA), being the first of its
kind in the region, RELMA began to encourage and support expansion of the same trend in
the other countries through organising experience sharing workshops, study tours and
networking. A number of training workshops were conducted on issues of rainwater
harvesting including those held in Arusha (Tanzania), Machakos (Kenya), Mbarara
(Uganda) and Nazareth (Ethiopia). Some Ethiopian participants who had the chance to
attend the Arusha workshop had helped in organising a similar workshop at Nazareth in
Ethiopia.
ERHA was founded on 17 December 1999 in Addis Ababa. The founding members of
ERHA, totalling about 60 in number, consisted of individuals with diverse professional
backgrounds including water and related fields of engineering, agriculture, health,
education, environment and other fields of natural and social sciences. Members are also
employees of educational and research institutions, governmental organisations, NGOs
industrial organisations and private engineering/consultancy firms. The Secretariat Office
began its operation with a single staff member in a temporary office obtained from Water
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Overview of the Ethiopian Rainwater Harvesting Association (ERHA)
Action, a local NGO working on water development, sanitation and environmental
activities.
ERHA is a non-governmental, non-political and non-profit-oriented national
organisation consisting of individuals with genuine interest in promotion of
rainwater-harvesting technologies to address shortage of water for domestic supply and food
production.
ERHA’s overall objective is to contribute towards enhanced and sustainable food
security status in Ethiopia through promoting feasible rainwater-harvesting technologies for
sustainable development and conservation of natural resources.
References
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Engelman R. and Le Roy P. 1993. Sustaining water. Population and the future of renewable water supplies.
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Horn of Africa Rainwater Partnership), Nairobi, Kenya.
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world development. Linkoping University, Stockholm, Sweden.
FDRE (Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia). 2000. Ethiopia: Interim Poverty Reduction
Strategy Paper (PRSP) 2000/01–2002/03. FDRE, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
FDRE (Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia). 2002. Food Security Strategy. FDRE, Addis
Ababa, Ethiopia.
ICWE (International Conference on Water and the Environment). 1992. International conference on
water and the environment: Development issues for the 21st century. World Meteorological
Organization, Geneva, Switzerland. 55 pp.
Kebede Tato. 1995. Experience in soil and water conservation in Ethiopia. Paper presented at
Agri-Service Ethiopia’s Annual Technical Meeting, Wondo-Genet, Ethiopia.
MOA (Ministry of Agriculture). 2001. The second five-year action plan of soil and water conservation
activities. Forest and Wildlife, Soil and Land use Technologies Regulatory Department, MOA,
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
NGOs on PRSP. 2002. Shaping Ethiopia’s future in the 21st century: Non-governmental
organisation’s perspective on PRSP (Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper) for Ethiopia, Addis
Ababa, Ethiopia.
162 MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop
Meselech Seyoum
UNDP (United Nations Development Programme). 1990. Global consultation on safe water and
sanitation for the 1990s. The New Delhi Statement. United Nations, New York, USA. 7 pp.
UNEP/IETC (United Nations Environment Programme/International Environmental Technology
Centre). 1998a. Sourcebook of alternative technologies for freshwater augmentation in Africa. UNEP,
Nairobi, Kenya. 182 pp.
MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop 163
Overview of the Ethiopian Rainwater Harvesting Association (ERHA)
Appendix I
Ethiopian Rainwater Harvesting Association (ERHA)
Background
The problem:
• Increased global concern about the ever-dwindling availability of freshwater resources
The need:
• Improved management of water resources
• Identification and promotion of freshwater augmentation technologies
• Attention towards the potential held in rainwater harvesting technologies as a viable
option to address the problem
Actions needed:
Evolvement of collective efforts for existing associations, forums, networks and
partnerships at global, regional and country levels for the sole objective of advancing the
rainwater-harvesting alternative.
Establishment, governance and statuary functions
ERHA was founded on 17 December 1999 and registered as a national association with the
FDRE’s Ministry of Justice on 5 December 2001. ERHA’s Secretariat Office was established
and put to function as of 1 July 2002.
Status
The Ethiopian Rainwater Harvesting Association (ERHA) is a non-governmental,
non-political and non-profit-oriented national organisation consisting of individuals with
genuine interest in rainwater harvesting activities at all levels.
Membership
• The founding members of ERHA, totalling about 60 in number, (comprised of
individuals with diverse professional backgrounds and employed in educational and
research institutions, government organisations, NGOs industrial organisations and
private engineering/consultancy firms.
• Membership is open to all interested individuals who accept the Memorandum of
Association of ERHA.
Governance
• ERHA is governed by its constitution that conforms to the legal requirements of
national associations in Ethiopia.
164 MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop
Organisational structure
• The organisational structure of ERHA consists of the General Assembly, Executive Body
and the Secretariat
• The General Assembly of all members is the supreme body of ERHA
• The Executive Body, consisting of eight members elected by the General Assembly for
three years term of office, provides the overall leadership of the association as per the
powers and duties vested in it by the General Assembly.
• The Secretariat, headed by an Executive Officer accountable to the Executive Body,
carries out the day-to-day organisational functions to meet the objectives of the
association.
Objective and functions of ERHA
Objective
ERHA’s overall objective is to contribute towards enhanced and sustainable food security
status in Ethiopia through promoting feasible rainwater-harvesting technologies for
sustainable development and conservation of natural resources.
Functions
To realise its objectives, ERHA:
• facilitates/provides professional inputs needed to use rainwater harvesting for different
uses
• studies and promotes different rainwater harvesting techniques and
• provides training, advisory and other technical support to governmental organisations,
NGOs and end-users towards developing, adapting and disseminating
rainwater-harvesting technologies.
Membership
• as per Article 4 of its Memorandum of Association, ERHA is a membership organisation
comprising individual members who express a desire to co-operate and take part in the
furtherance of its objectives and comply with its Constitution and Bye-laws.
• ERHA believes that its strengths and effectiveness emanates from a wider membership
and diversity of backgrounds that are committed to serve the common cause it has been
established for.
• new membership is open to all interested individuals who accept the Memorandum of
Association of ERHA.
• membership fee for an individual member is Ethiopian Birr (ETB) 100 (about US$ 12)
per annum.
MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop 165
Appendix I
Networking and partnership
• ERHA recognises the need and the mutual benefits gained from joining efforts with
other organisations working towards similar objectives.
• ERHA has been actively involved in establishing networking and partnership with
rainwater harvesting associations in other countries.
• currently, ERHA is a member of Southern and Eastern African Rainwater Network
(SEARNet) and Greater Horn of Africa Rainwater Partnership (GHARP).
• ERHA will also continue to take the initiative towards joining existing/emerging
networks and forums to strengthen its organisational capacity through mutual
collaborations and exchange of information on rainwater harvesting issues.
Achievements
• established networking and partnership with rainwater harvesting associations
(RWHAs) in other countries and actively involved in strengthening sub-regional
initiatives towards the same
• conducted a case study on evaluation of rainwater harvesting systems in collaboration
with GHARP
• completed registration process and secured legal recognition by the Ethiopian
Government
• established the ERHA Secretariat Office and recruited an Executive Officer
• launched publicity activities on the establishment of its secretariat (through letters,
e-mails, … etc.)
• project development and fund raising
? GHARP Project (Case Study and individual budget to support the Secretariat
Office).
? action plan for using its allocated budget of the first year (July 2002–June 2003) of the
Programme on Networking for ‘Green Water’ Harvesting in Eastern and Southern
Africa and South Asia
? project proposal for Sponsored Programs Development (SPD)
• members’ registration and support
Constraints and challenges
• limited availability of resources (human, material and finance) to sustain and support
ERHA’s Secretariat Office and effectively work towards realising its intended objectives
• limited access/linkage with funding agencies
• unfavourable socio-economic conditions (e.g. low income level, small land holding size,
low level of access to services, … etc.) limit the receptiveness of the potential targets/users
of rainwater-harvesting technologies (i.e. farmers and urban poor)
• non-conducive policy environment (e.g. land tenure, lack of (inadequate) incentive for
development of the private sector, limited governmental organisations–NGOs
166 MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop
Appendix I
collaborations, inconvenient governmental organisations regulations regarding NGO
operations, … etc.)
• underdeveloped status and low investment capacity of the Ethiopian private sector to
play its part in the promotion of rainwater-harvesting technologies
• reluctance of existing funding partners to provide support for such basic needs as staff
salary and office rent.
Opportunities
• increased global awareness (mainly international development organisations) of the
need and the concern for enhanced management of water resources
• emerged associations, forums, networks and partnerships at global, regional and country
levels and the prevailing collaborative spirit towards advancing rainwater-harvesting
alternative
• latest developments in the governmental organisations and professionals in recognising
rainwater harvesting as a viable option to address water shortage problems
• availability of indigenous rainwater-harvesting techniques and practices with promising
potentials to address water shortage problems and
• interest of individual professionals and practitioners on issues of rainwater harvesting
and to join ERHA.
Immediate plan
Strategic plan development
• developing organisational policies, guidelines and operational manuals
• developing training materials and organising training on rainwater-harvesting
technologies for relevant governmental organisations and NGO staff, private
companies/individuals (e.g. consultants, contractors, artisans, … etc.)
• strengthening and expanding networking within and outside the country
• mobilising resource to implement the various intended activities (preparations of
project proposals and fund raising)
• organising general assembly meeting of all ERHA members
• expanding membership into the regional states
• conducting studies on traditional rainwater-harvesting technologies in the country
• organising training on rainwater-harvesting technologies
• awareness raising and promotion activities (workshops, seminars, radio/TV
programmes, newspapers, exhibitions, … etc.)
• developing a resource centre for rainwater-harvesting technologies and provision of
information services.
MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop 167
Appendix I
Policies and institutions to enhance
the impact of irrigation development
in mixed crop–livestock systems
Berhanu Gebremedhin and D. Peden
International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Abstract
Improvement in access to water serves as a powerful tool to increase income, diversify
livelihoods and reduce vulnerability, since irrigation water creates options for extended
production across the year, increases yields and outputs, and creates employment
opportunities. In the mixed crop–livestock systems, irrigation can increase livestock feed
supply through increased crop residues of food–feed crops, thus relieving the pressure on
grazing lands and improving livestock productivity. In sub-Saharan Africa (SSA),
inadequate growth in food production and increasing water scarcity pose serious challenges
to future agricultural and economic development. Water for food has been identified as a
critical challenge for society in the 21st century. The challenges arising due to increasing
water scarcity can be addressed through two strategies: supply management (policies and
actions to locate, develop, and exploit new sources of water for irrigation, household and
industrial uses) and demand management (incentives and mechanisms that promote
efficient use and conservation of water). Irrigation water development in Ethiopia during the
imperial and military regimes focused on the development of large-scale irrigation schemes.
This trend was reversed by the current government, which emphasised the development of
small-scale schemes. However, the history of irrigation development has been characterised by
emphasis on technical and engineering aspects, with inadequate attention accorded to policy,
institutional and socio-economic factors. The lessons from the experience of irrigation
development in SSA in general, and Ethiopia in particular, show that:
• a pluralistic approach to water development (which includes carefully selected and
managed large-scale schemes, and farmer managed small-scale projects)
• provision of supportive legal framework and secure water rights
• development of local management and leadership capacity and
• active involvement of beneficiaries in design, implementation and management of
schemes could enhance the impact of irrigation on farm household income, natural
resources management, and the local and national economies.
Project engineers should continuously interact with agronomists, economists and other
social scientists from the beginning to prepare a comprehensive ex ante assessment of
irrigation projects. Moreover, policy and institutional interventions to enhance the impact of
irrigation also need to be based on the objective of enhancing the contribution of irrigation to
168 MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop
sustainable livelihoods of rural people. This could be done by enhancing the contribution of
irrigation to household asset building by strengthening market access, promoting high-value
crops, and improving systems for providing extension and technical support to smallholder
irrigation. The best place to start perhaps is to ensure access to farm inputs and markets.
Introduction
Water plays a critical role in the sustainable livelihoods of rural people. Improvement in
access to water serves as a powerful tool to diversify livelihoods and reduce vulnerability for
small producers, since irrigation water creates options for extended production across the
year, increases yields and outputs, and creates employment opportunities. Increased
household income may be spent locally thus helping to stimulate the rural economy.
Participation in water users associations (WUA) widens social networks and empowers
people, thus facilitating the creation of social capital.
In mixed crop–livestock systems, irrigation can increase livestock feed supply through
increased crop residues of food–feed crops, thus relieving the pressure on grazing lands.
Irrigation can also increase the productivity of the grazing lands themselves if water is used
for producing feed directly, thus perhaps allowing crop residues to return to the soil to
maintain soil fertility. Livestock are important assets and sources of cash income of the rural
people, especially the rural poor. Improved feed availability increases the productivity of
livestock, thus improving household income.
During the 20th century, human population tripled and water use increased six-fold,
mostly for agricultural use. Agricultural productivity has also risen sharply in recent decades
due to higher yielding varieties, increased fertiliser use, and major investments in water
resources infrastructure. Investment in many billions of dollars in irrigation infrastructure
has been the key component of the Green Revolution.
Agriculture today accounts for most of the water withdrawals,
1
and accounts for about
80% or more of water withdrawals in developing countries (Cai et al. 2001). As populations
continue to grow further, the demand for agricultural water will increase and irrigation will
be required to provide increasing share of total food production to meet the growing food
demand (Rosegrant and Ringler 1998).
In SSA, inadequate growth in food production and increasing water scarcity pose
serious challenges to future agricultural and economic development. Moreover, semi-arid
and arid areas are home to about one-sixth of the world’s population. Inadequate water is
the principal cause of poverty in these areas. Water demand for domestic and industrial uses
is also projected to grow even faster than agricultural water demand, especially in developing
countries (Shiklomanov 1998; Rosegrant et al. 1999). Accordingly, water for food has been
identified as a critical challenge for society in the 21st century.
However, water scarcity is not necessarily caused by inadequate rainfall, but by lack of
conservation, and sustainable management and use of the available water. Even in the
MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop 169
Policies and institutions to enhance the impact of irrigation development in mixed crop–livestock systems
1. A distinction can be drawn between water withdrawal and water consumption. Water withdrawal refers to
water removed from a source, some of which may be returned to it and reused. Water consumption refers
to the water withdrawn from the source and actually consumed or lost to seepage, contamination, or a
‘sink’ where it cannot be economically reused.
so-called dry regions, rainwater is available in abundance. For example, the International
Water Management Institute (IWMI) estimates that the total renewable water resources in
SSA are about 4000 km
3
per year. However, most of it evaporates or flows into saline sinks
before it is put into beneficial use, mainly due to the difficulty posed by the nature of
rainfall. The rain is very poorly distributed in both spatial and temporal terms. The critical
challenge is, therefore, how to deal with the poor distribution of rainwater leading to short
periods of too much water and flooding, and long periods of too little water. There is a need
for the development, adaptation and application of innovative technologies and
management strategies for more efficient conservation and use of rainwater, surface and
groundwater.
The challenges arising due to increasing water scarcity can be addressed through two
strategies: supply management (policies and actions to locate, develop and exploit new
sources of water for irrigation, household and industrial uses) and demand management
(incentives and mechanisms that promote efficient use and conservation of water).
2
In Ethiopia, despite an estimated potential of 1–3.5 million hectares
3
of irrigable land,
only about 5–10% is currently estimated to be under irrigation. Modern water development
in Ethiopia started during the imperial regime in the 1950s, with large-scale irrigation
schemes and hydro-electric power projects. The large-scale irrigation projects were intended
to supply agricultural raw materials for the agro-processing sector and for export. These
large-scale projects were nationalised in 1975 by the military regime, and handed over to the
Ministry of State Farms. The focus of both the imperial and military regimes was on
large-scale irrigation projects.
Unlike its predecessors, the Government of the Ethiopian Peoples’ Revolutionary
Democratic Front (EPRDF), since it assumed power in 1991, has given strong emphasis for
small-scale irrigation development in the country. However, the history of irrigation
development in Ethiopia has been characterised as one that considered irrigation
development mainly as a technical or engineering issue. Policy, institutional and social
factors were not accorded due consideration in the design, implementation and operation
of irrigation projects. This paper intends to present and discuss important policy and
institutional issues that need to be considered in research and capacity building for water
resource development in Ethiopia.
Irrigation development in Ethiopia
There are various estimates of the irrigation potential in Ethiopia. These estimates range
from 1.0 to 3.5 million hectares of irrigable land, of which between 160–190 thousand
hectares (5–10%) is estimated to be currently irrigated. About 65 thousand hectares is
estimated to be under traditional irrigation (MoWR 1997). Per capita irrigated area is also
170 MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop
Berhanu Gebremedhin and Peden
2. Policies and actions that affect the quantity and quality of water at the entry point to the distribution system
are classified as supply management, while actions that influence the use or management of water after this
point are considered as demand management (UNDTC 1991; World Bank 1994)
3. The wider range of estimated irrigation potential indicates the lack of precise estimate of irrigable areas in
the country.
estimated at about 35 m
2
, compared with the world average of 450 m
2
. About 352 thousand
hectares of land is said to be irrigable using small-scale irrigation schemes.
Modern water development schemes are recent phenomena in Ethiopia. The imperial
government in the 1950s took the first initiative in water resource development. Large-scale
water development projects both for agricultural purposes and power generation were
constructed at the end of the 1950s. These developments were concentrated in the Awash
Valley as part of the agro-industrial enterprises development initiative. Water resource
development at that time gradually expanded to the Rift Valley and the Wabi Shebele basin.
The government’s focus of water resource development was on large-scale and high
technology water projects. At the beginning of the 1970s, about 100 thousand hectares of
land was estimated to be under modern irrigation in Ethiopia, about 50% of which was
located in the Awash Valley (Wetterhall 1972). During the imperial regime, the main
objective of irrigation was to provide industrial crops to the growing agro-industries in the
country, many of which were controlled by foreign interests, and to increase export
earnings. Main crops grown were sugarcane, cotton, sesame, fruits and vegetables.
Management and operational problems that resulted in salinity and water logging problems
are said to have put thousands of irrigated land out of production in the Awash Valley in the
1980s after less than five years of cultivation (Mahmud 1997).
All large-scale irrigation schemes that were constructed during the imperial regime were
nationalised by the military government in 1975, and handed over to the Ministry of State
Farms. Most of the landlord based small-scale irrigation schemes were also handed over to
producer co-operatives. The military government, like the imperial regime, was keen to
develop large-scale water projects and its focus was on commercial farming. High technology
water development schemes were managed by the nationalised agro-industrial and
agricultural enterprises. However, little attention was given to small-scale and traditional
irrigation schemes constructed and managed by smallholder farmers.
It was only during the second half of the 1980s, after the devastating famine of 1984/85
that the Derg regime started to show interest in small-scale water development schemes
(MOA 1986; Tahal Consulting Engineers 1988). This interest was signalled by the
establishment of the Irrigation Development Department (IDD) within the Ministry of
Agriculture (MOA) in 1984, a department that was entrusted with the task of developing
small-scale irrigation projects that would benefit smallholder farmers. However, IDD’s
performance was slow, only 35 small-scale projects were constructed between 1984 and
1991, of which about one-third were improved traditional irrigation schemes (MOA 1993).
Moreover, small-scale irrigation development was considered as ‘infrastructure
development’ and grouped with rural roads and similar construction teams, and largely
staffed with engineering personnel.
Like the imperial regime, the military government’s focus was on commercial farming
and smallholder beneficiaries were excluded. Despite the long success of farmer-managed
traditional
4
irrigation systems, the military regime destroyed this tradition by confiscating
MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop 171
Policies and institutions to enhance the impact of irrigation development in mixed crop–livestock systems
4. In Ethiopia, there are four different types of small-scale irrigation systems used by farmers: diversion systems
(diverting natural river flow), spate systems (systems that make use of occasional flood flows), spring systems
(that use flows from springs) and storage systems (that store water behind dams), and lift systems (which
extract water from rivers, irrigation canals reservoirs and wells). Diversion systems are probably the most
common forms of small-scale irrigation systems in Ethiopia, although there may be regional variations.
them and handing them over to producers’ co-operatives. The lessons from the experiences
and failures of irrigation development during the imperial and military regimes indicate
that a pluralistic approach to water development and active involvement of beneficiaries in
the design and implementation of water development projects, and management of
operational schemes could have benefited smallholders better and contributed to the
national food production.
The focus on large-scale irrigation development and the neglect of small-scale schemes
was reversed when the Ethiopian Peoples’ Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF) took
power in 1991. The EPRDF government put the development of small-scale irrigation
schemes and improvement of farmer-managed traditional schemes at the forefront of its
water development policy. Moreover, with the creation of the Ministry of Water Resources
(MoWR), there is now a unified public agency for water resources development.
In 1994, IDD was dissolved while the government’s interest in small-scale irrigation
remained very high, as manifested by the creation of the Regional Commissions for
Sustainable Agriculture and Environmental Rehabilitation (Co-SAERs) in a number of
regions. The primary mandate of the Co-SAERs has been to promote small-scale irrigation
for the benefit of smallholders. However, like IDD the focus of the Co-SAERs also remained
rather technical-oriented, with inadequate attention accorded to policy, socio-economic
and institutional issues. However, there have been significant improvements in beneficiary
participation compared with during the military regime.
In sum, irrigation development planning in Ethiopia has been beset by the emphasis on
the agronomic, engineering and technical aspects of water projects, with little consideration
to issues of management, beneficiary participation, availability of institutional support
services such as credit, extension and input supply, and marketing. The experience of
irrigation water development in the last five decades in Ethiopia suggest that several
measures need to be taken to support farmer-managed small-scale irrigation projects in
Ethiopia. These include enhancing and improving the efficiency of the traditional
irrigation systems such as:
• improving the durability of headworks
• making simple, cheap and environmentally friendly irrigation technologies such as hand
pumps and shallow tube wells available
• improving market access by building roads, price support and improving product quality
• developing appropriate extension and credit services, and input supply system and
• enhancing beneficiary participation in governance (establishment of working rules and
responsibilities) and management (running the day-to-day operation of projects).
The impact of irrigation development during the last decade appears to be mixed. Based
on a survey of 50 communities, 500 plots and more than 2000 plots in the highlands of
Tigray in 1998/99, irrigation was found to increase the intensity of input use, especially
labour, oxen, improved seeds and fertiliser (Pender and Berhanu 2002). Use of manure or
compost was about 50% more likely on irrigated plots than on rainfed plots, controlling for
other factors. By promoting increase in use of such inputs, irrigation contributes to
increased crop production. The predicted average impact of irrigation, based on the
predicted impacts of irrigation on use of inputs, was an 18% increase in crop production
relative to rainfed field plots. However, the impact of irrigation on the productivity of land
172 MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop
Berhanu Gebremedhin and Peden
management practices (i.e. the effect of irrigation controlling for use of inputs and practices)
was statistically insignificant. Thus the main impact of irrigation on crop production is
through promoting increased intensity of farming, rather than through increased
productivity of farming practices.
Similarly, in the Amhara highlands of Ethiopia, irrigation was associated with increased
intensification through greater use of fertility-improving technologies (fertiliser and
manure), and other purchased inputs (improved seed and pesticides), labour and draft
power (Benin et al. 2002). However, the impact of irrigation on the productivity of farming
practices, controlling for other factors was insignificant. The reason why irrigation failed to
improve the productivity of farming practices in both the highlands of Amhara and Tigray
deserves further and careful research on the technical, institutional, governance and
managerial aspects of irrigation. Such an investigation could provide important guidance
for policy and institutional intervention to enhance the impact of irrigation on
productivity, income and the natural resource base.
Policy and institutional research issues
A comprehensive irrigation development strategy should take into account the technical
requirements (e.g. equipment, spare parts, operation and maintenance), policy issues (e.g.
incentives, pricing, cost recovery), and institutional issues (e.g. farmer participation and
organisations, extension and credit services, marketing, governance and management of
water resource). Sectoral policies affecting water development should be harmonised. There
is a need to determine the appropriate mix and role of government and non-government
agencies, the private sector, communities and individuals in the effort to develop, control
and manage water resources. Institutional mechanisms need to be put in place to minimise
transaction costs and resolve conflicts.
In many developing countries, the success of irrigation systems is highly affected by
policy, institutional and social factors much more than technical issues (Beets 1990).
Hence, in this section we present and discuss important policy and institutional issues of
irrigation development that need to be considered in irrigation development strategies in
Ethiopia.
Demand and supply management for irrigation
water
To meet the challenges of increasing water scarcity, both more vigorous demand
management accompanied by comprehensive water policy reform to make better use of
existing supplies, and supply management involving the development and exploitation of
new water supplies will be required (Rosegrant and Perez 1997). The level of economic
development and the degree of water scarcity will determine the appropriate mix of supply
and demand management. At the current level of development and degree of water scarcity,
MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop 173
Policies and institutions to enhance the impact of irrigation development in mixed crop–livestock systems
most SSA countries will likely be primarily concerned with water supply augmentation.
However, demand management should not be ignored. With economic growth and
development, the competition for water increases thus raising the value of water, and the
benefit from and the role of demand management increases significantly.
Effective water demand management saves water in existing uses, increases the
economic efficiency of water use, improves water quality, and promotes environmentally
sustainable water use. With economic growth, a large share of water to meet new demand
must come from water saved from existing uses through comprehensive reform of water
policy. However, water reforms are challenged by the long-standing practices, and cultural
and religious beliefs that have treated water as a free good, and by entrenched interests that
benefit from the existing system of subsidies and administered allocation of water
(Rosegrant and Perez 1997).
As water scarcity increases, the supply of impounded or diverted water becomes
inelastic. As economies grow the demand for water delivery increases rapidly and the
competition for water among the different uses increases. Externality problems that were
not important with adequate water supply become increasingly important. All these factors
raise the value of water and the benefits from efficient allocation of water, thus possibly
shifting the likely balance of effort from supply management to demand management
(Randal 1981).
Policy instruments potentially applicable for water demand management include
(Bhatia et al. 1995):
1. enabling conditions, i.e. measures that modify the institutional and legal environment
of water delivery and use, including reform of water distribution systems and water laws,
assignment of water rights, and organisation and operation of water user associations
2. market-based incentives intended to directly influence the behaviour of water users
through incentive systems to conserve on water use. These may include pricing reform,
subsidy reduction, and development of water markets
3. non-market instruments, such as restriction quotas, license requirements, and pollution
controls
4. direct intervention including public conservation programmes, maintenance and repair
programmes, and infrastructure development.
Empirical evidence shows that farmers are price responsive in their use of irrigation
water, by use of less water on a given crop, adoption of water-conserving irrigation
technology, shifting of water application to more water efficient crops, and change in crop
mix to higher-valued crops (Gardner 1983; Rosegrant et al. 1995). The choice between
market, and non-market and administrative methods should be largely a function of which
approach is more cost-effective. Research is needed to determine which approach has a
relative advantage in specific country situations.
174 MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop
Berhanu Gebremedhin and Peden
Large vs. small-scale irrigation
Failures of large-scale irrigation projects in Africa abound. Construction costs as high as
US$ 40 thousand per hectare and estimated negative rates of return have been documented
(Rosegrant and Perez 1997). The high costs and negative rates of returns have been
primarily due to design and technical flaws, management failures, and political difficulties
(Rosegrant and Perez 1997). Inability of ministry and agency headquarters to respond in
time to field level problems, excessive centralisation of management taken away from
farmers, poor training and skill levels, uncontrolled overhead costs and rent-seeking are
some of the other reasons for the failure of large-scale irrigation schemes.
However, irrigation development in Africa has also documented successful large-scale
schemes. For example, efficient management, relatively low-cost infrastructure, low
operating costs, good technical design, availability of agronomically suitable crops and
cropping systems were cited as factors for success of large-scale irrigation systems in
Cameroon (Brown and Nooter 1992).
Since the 1980s, the widespread failures in large-scale irrigation systems have been used
to advocate future investment strategies based on small-scale irrigation systems. However,
failures and successes in both large- and small-scale systems have been observed in Africa.
Scale as such seems to be less important than the extent to which control is operated by the
farmers, and where systems are managed bureaucratically, the extent to which quality of
management is maintained and equitable distribution of income among farmers is
achieved. (Rosegrant and Perez 1997). Hence, it is not so much the size of the irrigation
system that determines its success, but a host of institutional, physical and technical factors.
Large-scale irrigation should be carefully assessed as a possibility for specific locations.
In general, small-scale systems may have advantages over large-scale systems. These
advantages include that small-scale technology can be based on farmers existing knowledge;
local technical, managerial and entrepreneurial skills can be used; migration or resettlement
of labour is not usually required; planning can be more flexible; social infrastructure
requirements are reduced; and external input requirements are lower (Underhill 1990).
However, these advantages may not be realised if the mode of implementation is not right.
Hence, a pluralistic strategy of irrigation water development needs to be pursued in
Africa. Large-scale projects need not be abandoned provided that they are carefully designed
and implemented; they have no significant environmental problems; participation of
beneficiaries in planning, operation and management is ensured; and they ensure benefits
to the surrounding population. However, there appears to be a consensus that small-scale
and user-based schemes have higher advantages, are less costly and more sustainable.
Direct vs. indirect investment strategies
Public investment strategies for the development of farmer-controlled small-scale irrigation
schemes, including the improvement of traditional schemes, can be categorised as direct
and indirect investment strategies (Coward 1986). In direct investment strategy,
government agencies are directly involved, using their own budget and staff, in the design,
MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop 175
Policies and institutions to enhance the impact of irrigation development in mixed crop–livestock systems
construction, and operation of new or improved irrigation facilities on the traditional
irrigation systems. These new or improved irrigation schemes will then be solely
government-controlled or co-managed with the communities. In the indirect investment
strategy, government agencies get involved through the provision to farmers of grants, loans
and technical expertise, to implement irrigation development on works owned and
controlled by individual users or group of users.
Experiences in South-East Asia indicate that the indirect approach may be superior,
since it leaves ownership and management of the system with traditional groups or
individuals, and often leads to complementary investment of local resources. Available
evidence in Africa also indicates that the indirect approach may be a preferable option to
assist farmer-controlled irrigation. In Nigeria, the successful fadama development
programme had several characteristics of the indirect investment approach. The availability
of small inexpensive petroleum pumps in the markets in Nigeria in the early 1980s enabled
farmers to replace their traditional water lifting devices. Following the success of the small
pumps, the government launched a National Fadama Development Project (NFDP).
Hence, high priority may need to be given to indirect investments for expansion of
farmer-controlled small-scale projects, especially in areas where potential for rainfed
agriculture is poor and risky. Initial grants or loans to establish economically sustainable
technologies, for example, for purchasing a small tube well, may be reasonable given the
absence or weakness of credit markets in much of Africa. Expansion of small-scale
farmer-controlled irrigation would have the additional benefit of developing farmer
experience not only with respect to the technological skills of operation, but also with
respect to the economic, social and institutional aspects of implementation. However,
research is needed to determine the strengths and weaknesses of the indirect investment
approaches in the specific country situation in Africa and to identify the cost-effective way of
implementing it.
Farmer vs. government-controlled irrigation schemes
There is much evidence that farmer-controlled small-scale irrigation has better performance
than government-controlled small-scale systems. The substantial farmer-controlled
small-scale irrigation sector that exists in many countries in Africa, often without
government support, indicates that these systems are economically viable. Areas under
farmer-controlled small-scale irrigation systems have grown rapidly over the past decades,
and account for large and growing share of irrigated area in SSA (Rosegrant and Perez
1997).
Water users associations or co-operatives, or private individuals manage the small-scale
farmer-controlled systems. Some of the factors that contributed to the relative success of
farmer-controlled small-scale irrigation systems include:
• use of simple and low-cost technology such as small pumps
• active involvement of farmers in project design and implementation
• availability of supporting infrastructure to permit access to inputs and markets to sell
surplus production and
176 MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop
Berhanu Gebremedhin and Peden
• generation of high and timely cash returns to farmers (Brown and Nooter 1992).
Farmer-controlled schemes can be group or individual-owned. Individual schemes are
owned and managed by individual owners. Private schemes are mainly small schemes that
make use usually of pumps and tube wells and are operated by the owners. Technology is
simple and management is less complicated. Some argue that private irrigation has good
potential in Africa and governments need to provide the necessary policy environment for
the expansion of private irrigation schemes.
In Asia, it is widely documented that private pump irrigation from ground and surface
water bodies is far more productive and profitable relative to public irrigation systems
(Kolavalli and Chicoine 1989; Dahwan 1990; Shah 1993). Several researchers have also
shown that private small-scale pump irrigation (from ground and surface water sources) is
much more productive than canal irrigation and is more financially viable and
self-governing.
However, pump irrigation, the most adapted private irrigation, is suitable only in areas
with sufficient ground water or along the banks of rivers or lakes. Unrestricted expansion of
private irrigation will also lead to the depletion of aquifers. Therefore, the scope of private
irrigation may be limited. Moreover, there are schemes that are better managed and
operated communally. In this case, group ownership and management becomes essential.
When irrigation schemes are collectively owned, schemes that balance all costs and
benefits for all people in a watershed and which provide secure water rights to beneficiaries
are most likely to gain long-term support. However, since water is vital for livelihoods, water
rights are the results of the interaction of state law, project regulations, religious laws and
values, and local institutions and norms (Meinzen-Dick and Bakke 2000). Formal laws may
not always coincide with peoples’ own perceptions of water rights and the ways in which
water has been managed at the local level, since property rights are only as strong as the
institutions that back them up (Meinzen-Dick and Bakke 2000). Local institutions are
important in translating water rights in actual access and use, since local institutions affect
the implementation and enforcement of rules. In some case local institutions can modify
formal laws. Hence, attention needs to be given to the mediating institutions that translate
water rights (from whatever source) into actual access to water. Research is needed to
understand the extent to which formal statutory laws regarding water rights are translated
into practice and the role of mediating local institutions.
Poverty and irrigation
When resources become scarcer, the poor and vulnerable in society are hard hit and suffer
most. Increased competition for water in agriculture and non-agricultural uses in
developing countries reduces the access to water for the rural poor, especially rural women.
Increased water scarcity also may lead to frequent conflict, loss of life and generally to the
marginalisation of the poor and powerless in terms of access to water.
Irrigation development may benefit the poor by raising labour productivity, promoting
the production of high-value crops, and the generation of farm and non-farm employment
opportunities, especially when increased production stimulates the local economy through
MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop 177
Policies and institutions to enhance the impact of irrigation development in mixed crop–livestock systems
backward and forward linkages (i.e. water systems can be used as ‘growth centres’ where
services, markets and employment are also stimulated). However, there does not seem to
exist a consensus on the impact of irrigation on poverty alleviation, in the absence of
targeted interventions aimed at benefiting the poor. The International Rice Research
Institute (IRRI)-led research in six villages in Madha Pradesh, India, found that incidence,
depth and severity of poverty were substantially lower in villages where there were irrigation
compared with rainfed villages (Janaiah et al. 2000), while similar studies in Myanmar
concluded that recent expansion of irrigation infrastructure in the 1990s has not increased
household income due to farmers’ inability to cope up with the economic and technical
demands of the new rice-based technologies (Gracia et al. 2000). Hence, targeted measures
to ensure that poor people are reached and gain from irrigation investments need to be on
the agenda at the earliest stages of scheme development. For example, water allocation
based on land size may reinforce the existing inequities in land distribution in the
distribution of water and water-created wealth. Irrigation may induce land transactions as
resource poor farmers may lease their land out. This may exacerbate income distribution
further.
Some research results also indicate that plot location in relation to the irrigation scheme
(head, middle and tail) may have implication for poverty alleviation. Moreover, irrigation
usually induces changes in crop choice and poor farmers usually grow low value crops.
Hence, targeted interventions to make inputs available to the poor are one option to
enhance the impact of irrigation in poverty alleviation. Representation in the water users
association (WUA) of the poor and women is one way to ensure that the interests of these
people are considered in irrigation water decision-making. A pro-poor approach to
irrigation development requires a good understanding of the relationship between water
and poverty and the causes of poverty, so that strategic poverty reducing interventions can
be identified.
Gender and irrigation
While playing a crucial role in many water and food related issues, women still tend to be
underrepresented in the decision-making fora. Gender issues in irrigation water
development need to be looked at three levels: farm/field level, association level, and
leadership level (van Koppen et al. 2002). At the farm level, gender performance of
irrigation projects need to address whether or not there are systematic gender-based
differences categorically engrained to water rights, irrigated land and associated obligations.
At the water users association
5
level, irrigation projects need to ensure that systematic
gender-based differences in the participation in these associations do not exit. At the
leadership level, irrigation schemes need to make sure that there are no systematic
gender-based exclusions from leadership positions of irrigation management. It is
important to note that the systematic gender bias at the field, water users association and
leadership levels may not necessarily be the result of formal laws or institutions. Informal
178 MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop
Berhanu Gebremedhin and Peden
5. Water users associations create formal and informal forums through which collective management of
irrigation schemes are implemented.
institutions based on local culture and religion could be important sources of systematic
gender bias. Social science research is required to identify systematic gender-based
exclusions or biases in irrigation schemes, and devise appropriate strategies to ensure
equitable representation and distribution of benefits.
Land use and management for better rainwater
conservation
Rainfed agriculture produces the highest proportion (over 60%) of food crops in the world.
Including livestock production, the contribution of rainfed agriculture to food and
commodity production is very high. Moreover, rainwater is the only source of agricultural
water for many rural poor.
Research results estimate that in many farming systems, more than 70% of the direct rain
falling on crop fields is lost as non-productive evaporation or flows into sinks before plants use
it. Hence, in rainfed agriculture wastage of rainwater is probably an important cause of low
yields or complete crop failure more than absolute shortage of cumulative seasonal rainfall.
For example, adoption of improved water conservation technologies in the Great Plains of the
USA have contributed to about 45% increase in average wheat yields, compared with the
contributions of improved varieties (30%) and fertiliser practices (5%).
The necessary technologies for overcoming loss of water in rainfed agriculture are soil
and water conservation practices. The principal requirement is the improvement of
infiltration, water holding capacity, and water uptake by plants. Conserving water on fields
for better use by crops results in win–win benefits converting erosion-causing runoff into
plant available soil water, and non-productive evaporation into productive transpiration.
Impact of land use and management for improved water conservation may have
beneficial effects for both upstream and downstream users. Upstream users may benefit due
to higher availability of water, which would otherwise be wasted as runoff. Downstream
users would be benefiting through the reduction of floods, sedimentation and a more
smooth flow of water throughout the year. Streams and springs may be better recharged if
water is conserved upstream, but this needs research to be confirmed.
Appropriate strategies need to be identified for dealing with climatic variability and
droughts, and identify the land use and management practices to reduce land-use related
degradation of surface water. Additional research is also needed to identify policy,
institutional and socio-economic factors that promote improved household and
community land use practices for better conservation of rainwater on fields.
Collective action and water users associations/
organisations
Identification of factors that facilitate the establishment and effectiveness of collective
action for irrigation development would help identify where collective action can easily be
MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop 179
Policies and institutions to enhance the impact of irrigation development in mixed crop–livestock systems
established and be effective, and where concerted effort is needed for the establishment and
effectiveness of collective action. Key research issues regarding collective action for
irrigation management include how people organise themselves with respect to water, what
consistent and detectable influences of policies and other instruments can be deployed to
modify stakeholder behaviour, and how experience in participatory research and extension
and common property management be used to facilitate local organisations for water
management. The best starting point perhaps is to learn from the success of traditional
irrigation systems, especially from the institutional and legal aspect of water administration
and management. Understanding the evolution, development and functioning of
traditional water users associations should provide important insights as to how to organise
and develop modern irrigation associations.
International experience with farmer irrigation management suggests that, for a
successful community management of irrigation schemes, the economic and financial costs
of sustainable self-management must be a small proportion of improved income, the
transaction cost of the organisation must be low, and irrigation must be central to the
improvement of livelihoods for a significant number of members. Developing local
leadership skills for irrigation management also appears to be a key factor for successful
collective irrigation management.
Conclusions and implications
Improved access to agricultural water supply plays critical role in the sustainable livelihoods
of rural people, since it increases yields and outputs, facilitates diversification, reduces
vulnerability and creates employment opportunities. In mixed crop–livestock systems,
irrigation increases feed supply through increased crop residues of food–feed crops, which
may reduce the pressure on grazing lands. Improved livestock productivity through better
availability of feeds has the potential to increase household income.
With population growth, the demand for agricultural water increases and competitions
with non-agricultural use intensifies. In SSA, inadequate growth in food production and
increasing water scarcity pose serious challenges to agricultural and economic development
in the 21st century, thus increasing the need for more efficient utilisation of water and the
development of new supply sources. Both water demand and supply management will be
increasingly required to mitigate the effects of water scarcity, although currently SSA
countries may need to focus more on supply management.
In Ethiopia, despite an estimated potential of irrigable land ranging from 1–3.5 million
hectares, only about 5–10% is estimated to be currently irrigated. Irrigation water
development in Ethiopia during the imperial and military regimes focused on the
development of large-scale irrigation schemes. The current government reversed this trend.
However, the history of irrigation development has been characterised by emphasis on
technical and engineering aspects, with inadequate attention accorded to policy,
institutional and socio-economic factors.
The lessons from the experience of irrigation development in SSA in general, and in
Ethiopia in particular, show that:
180 MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop
Berhanu Gebremedhin and Peden
• a pluralistic approach to water development (which includes carefully selected and
managed large-scale schemes, and farmer-managed small-scale projects)
• provision of supportive legal framework and secure water rights
• development of local management and leadership capacity and
• active involvement of beneficiaries in design, implementation and management of
schemes could enhance the impact of irrigation on farm household income, natural
resources management, and the local and national economies.
Project engineers should continuously interact with agronomists, economists and other
social scientists right from the beginning to prepare a comprehensive ex ante evaluation of
irrigation projects.
Moreover, policy and institutional interventions to enhance the impact of irrigation
also need to be based on the objective of enhancing the wealth-creating potential of
small-holder irrigated farming by strengthening market access, promoting high-value crops,
and improving systems for providing extension and technical support to small-holder
irrigation. The best place to start perhaps is to ensure access to farm inputs and produce
markets. A wider menu of irrigation technologies need to be available for farmers to choose
from, so that farmers would respond more flexibly to irrigation development opportunities.
Although public agencies may need to be directly involved in investing in selected
large-scale projects, high priority needs to be given to indirect investment strategy through
the provision to farmers of grants, loans and technical assistance for the development of
small-scale farmer managed irrigation schemes. Such an indirect investment strategy
empowers farmers by providing ownership and management of the system, and leads to
complementary investment of local resources.
There does not seem to be a consensus on the impact of irrigation on poverty alleviation
in the absence of targeted interventions aimed at ensuring that the poor are reached and
gain from irrigation development. For example, allocation of water rights based on land size
may exacerbate existing inequities in income distribution. Hence, when the objective is
poverty alleviation, targeted measures to ensure that the poor and vulnerable benefit needs
to be incorporated at the earlier stages of scheme development.
Gender issues are also important in irrigation water development, since often women
get underrepresented in the decision-making fora. Gender issues in irrigation development
need to be considered at three levels:
• field level, to ensure the allocation of water and land rights, and associated
responsibilities do not involve systematic gender-based differences;
• water users association level, to ensure that there are no gender-based exclusions from
participation; and
• leadership level, to ensure that equal opportunities exist for leadership positions.
In rainfed agriculture, lack of conservation and efficient use of rainwater is probably
more important than absolute shortage of water in determining crop yields or total crop
failure. Conserving water on fields through changes in land use and management results in
a win–win benefits by converting runoff into plant available soil moisture, which would
otherwise result in soil erosion or possible flooding, and non-productive evaporation into
productive plant transpiration.
MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop 181
Policies and institutions to enhance the impact of irrigation development in mixed crop–livestock systems
Understanding the factors that facilitate farmer organisations to manage irrigation
water, and its effectiveness would help devise strategies to facilitate the development and
effectiveness of local organisation for water management. The best starting point perhaps is
to learn from the evolution, development, operation and success of traditional water users
associations, to gain insights for the development of modern water management
organisations.
Secure land rights are critical for farmers to invest in irrigation technologies and
maintenance. Moreover, land allocation around irrigation schemes is an issue that deserves
careful analysis, since it will have direct effect on income distribution. Perhaps, such land
allocation programmes may need to be based on the determination of minimum land size
for profitable farming. In cases where irrigation development displaces local people,
compensation and resettlement provisions need to be part of the scheme development
planning right from the early stages.
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Water harvesting in northern Ethiopia:
Environmental, health and socio-economic
impacts
Mintesinot Behailu
1
and Mitiku Haile
2
1. Assistant Professor and Vice President, Mekelle University, Mekelle, Ethiopia
2. Associate Professor and President, Mekelle University, Mekelle, Ethiopia
Abstract
In northern Ethiopia, water scarcity is a key factor in food security. In some areas, the water
is so precious that the principle of ‘irrigating the crop and not the land’ is adopted in an
attempt to curb rural exodus. In other areas, considerable effort is put to introduce
innovative water harvesting and management systems. The introduction of small-scale
irrigation using micro-dams has become an excellent option considering the
hydro-climatological conditions of the region.
In Tigray, over the last 10 years, about 50 micro-dams were constructed; consequently,
considerable improvements were observed in the livelihood of the rural poor. Water
security brought food security. Some negative impacts are being observed especially on soil
salinity and erosion. Malaria has become a growing concern in micro-dam areas with
altitude lower than 2000 metres above sea level (masl).
In general, the positive and negative impacts of micro-dam water harvesting systems
need to be well understood before further up-scaling. Research should focus on system
design, farm hydrology, socio-economic constraints and systems transferability.
Introduction
Although several definitions of water harvesting (WH) have been suggested, Siegert (1994)
gave the most encompassing definition as: ‘…an umbrella term describing a range of
methods of collecting and conserving various forms of water originating from ephemeral
water flows produced during rainstorms’. The aim of water harvesting is to mitigate the
effects of temporal shortages of rain, so-called dry spells, to cover both household needs and
productive use. This involves storage component and various forms of storage exist such as:
micro-dams, farm ponds, subsurface dams, tanks etc.
Water scarcity is a critical issue for many developing countries in general and for those in
the arid to semi-arid areas of the world in particular. It has long been understood that
intensive water resource development can have a decisive role in the economic and social
development of a country and in alleviating drought. Alleviating food security related to
MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop 185
drought and famine through sustainable agriculture and environmental rehabilitation
requires a short- and long-term planning of water resource development of an area.
In northern Ethiopia, in an effort to address the problems of recurrent drought, famine
and food insecurity, attempts are being made to harvest runoff water in micro-dams for use
both in households and small-scale irrigation schemes. It is recognised that the construction
of micro-dams with proper irrigation and agronomic services will result in micro-climatic
and environmental changes with positive impact on sustained productivity.
Notwithstanding the positive impacts on increased agricultural productivity and
improved community welfare, the negative impacts of water resource development require
constant assessment and monitoring on environmental changes.
Thus, the objectives of this paper are to present:
• the positive and negative impacts of water harvesting and
• the knowledge gap and research priorities in water harvesting.
The study area
General description
Tigray is the northernmost region of Ethiopia extending from 12°15’ to 14°50’N latitude
and from 36°27’ to 39°59’E longitude. It is bound in the north by Eritrea, to the west by The
Sudan and to the east and south by the Afar and Amhara regions of Ethiopia. It covers a
little more than 80 thousand km
2
, most of which are highlands between 1500 and 3900
metres above sea level (masl).
Tigray’s economy, like the other parts of the country, is based on plow cultivation for
predominantly cereal production. The level of subsistence, except for periods of good rains,
has declined radically during the past decade, with almost everything produced being
consumed at the farm household level.
Tigray’s agriculture depends entirely on availability of rainfall; because of this,
agricultural production is erratic, showing high temporal and spatial variability in yield.
Agricultural production operates with very low modern external input, resulting in
depletion of soil nutrients. Increasing loss of topsoil through erosion has exposed the region
to serious environmental and ecological imbalances.
The agrarian system is pressed with a fast accelerating population growth and a high
arable land to population density, which far exceeds the carrying capacity of the land.
Recurrent drought, pest infestation and unfavourable climatic factors contribute to poor
production performances. The inevitable result of these prevailing conditions has been a
gradual and steady decline in soil and labour productivity.
A major means of rehabilitating and reconstructing the natural resource base is through
water resource development. That water is the single most critical variable in Tigray’s
agricultural production has been long recognised.
186 MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop
Mintesinot Behailu and Mitiku Haile
Sustainable agricultural and environmental
rehabilitation programme
Having realised the need to have a comprehensive rural development programme, the
regional government, in 1994, decided to establish a sustainable agricultural and
environmental rehabilitation programme. Through this programme, water harvesting was
seen as an option and hence was planned to construct 500 earthen micro-dams over 10 years
to supply 200 thousand tonnes of grain equivalent enough to feed 930 thousand people
who, without the project, would almost surely depend on food aid.
Of the estimated 1.2 million hectares of arable land, 95% is under rainfed cultivation.
Since 1995, through the massive irrigation development, about 50 micro-dams (each with a
capacity to hold about 50,000–2,000,000 m
3
of water), and 11 diversion plants have been
constructed in drought prone areas giving an increase of 2000 ha of irrigated land only.
Additional impacts anticipated from the environmental rehabilitation programme
were: degraded areas show signs of recovery, while millions of seedlings planted as a means
to biological soil conservation will result in forest products. Availability of forage for
livestock will improve sustainability. With storage and utilisation of seasonal surface runoff
water, many prevailing social and economic problems should be alleviated; decreased
women’s burdensome and time-consuming responsibilities for fetching water and thus
improve women and children welfare. Furthermore, the introduction of fisheries could
improve the diet of the community and serve as a supplementary source of income to
families.
Water harvesting and irrigation management
In Tigray, a major means of rehabilitating and reconstructing the natural resource base is
through comprehensive water harvesting development. Thus, water security through runoff
harvesting has been chosen as a strategy to curb the acute water shortage in the region.
Farmers in Tigray have been producing different crops under traditional irrigation
management for a long time. The diversion of perennial streams using temporary structures
during the dry season is the major means of irrigation. In addition, flood spreading using
runoff water from higher altitudes and upper catchment areas is also practised.
Horticultural crops and maize are the main crops grown under these irrigation schemes.
Materials and methods
A study to document the effects of micro-dam water harvesting on the socio-economic,
environmental and health aspects was undertaken by Mekelle University and Tigray Region
Health Bureau.
MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop 187
Water harvesting in northern Ethiopia: Environmental, health and socio-economic impacts
For the impact on health, 7000 children living in villages near to dams (less than 2 km
radius) and away from dams (more than 2 km radius) were monitored for the incidences of
malaria and schistosomiasis over three years (Tedros et al. 1999).
For the environmental impact assessment, salinity of soil and irrigation water was
monitored over four years (Mitiku and Sorsa 2002). A survey was also undertaken through
semi-structured questionnaires to analyse the perception of farmers to land degradation (as
a result of catchment erosion and subsequent sedimentation in reservoirs). In addition,
studies reveal that a reservoir water quality is deteriorated following biological
contaminants.
For the socio-economic impact assessment, a study was undertaken using
semi-structured questionnaire to see the economic returns of water harvesting in small dams
used for irrigation (Mintesinot 2002).
Results and discussion
Environmental impact assessment
Most dams were constructed without prior rehabilitation of the catchments. Thus, one
serious environmental problem is erosion of catchments leading to increased
sedimentation, which reduces the storage capacity of the reservoirs. In some dams, the
situation is so severe that periodical excavation is becoming necessary. One opportunity is
that farmers are well aware of the problem and are willing to invest in sustainable land and
water management interventions (Mitiku and Sorsa 2002).
Another serious environmental impact is the introduction of salinity to the irrigated
schemes. With the current water management practice (furrow management without
appropriate scheduling), the absence of well-designed drainage ditches and very high clay
content, salinity hazard is imminent. The level of salinity in some schemes has reached a
situation where serious impacts are being observed both on crops and soils.
The pattern of salt distribution was studied by taking a transect and results have shown
that the salt content of irrigated fields nearer to the embankments were generally higher
than fields either in the centre or at the tail end. This, according to Mitiku and Sorsa (2002),
is attributed to the high seepage loss from the nearby embankments.
Although not as such wide spread incidence, there was also biological contamination
observed in the reservoirs of some dams. The watercolour in the reservoirs changes from a
normal blue green to deep red/brown. This change was so homogenous that a suspended
powder pigment was observed. Water quality studies revealed that the incidence was a
biological contamination caused by bacteria known as Myxobacteria, a Polyangiaceae genus.
The bacteria are mainly active cellulose decomposers that widely occur in soils and
water. They are capable of forming fruiting bodies, which can survive for a long time under
unfavourable conditions. The study has continued to identify the original sources but
preliminary findings show that similar biological structures are found within livestock dung
around the dams.
188 MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop
Mintesinot Behailu and Mitiku Haile
Health impact assessment
The impact of prolonged available surface water in newly developed irrigation areas is on
water and vector-borne diseases. Areas that were periodically affected by malaria and
schistosomiasis are exposed to continued year round attack. Peak transmission that
coincides with seasonal onset of the big and small rains in the region will be prolonged to
other months, which were relatively free of malaria. Mosquitoes and snails have an ideal
environmental situation to breed.
Health studies (Tedros et al. 1999) revealed that villagers living near to dams that are
built in altitudes lower than 2000 masl are faced with increased risk of malaria incidence.
Incidence surveys conducted showed a seven-fold increased risk for children. Some of the
documented risk factors were open caves, keeping animals in living houses and earthen
roofs.
Identification of such local risk factors for malaria is important for the planning of
malaria control (Tedros et al. 1999). To mitigate the risk of malaria, insecticide impregnated
bed-nets were distributed to near micro-dams village under a cost-recovery scheme. Malaria
incidence was then measured and the risk was reduced to less than two-fold.
Studies on the incidence of schistosomiasis revealed that the overall prevalence of
infection was 39% for children and 48% for adults (Tedros et al. 1999). The effectiveness of
endod (phytolacca dodecandra) in controlling snail is currently under investigation.
Socio-economic impacts
Irrigation development aims to bring about increased agricultural production and
consequently to improve the economic and social well-being of the rural population.
Studies on household income by irrigation (Mintesinot 2002) revealed that irrigation users,
on average, have three-fold increase in income compared with those that solely depend on
rainfed cultivation.
The same study indicated that irrigation compounded with rainfed cultivation ensures
year-round food security, although, off-farm employment during part of the year is a
common practice to obtain extra money.
Conclusion
With the growing demand for daily food and continued struggle to achieve long-term food
security, there is a dire need to maximise the productivity of both land and water. Inputs to
land may improve land productivity but inputs to water may not change the productive
capacity of water. Improving the water security through increasing the water use efficiency
(more crop per drop!) can however result in higher productivity.
The issue of water security in Tigray (northern Ethiopia) is addressed through the
extensive water harvesting endeavours underway. The positive and negative impacts of this
effort are, however, little understood.
MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop 189
Water harvesting in northern Ethiopia: Environmental, health and socio-economic impacts
Farmers living in the vicinity of micro-dams are aware of the problem of land
degradation. They understand the effect of sedimentation on the reduced capacity of
micro-dams to store water to be used for irrigation. Apparently, they are willing to invest in
land management systems that are sustainable, productive and effective in reducing
sediment load.
Health studies indicated that villagers living near micro-dams that are built in the
lowlands (<2000 masl) are faced with the risk of increased incidences of malaria.
Community participation in draining excess water that can be a breeding ground for
mosquitoes coupled with the use of impregnated bednets has decreased the incidence of
malaria. Credit schemes are important avenues to undertake this venture. The major point
of departure is the benefit that is obtained from the use of the irrigation schemes. In the
schemes where economic benefits are obtained the farmers are willing to pay for the extra
cost of prevention of malaria (Lampietti et al. 1999)
Knowledge gaps and future avenues
Despite the vast knowledge and experiences accumulated in the field of water harvesting,
there are still large gaps in research that need to be filled. Some of the reasons for the poor
research in water resources could be attributed to:
• no institutional responsibility as such exists to take up research on sustainable water
resource development
• limited and/or very scattered capacity (trained manpower) available to undertake
interdisciplinary research
• very few institutions available to offer specialised training in water resource
development.
Of the many research topics in micro-dam water harvesting, the following thematic areas
are prioritised:
• hydrology at farm level
• upstream/downstream effects of water harvesting
• water productivity in agriculture
• water pricing
• co-operatives under smallholder irrigation managements
• soil–plant–water relationship.
To address the main causes for the limited attention in water resource research and
capacity building:
1. there needs to be mandate sharing among the various institutions (governmental
organisations and non-governmental organisations, NGO’s) for research in water
resources (basin-level, small-scale…)
2. higher learning institutions should play the needed role to meet the capacity building
needs of water sciences.
190 MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop
Mintesinot Behailu and Mitiku Haile
What does Mekelle University have to offer?
There is a faculty of dryland agriculture that gives a degree level training in land resources
management and environmental sciences. Through this programme, many courses are
being offered in areas of water sciences. In addition, periodical short-term trainings are
organised for stakeholders in areas of water harvesting, irrigation management and soil and
water conservation.
Apart from this, multi-disciplinary research is being undertaken in areas of small dams:
water productivity, socio-economics, and health aspects. In partnership with the
International Water Management Institute (IWMI) and the Ministry of Water Resources
(MoWR), a study has been launched to apply PODIUM (policy dialogue model) to develop
various scenarios for future water needs (for food production, people and the environment)
at both basin and national level. New studies are also being launched in areas of community
water management (in collaboration with the International Livestock Research Institute
(ILRI), the Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organization (EARO) and MoWR and on
malaria in small dams (with IWMI). There is already a network available, but this needs to be
strengthened.
References
Lampietti J.A., Christine P., Maureen L.C. and Mitiku Haile. 1999. Gender and preferences for malaria
prevention in Tigray, Ethiopia. Gender and Development 3. World Bank, Washington, DC, USA.
Mintesinot Behailu. 2002. Assessment and optimisation of traditional irrigation of vertisols in
northern Ethiopia: A case study at Gumselasa micro-dam using maize as an indicator crop. Gent
12:203.
Mitiku Haile and Sorsa Natea. 2002. The experience of water harvesting in the drylands of Ethiopia.
Workshop proceeding. Deutschen Cichliden Gesellschaft (DCG) report 19. DCG, Bonn,
Germany.
Tedros A.G., Mitiku Haile, Karen H.W., Asfaw Getachew, Ambachew M., Mekonnen Y., Hailay D.,
Steven W.L. and Peter B. 1999. Incidence of malaria among children living near dams in
northern Ethiopia. British Medical Journal 319:663–666.
MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop 191
Water harvesting in northern Ethiopia: Environmental, health and socio-economic impacts
Promoting global watershed management
towards rural communities: The May
Zeg-zeg initiative
J. Nyssen,
1,2*
Mitiku Haile,
1
K. Descheemaeker,
3
J. Deckers,
3
J. Poesen,
2
J. Moeyersons
4
and Trufat Hailemariam
5
1. Department of Land Resources Management and Environmental Protection, Mekelle University, Mekelle,
Ethiopia
2. Laboratory for Experimental Geomorphology, K.U. Leuven, Redingenstraat 16, B-3000 Leuven, Belgium
3. Institute for Land and Water Management, K.U. Leuven, Vital Decosterstraat 102, B-3000 Leuven,
Belgium
4. Royal Museum for Central Africa, B-3080 Tervuren, Belgium
5. Department of Applied Geology, Mekelle University, Mekelle, Ethiopia
* Corresponding author
Abstract
To fight land degradation, the regional government of Tigray (which is the northernmost
and driest region of the Ethiopian highlands) has initiated many conservation programmes,
i.e. massive introduction of stone bunds to reduce runoff, check dams in gullies and cattle
exclosures on steep slopes (Gaspart et al. 1997; Kebrom et al. 1997; Bosshart 1998; Nyssen
1998; Berhanu et al. 1999; Herweg and Ludi 1999; Vagen et al. 1999; Nyssen et al. 2000a;
Nyssen et al. 2000b; Nyssen et al. 2001).
In 1998, a research project on ‘Desertification and anthropogenic erosion processes in a
tropical mountain catchment: Tigray, Ethiopia’ was initiated in the region to address
fundamental research questions linked to land and water management. In the course of this
project, it became clear that a given conservation technique was successful in some areas,
but failed completely in others. For instance, gully check dams are successful at some sites,
but fail completely in other pedo-topographic conditions. For these reasons, in 2001 an
applied participatory research programme on watershed management (Zala-Daget project)
has been set up in the Dogu’a Tembien District.
A broad scientific base has thus been constituted on problems of watershed
management in this district; local authorities and farmers would like this knowledge to be
used for watershed management in co-operation with the local Agricultural Office and
administration at different levels. The farmers of the district are very active participants in
soil and water conservation activities, and many of them involved in the previous and
current research projects.
Researchers involved in the projects hope to be able to start a new project, called ‘The
integrated May Zeg-zeg watershed management initiative’. This project aims at
192 MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop
demonstrating and promoting global watershed management towards rural communities
in the highlands of northern Ethiopia.
To achieve this objective two initiatives will be taken:
1. installation of a sustainably managed demonstration catchment of 400 ha and
2. elaboration of a capacity building and awareness raising programme regarding
integrated watershed management.
Even if rainfall conditions in the Ethiopian highlands improved, drought and famine
remain due to the erratic nature of rainfall and the low infiltration capacity of the soil
(Conway 2000). A recent study shows that 54% of the farmers in the village of Hechi, in the
lower part of the project catchment consider water availability as their main problem (Figure
1) (Naudts 2002). Another major issue for the farmers, fodder production, will also be
directly addressed by the project, through the agroforestry component.
Although there have been many initiatives for water conservation in Tigray
(implementation of exclosures and stone bunds at a large scale, agroforestry trials), until
now these techniques were never brought together and managed in a complete catchment,
thus demonstrating the advantages brought by integrated watershed management.
Furthermore, another innovative aspect of the project is that it includes an important, but
realistic, change in land use: abandonment of free grazing system and change to no or
controlled grazing.
MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop 193
Promoting global watershed management towards rural communities
43%
27%
11%
8%
8%
3%
Lack of water for cropping Lack of land for young farmers
Access to drinking water for humans and cattle Lack of cattle fodder
Decreased soil productivity Financial problems
Source: After Naudts (2002).
Figure1. Answers to the question ‘Which is the main problem for the farmers in your village?’, in Hechi (n = 37).
Taking into account the broad scientific knowledge on which the May Zeg-zeg initiative
is based, and the longstanding co-operation between the community and the different
partners, we feel sure that this initiative will be successful with the installation of a
sustainably managed demonstration catchment, which will serve for a capacity building and
awareness raising programme regarding integrated watershed management.
Acknowledgements
This paper benefited a lot from input by numerous farmers of the study area, from Berhanu
G/Medhin (Research Assistant at the International Livestock Research Institute, ILRI),
local authorities of Mikael Awhi, Ayni Birkekn, Hagere Selam tabias and Dogu’a Tembien
woreda, staff of Dogu’a Tembien Agricultural and REST (Relief Society of Tigray) offices,
and from fellow researchers (Jef Naudts, Helga Vandenreyken, Nigussie Haregeweyn and
Desta Gebremichael).
References
Berhanu Gebremedhin, Swinton S. and Yibabe Tilahun. 1999. Effects of stone terraces on crop
yields and farm profitability: Results of on-farm research in Tigray, northern Ethiopia. Journal of
Soil and Water Conservation 54(3):568–573.
Bosshart U. 1998. Catchment discharge and suspended sediment transport as indicators of the
performance of physical soil and water conservation in Ethiopian highlands. Advances in
GeoEcology 31:403–413.
Conway D. 2000. Some aspects of climate variability in the North-East Ethiopian highlands—Wollo
and Tigray. Sinet: Ethiopian Journal of Science 23(2):139–161.
Gaspart F., Jabbar M., Mélard C. and Platteau J.-Ph. 1997. Participation in the construction of a local
public good: A case study of watershed management in the Ethiopian highlands. Cahiers de la
Faculté des Sciences économiques, sociales et de gestion de Namur, Série Recherche. 181, 23 pp.
Herweg K. and Ludi E. 1999. The performance of selected soil and water conservation
measures—Case studies from Ethiopia and Eritrea. Catena 36(1–2):99–114.
Kebrom Tekle, Backeus I., Skoglund J. and Zerihun Woldu. 1997. Vegetation on hillslopes in
southern Wello, Ethiopia: Degradation and regeneration. Nordic Journal of Botany
17(5):483–493.
Naudts J. 2002. Les Hautes Terres de Tembien, Tigré, Ethiopie; Dislocation et persistance d’une
ancienne civilisation agraire; Conséquences sur la dégradation des terres. Mémoire présenté en
vue de l’obtention du Diplôme d’Agronomie Tropicale. CNEARC, Montpellier, France. 147 pp.
Nyssen J. 1998. Soil and water conservation under changing socio-economic conditions in the
Tembien highlands (Tigray, Ethiopia). Bull. de la Société géographique de Liège 35:5–17.
Nyssen J., Mitiku Haile, Moeyersons J., Poesen J. and Deckers J. 2000a. Soil and water conservation
in Tigray (northern Ethiopia): The traditional daget technique and its integration with
introduced techniques. Land Degradation and Development 11(3):199–208.
Nyssen J., Poesen J., Mitiku Haile, Moeyersons J. and Deckers J. 2000b. Tillage erosion on slopes with
soil conservation structures in the Ethiopian highlands. Soil and Tillage Research 57(3):115–127.
194 MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop
Nyssen et al.
Nyssen J., Mitiku Haile, Poesen J., Deckers J. and Moeyersons J. 2001. Removal of rock fragments
and its effect on soil loss and crop yield, Tigray, Ethiopia. Soil Use and Management 17:179–187.
Vagen T.G., Yibabe Tilahun and Esser K. 1999. Effects of stone terracing on available phosphorus
and yields on highly eroded slopes in Tigray, Ethiopia. Journal of Sustainable Agriculture
15(1):61–74.
MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop 195
Promoting global watershed management towards rural communities: The May Zeg-zeg initiative
Small-scale irrigation development
in the wetlands of South-West Ethiopia
Taffa Tulu
Ambo College of Agriculture, Ambo, Ethiopia
Abstract
The basic problem of water distribution in the world is the temporal and spatial differences
that exist in the supply and demand of water. The general solution of this problem lies in
adjusting water supply and demand so that the demand will always be smaller than or equal
to the supply. Storage of water is one of the most useful methods for changing the amplitude
and phase of the water supply. Such storage of water can be carried out only through
knowledge of the water resources of the region being considered. Water resource potential
is said to be abundant in Ethiopia but still difficult and expensive to exploit. A rational
management and development of water resources is required to effectively and efficiently
utilise water resources to achieve food self-sufficiency and food security. With this
background, it is essential to develop a small-scale irrigation system. Harnessing some of the
sizable rivers can produce some medium- to small-sized irrigation projects. Data were
collected to show some preliminary figures about irrigated and potentially irrigable areas for
some regions in West Shewa. Using a deterministic hydrologic model, the water balance of
four representative rivers in West Shewa were simulated and analysed. The simulation
showed that rainfed agriculture may be practised in West Shewa for seven months (March to
September), and the rest of the months should be supplemented with irrigation. This
implies the importance of the development of small-scale irrigation even in wet region. The
small-scale irrigation development will be beneficial for this region for (a) supporting the
realisation of food self-sufficiency and food security; (b) improving the living quality and
standard of the people through the provision of sustainable agriculture; and (c) enhancing
the contribution of irrigation in attaining national development priorities, programmes
and objectives.
Introduction
The growing intensity in the utilisation of water necessitates the assessment and control of
water resources. Better knowledge of the temporal and spatial variations of water supplies is
a precondition for the planning, investment and regulation of systems of water distribution.
The basic problem of water distribution of the world is the temporal and spatial differences
in the supply and demand of water. The general solution to this problem lies in adjusting
196 MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop
water supply and demand so that the demand will always be smaller than or equal to the
supply. Storage of water is one of the most useful methods for changing the amplitude and
phase of the water supply. Such storage of water can be carried out only through knowledge
of the water resources of the region being considered. The quantitative statement of the
balance between water gains and losses in a certain watershed during a specific period of
time is known as the water budget. The water balance equation makes use of the
outflow–inflow relation. A proper understanding of the role of water in agriculture requires
a careful analysis of the nation’s water budget.
Water resource potential is said to be abundant in Ethiopia but is still difficult and
expensive to exploit. Because of the highly erratic nature of rainfall in Ethiopia, drought is a
very serious social problem. The streams are difficult to dam for many reasons, among which
are: inadequate storage sites, extremely high seasonal flow during the big rain period, low
water retaining capacity, high sediment loads, and transportation of boulders during high
flow seasons. Considering the present status of irrigation development and management in
West Shewa, it is likely that irrigation has considerable potential to further increase in
agricultural production and the income of people in the irrigated areas, both through
construction of new projects and more efficient management of existing ones. While this
view is likely to be correct, analysis of the existing situation indicates that if irrigation is to
play a crucial role as an engine for further expansion of agricultural production, the
management and organisation of irrigation systems, including their institutional
implications, must be substantially improved.
Harnessing some of the sizable rivers can produce some medium- to small-sized
irrigation projects in West Shewa. These schemes will require surface water storage,
spillways and a network of main, secondary and tertiary canals. Investment costs are likely to
be high. These schemes may be economical if irrigation benefits are combined with
hydropower and flood control benefits. So far as technical aspects are considered, currently
insufficient geological and hydrological data are available for planning and constructing
large multi-purpose dams and reservoirs. Additional data will be necessary on
sedimentation rates, and how these may be influenced by the construction of dams. While
traditional irrigation has been practised for several decades, there is considerable need both
to expand the currently irrigated area and to improve the efficiency of existing systems.
There is no question that for the future economic development of the region, irrigation
development and management must play an important part. It should, however, be noted
that before major irrigation projects can be developed, the farmers should be well-oriented
on how to use the water resources.
Decision making in irrigation development
The choice of specific irrigation and water management methods must depend on the
support of all those affected by management changes. Participation of stakeholders is
fundamental in the planning process of small-scale irrigation. Planning involves deciding
which irrigation method and water management strategy to pursue from among a number
of possible options. This decision will not only be made at the beginning of a project but
MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop 197
Small-scale irrigation development in the wetlands of South-West Ethiopia
throughout its lifetime in response to monitoring and evaluation of project progress and
changes in the environmental system. The group of people who are responsible for
implementing them should make decisions. Decision can be made using three phases,
namely intelligence phase, design phase and choice phase. The intelligence phase is
concerned with identifying exactly what the problem is. The design phase sets the criteria by
which a decision will be made, identifies the options available and attempts to predict the
outcome of each option. The choice phase comprises the selection of the best option from
those available. Stakeholders can contribute to each of these phases in different ways. In the
intelligence phase, consultation with stakeholders is crucial as small-scale irrigation
development problems always relate in some way to water use by people. During the design
phase, stakeholders can help identify the options available and will be able to provide
information to help predict likely outcomes. Following the choice phase, it is important that
the decisions made are endorsed by as many stakeholders as possible, otherwise the
proposed plan will not receive the stakeholder support required to implement it.
Merits of small-scale irrigation
Small-scale irrigation is widespread and has a vital role to play in Ethiopia. The success of
small-scale systems is due to the fact that they are self-managed and dedicated to the felt
needs of local communities. Indeed, small-scale schemes are defined as schemes that are
controlled and managed by the users themselves. Traditional irrigation schemes make up
the most dominant form of small-scale irrigation in the region, and some of them are well
managed.
The main advantages of small-scale irrigation are:
• much lower investment costs, and in a majority of cases these costs are borne by the
community
• do not involve dams or storage reservoirs, hence no population displacement is involved
• less demanding in terms of management, operation and maintenance
• no land tenure or resettlement implications
• no serious adverse environmental impact
• allow a wider diffusion of irrigation benefits and
• permit farmers to learn irrigation techniques at their own pace and in their own way.
To support small-scale irrigation, efforts should be made to enhance and improve the
efficiency and productivity of traditional irrigation. For example, the most persistent
problem of traditional river diversion schemes in this country is the impermanence and
fragility of the headworks, which are almost always made of brushwood and earth, and
which are often washed away during heavy rains and have to be frequently repaired. Farmers
always complain that repairing the headworks requires too much labour. Improving the
durability of the headworks and other infrastructure could contribute to efficiency and
productivity. Secondly, farmers should have access to simple, cheap and environmentally
friendly water technologies such as hand pumps and shallow tube wells. Thirdly, improving
the marketability of irrigation produce will serve as an important incentive. This may
require building access roads, offering better prices, and improving product quality. These
198 MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop
Taffa Tulu
and similar measures of support will mean that non-governmental organisations (NGOs)
and private enterprises will have to play a more active role. The responsibility of the state will
then be to create an enabling environment for greater NGO and private sector
interventions. Small, user-managed schemes work best if there is no state intervention or if
such intervention is kept to a minimum. The state should focus on providing needed
services such as credit and finance and on building up basic infrastructure.
Small-scale irrigation in south-western Ethiopia
Because of topographical conditions, irrigation development in southern Ethiopia is highly
site-specific and accordingly generalisation may be misleading. Overall water from the large
and medium size rivers that flow through the hills cannot be used, since they cut deep
through the area, which means that river water levels are at too low of an elevation relative to
the fields to be irrigated for effective utilisation. Consequently, irrigation in the hills is
mostly dependent on smaller rainfed streams, some of which have very limited base flow,
while others seem to dry up during the dry season. These streams are difficult to dam for
many reasons, among which are: inadequate storage sites, extremely high seasonal flow
during the big rains, low water retaining capacity, high sediment loads, and transportation
of boulders during high flow seasons.
Harnessing some of the sizable rivers can produce some medium- to small-sized
irrigation projects in this region, with command areas ranging between 250 and 15
thousand hectares. These schemes will require surface water storage, spillways and a
network of main, secondary and tertiary canals. Investment costs are likely to be high. These
schemes may be economical if irrigation benefits are combined with hydropower and flood
control benefits. So far as technical aspects are considered, currently insufficient geological
and hydrological data are available for planning and constructing large multi-purpose dams
and reservoirs. Additional data will be necessary on sedimentation rates, and how these may
be influenced by the construction of dams.
In south-western Ethiopia, the practices of obtaining water from small streams for
supplementary irrigation include surface stream diversion, minor storage schemes based on
farm-pond types of impoundment, pumping where energy is available either in the form of
electricity or diesel, water turbines driven by the hydraulic energy of streams, or conveying
water by pipes. The choice of a specific irrigation method depends on a variety of factors and
constraints, overall economics of the scheme, subsidies available, accessibility of the site,
quality of the soil, extent of irrigable land, and seasonal variation of available water. Very
little information exists on the prevailing groundwater and the soil moisture conditions in
the region. The locations of the localised pockets of groundwater, estimates of volumes of
water that can be extracted on a sustainable basis, and their potential exploitation for
agriculture can only be considered when more detailed geological maps of the region are
available.
MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop 199
Small-scale irrigation development in the wetlands of South-West Ethiopia
Small-scale irrigation in West Shewa
Irrigation is not new in West Shewa. It has been practised for several decades. What is
remarkable, however, is the tremendous expansion of irrigation during the past two
decades. Irrigation was highly intensified since 1984, because of the ‘food self-sufficiency
programme’ declared by the government. In 1987, several projects were designed with the
joint action of the governments of North Korea and Ethiopia with the aim of boosting the
productivity of producers’ co-operatives. Along with this programme several farmers were
trained in irrigation water management. Unfortunately the programme terminated in
1999. It was observed that the farmers highly profited from those small-scale irrigation
projects.
Considering the present status of irrigation development and management in West
Shewa, it is likely that irrigation has considerable potential to further increase agricultural
production and the income of the people in the irrigated areas, both through construction
of new projects and more efficient management of existing ones. While this view is likely to
be correct, analysis of the existing situation indicates that if irrigation is to play a crucial role
as an engine for further expansion of agricultural production, the management and
organisation of irrigation systems, including their institutional implications, must be
substantially investigated and improved. Some research works were carried out in the areas
of planting time, irrigation interval, crop water requirements, irrigation and water balance,
farmers’ participatory research etc. by development agents, and research and higher
learning institutions. There is a great problem in getting sufficient trained manpower in
relation to the number of farmers in the area. Therefore, a large number of trained
manpower is required to support the farmers of the region.
On the basis of data collected from 10 woredas of West Shewa, some preliminary figures
were shown about irrigated and potentially irrigable areas for the region (Table 1). Much of
the land currently under furrow irrigation in West Shewa is in the Bako, Dibdibe, Denbeli,
Guder and Ketta regions. The data collected for West Shewa identifies 1322 ha of land
under furrow irrigation, which accounts for about 35% of the total irrigable land in
Western Shewa (Table 1).
The Indris Small-scale Irrigation Project is located in Guder, a small town located 137
km west of Addis Ababa on the road to Nekemt. EEC/PADEP VI had funded a project on
the Indris Scheme for two years (1992–94) to rehabilitate the headwork and main canal
system. This project assisted the farmers in strengthening their water users association,
drafting rules and regulations for managing their scheme and in developing a rudimentary
schedule for distributing the irrigation water and organising maintenance. Due to a number
of factors, including the activities of the Shewa PADEP Project, the farmers have
dramatically increased the area cropped on the scheme during the dry season from 45 ha in
1990/91 to 170 ha in 1993/94. This increase has not been accompanied by a comparable
increase in the available water supply. The German Agro-action and Abebech Gobena
Orphanage and School have jointly financed another small-scale irrigation project on Indris
River near a village called Mutulu with a command area of about 150 ha. The Ministry of
Agriculture has planned to construct small earthen dams and ponds in the future.
200 MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop
Taffa Tulu
Table 1. Irrigation in West Shewa.
Woredas Main crops
Irrigated area
(ha)
Source
Irrigable area
1
(ha)
Illu Cabbage, tomatoes, carrot, onion
16 River 180
Dibdibe (Wenchi
woreda)
Maize, lentil, onion, potatoes, carrot,
cabbage, tomatoes, sugar cane, green
pepper
367
River
33
Walmara Goro
(Walmara woreda) Cabbage, potatoes, carrot, cauliflower
15
River
–
Mukadima Abay Vegetables
80 River –
Denbeli Ketta Cabbage, onion, maize, tomatoes
300 River –
Bako woreda
Mango, coffee, sugar cane, bananas,
tomatoes, cabbage, green pepper
386
River
1000
Jattoo Dirki (Chelia
woreda) Maize, sugar cane, bananas, chat
30
River
90
Aga and Illu (Adaa
Berga woreda) Barley, maize
20
River
27
Chilanko (Jaldduu
woreda) Potatoes, onion
5
River
30
Tolee woreda (42
farmers associations) Vegetables
103
River
spring 202
Total
1322 River 1562
1. Potential expansion.
Water budget in West Shewa
Computation of water balance and modelling the process of transformation of rainfall to
streamflow need measurements of the appropriate meteorological variables. Therefore,
calculation of the areal distribution of precipitation from point measurement and
determination of the areal potential evapotranspiration (PET) from the necessary
meteorological information were carried out. Areal rainfall was estmated from point
rainfalls with the HYBSCH model (Taffa 1989, 1990b, 1991) which uses the hypsometric
curve method. From these simulations, it was estimated that the average annual discharge of
the rivers originating in West Shewa and flowing to the Abay river amounts to 20 billion m
3
,
which is equivalent to 634 m
3
/s of continuous flow. While this total quantity of water is
undoubtedly substantial, the river flows have significant seasonal fluctuations. An
inadequate number of river gauging stations and their improper allocation make it difficult
to estimate the amount of land that can be properly irrigated in West Shewa by surface
water.
Results, discussion and recommendations
From the above simulations, the West Shewa watershed has a total water deficiency of 632
mm from October to April (1966–84) (Table 2). From May to June there was soil moisture
MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop 201
Small-scale irrigation development in the wetlands of South-West Ethiopia
recharge, that is soil comes to field capacity towards the end of June and moisture becomes
available for optimum plant growth. From May to September there was a total water surplus
of 696 mm, with the highest surplus at the end of July giving rise to peak streamflows at the
beginning of August. From October to the end of November, stored soil moisture is utilised
by plants, which means there is some amount of moisture available for plant growth,
although not at optimum rate.
Table 2. Average water balance for West Shewa (1966–84) in mm, as simulated using HYBSCH model.
Model Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
P 23 41 83 78 153 194 256 249 204 73 26 18
PET 158 116 121 148 100 74 54 51 81 132 127 172
RET 34 25 45 69 71 69 54 51 81 129 90 65
RO 0 0 0 0 9 56 165 180 123 18 1 0
Sm 2 1 1 1 26 43 47 40 38 37 3 1
cSm –1 –1 –1 0 22 17 4 –7 –2 –2 –34 –2
Smd 135 75 38 70 ––––– 59 101 154
Sms – – – – 53 120 202 198 123 –––
Notes: (P = precipitation; PET = potential evapotranspiration; RET = real evapotranspiration; RO = surface runoff; Sm =
soil moisture; cSm = change in soil moisture; Smd=P–PET, soil moisture deficit; Sms=P–PET, soil moisture surplus).
High amounts of water surplus are associated with areas of high rainfall and/or low
PET. Rainfed agriculture can be practised for seven months (March to September), and the
rest of the months should be supplemented with irrigation.
To help the water users association (WUA) and to manage the scarce water supply fairly
and efficiently, it is essential that a more effective water management system is introduced.
For this to be done, detailed information is needed not only on how much water is available
but also how that water is being distributed and used. Guidelines also need to be prepared of
ways in which the water management on schemes could be improved. Construction of small
earthen dams and ponds shall be encouraged for the development of small-scale irrigation
systems.
It is also necessary to expand farmer-managed irrigation systems (FMIS). FMIS are
simple irrigation systems that are constructed and maintained by the farmers, with limited
or no involvement of government agencies. Such systems mainly supply supplementary
irrigation during periods of rainfall deficiency. If the government institutions provide some
supervision, technical assistance, grants, and loans, it is possible to expand FMIS at
relatively lower investment and operation cost since farmers could contribute labour to the
construction. There is no doubt that for the future economic development of an agrarian
country like Ethiopia, irrigation development and management must play an important
part.
202 MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop
Taffa Tulu
References
Taffa Tulu. 1989. Hydrologische Untersuchungen an ausgewählten Einzugsgebieten im
Zentralhochland Äthiopiens als Voraussetzung zur besseren Bewirtschaftung der
Wasser-ressourcen., PhD thesis. University of Rostock, Rostock, Germany. 135 pp.
Taffa Tulu. 1990a. Estimation of crop coefficient for computation of PET. International Journal of
Tropical Agriculture 8(1):49–53.
Taffa Tulu. 1991. Simulation of stream flows for ungauged catchments. Journal of Hydrology
129(1–4):3–17.
MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop 203
Small-scale irrigation development in the wetlands of South-West Ethiopia
Synthesis of research issues and capacity
building in water and land resources
management in Ethiopia
A. Kamara
1
and P. McCornick
2
1. International Water Management Institute (IWMI), Africa Office, Pretoria, South Africa
2. IWMI, Centreville, Virginia 20120, USA
Abstract
This paper presents an overview and synthesis of the key research and capacity building
issues arising from the workshop presentations and papers. Three days of intensive
deliberations by professionals from various research, development and governmental
organisations, and of diverse disciplines, backgrounds and nationalities have clearly
acknowledged that water management issues remain very crucial for poverty alleviation and
rural development in Ethiopia—whose overwhelming proportion of the population
depends on smallholder agricultural production, which is highly constrained by water
availability (absence of perennial rivers, high spatial and temporal availability of rainfall
etc.). This situation, over the years, has generated a critical need for efficient water and land
management to reduce production risks and hazards, and enhance stable agricultural and
livestock production. Recent decades have witnessed various efforts in the area of irrigation
and supplementary irrigation (and other development initiatives), employing various water
harvesting technologies, construction of micro-dams, diversions structures etc. which were
largely combined with traditional yield-enhancing methods to facilitate sustainable
smallholder agricultural production.
Most of these efforts did not only fall short of their desired objectives of improving
smallholder production conditions but also generated a host of others such as:
• large-scale irrigation schemes (e.g. Awash Basin and elsewhere) resulted in secondary soil
salinisation where large tracts of land have gone out of production
• spontaneous construction of micro-dams across the country (especially in Tigray) is
associated with human and livestock health hazards that in some cases have resulted in
abandonment of the dams
• production potential of extensive watersheds remain largely unexploited or
inappropriately used, resulting in extensive degradation of fragile lands, and so on.
The potential for effectively integrating crops and livestock management in the context
of growing water in complementary crop–livestock systems remains largely unexploited,
especially from the perspective of efficient water and land utilisation. The limited success of
most of the technologies in Ethiopia calls attention to a dire need for research and capacity
building to understand the complex issues of water and land management, so as to enhance
204 MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop
national and local capacity to deal with water and land management issues to enhance food
security, poverty alleviation and national economic development.
Introduction
The issue of population growth and the impending need to increase agricultural production
in Ethiopia was well acknowledged at the workshop. The dual role of agriculture in
providing rural livelihood and enhancing national and local level food security for the
masses was also clearly articulated. Agriculture accounts for about 85% of total employment
and generates 75% of exports earnings (World Bank 2000). Crops contribute about 80% of
the gross value of the agricultural sector, which constitute about 40% of the gross domestic
product (GDP) (FAO 2000). The relevance of agriculture (and livestock) to the economy are
highlighted, which raises a critical need for examining the physical and agro-ecological
framework conditions that characterise agricultural production in the country, as
emphasised in many of the papers.
The country’s diverse agro-climate was vividly presented to comprise the central massive
highlands (up to an altitude of 4000 metres above sea level, masl) that support about 90% of
the rural population, and accommodate agricultural and agro-pastoral activities, and the
relatively less densely populated lowlands characterised by extensive livestock production or
pastoralism. Over 70% of the country is either arid or semi-arid, characterised by low and
erratic rainfall both in terms of spatial and temporal distribution. The potential for crop
production in large parts of the country using traditional methods remain uncertain and
often subject to crop failure and severe fluctuations in yield. This situation is further
exacerbated by recurrent droughts and associated famine, which causes heavy loss of human
and livestock lives especially in pastoral areas (Futterknecht 1997; Kamara 2001; MoWR
2001). The incidence of droughts is reiterated to be a natural phenomenon that cannot be
entirely ruled out, but it is strongly believed that their impact on human life can be
significantly reduced through efficient management of water and land resources in the
country.
Water and land resources
The workshop acknowledged the abundance of natural resources in the country, but called
specific attention to the under-utilised status of most of these resources—about 122 billion
cubic metres of surface water is available in 12 river basins and 22 lakes, plus an appraised
groundwater of about 2.6 billion cubic metres (WWDSE 2001). The potential for
sufficiently tapping this water for domestic and productive purposes, however, is lessened
by uneven spatial and temporal distribution, and unpredictable availability (Belaihun;
Gulilat; Paulos).
1
While close to 90% of the country’s water resources occur in four river
basins
2
that host no more than 40% of the population, about 60% of the population living
in the east and central river basins depend on less than 20% of the country’s water resources
MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop 205
Synthesis of research issues and capacity building in water and land resources management in Ethiopia
1. Throughout this synthesis, author references are to papers presented in this workshop.
(Gulilat). Though information on the distribution of the available groundwater resources in
the country is limited, it is posited that the water table is relatively deep and that yields are
low, making the exploitation of groundwater expensive for agricultural use (Gulilat).
Despite these natural constraints and technical limitations, it is clearly acknowledged that
the country’s potentially utilisable water resources are largely unexploited—it is not even
clearly documented which proportion of the potentially utilisable water resources the
country can use within international legal provisions. Thus, this initiative in research and
capacity building for water management for Ethiopia could not have been more timely
(H.E. Shiferaw Jarsso, 2002, opening speech of this workshop).
3
The uneven distribution of the productive lands was also acknowledged and highlighted
(Paulos). More than 40% of the arable lands in the country occur in the highlands,
containing about 95% of the regularly cropped area and two-thirds of the country’s livestock
population (Ewnetu et al. 1999; Paulos). With high population density of over 400 people
per km
2
in some areas, most of the highland is threatened by land degradation, which
threatens agricultural production and environmental sustainability.
Therefore, agricultural production in the country—both crops and livestock—depends
largely, on sustainable land and water management. While land management issues may
have received a great deal of attention in the past (Bruce et al. 1994), water management
issues have received far less attention (Paulos). Although the country has a 50-year
experience in basin level management approaches (Gulilat), attempts in the early 1970s to
prepare a National Water Code that would articulate water issues was never off the ground.
This issue only regained recognition after the establishment of the Ministry of Water
Resources in 1995, which eventually released the National Water Resources Strategy in
1999, a document that now emphasises a comprehensive and integrated water resources
management approach.
Water and land management issues in Ethiopia
Among the most pressing issues associated with land and water resources management are
secondary salinisation, nutrient depletion, water pollution, de-vegetation, soils erosion and,
to some extent, grazing. Soil degradation especially on fragile lands and groundwater
depletion were highlighted (Mintesinot and Mitiku; Paulos; Penning de Vries et al. 2002).
These processes are feared to lead to long-term (perhaps irreversible) deterioration and
reduction of the potential and actual productivity of land, with adverse effects on
agricultural productivity, with serious food security implications at both the national and
local levels. It was also acknowledged that most of the instruments for checking these trends,
especially the necessary water related policies, plans, strategies and laws, are largely in place.
The current challenge, therefore, was identified to be in the area of implementation,
including harmonisation of the water sector with other sectors. Existing institutions are also
building on previous efforts to begin to fill in capacity gaps and pull on opportunities in
linking existing research and capacity building activities (Gulilat). In this context, various
206 MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop
Kamara and McCornick
2. These include the Abay (Blue Nile), Tekeze, Baro-Akobo and Omo-Gibe basins, largely occupying the west
and south-western parts of the country.
3. Minister of Water Resources, Government of Ethiopia.
issues were highlighted under different sub-sectors and specific needs for research and
capacity building highlighted, with a word of caution that action be better taken today, for
‘… tomorrow may be too late’ (Paulos).
Irrigation
The irrigation potential was presented as one of the most underutilised opportunities in the
country. The country has an irrigable land of about 3.3 million hectares of which only about
5% developed to date, with about 55% of the developed area being traditional irrigation
(MoWR 2001; Gulilat). At the end of the 1990s, the area under small-scale irrigation was
estimated at around 64 thousand hectares while that of medium- and large-scale were
appraised at 112 thousand hectares, of which 22 thousand hectares were new small-scale
irrigation schemes implemented since 1992 (WWDSE 2001; Gulilat). The nation has a
National Irrigation Development Strategy, which has the goal of utilising the country’s
natural potential (in water and land resources) to achieve food self-sufficiency at the
national level, generate export earnings, and provide raw materials for industry on a
sustainable basis (MoWR 2001). Specific objectives include expanding the irrigated area,
improving the productivity of water in irrigated agriculture, ensuring the financial and
technical sustainability of irrigated areas, and effective mitigation of water-logging and
salinity. Small-scale irrigation, which is found in much of the country (Shewa, Tigray,
Hararghe, Gojjam and North Omo), offers the potential for improved food security,
agricultural diversity and productivity. There is considerable experience with small-scale
irrigation, but the extent and potential has not been quantified and general documentation
is sparse (CRS 1999).
Small-scale irrigation
Compared with other irrigation strategies used in Africa, properly implemented
smallholder irrigation with appropriate technologies may have a considerable potential in
improving rural livelihoods, although the viability of such systems becomes questionable
when the financial responsibility rests entirely on the community in the absence of
institutional support services that enhance market orientation (Kamara et al. 2002; Shah et
al. 2002). Given the complex set of constraints facing smallholder producers, providing
access to irrigation water by itself is not enough; smallholders also require a broad range of
support services (access to inputs, credit, output markets), knowledge of farming and secure
land tenure. Achieving economic viability of smallholder irrigation on a market-oriented
basis requires access to support services and opportunities for producing high value crops.
Thus, it was acknowledged that the issue of smallholder irrigation expansion should be
viewed far beyond the narrow scope of just providing irrigation water and land, to include
institutional linkages, access to markets and other support services that enhance production
on a sustainable basis.
MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop 207
Synthesis of research issues and capacity building in water and land resources management in Ethiopia
Large-scale irrigation
State run farms, which include large-scale irrigation systems, were reiterated as major
components of efforts to develop the country’s agricultural sector, notably in the Awash
Valley. However, productivity of these top–down managed systems over the decades has
been disappointing—the farms have been beset by a number of environmental, technical
and socio-economic constraints. The large scale systems in the Awash basin and elsewhere
suffer from water management practices that have resulted in rising ground water tables and
secondary soil salinisation where large tracts of land have gone out of production (EARO
2001; Paulos). In some instances (including small-scale irrigators), farmers considered
irrigation as an evil practice due to losses of crops and arable land resulting from bad
irrigation practices (EARO 2001). This has also been associated with conflict and
water-related diseases that have undermined the sustainability of such large-scale irrigation
systems under the prevailing circumstances.
Water harvesting
Recent efforts have been largely centred around water harvesting, in some cases on a
large-scale through community initiatives, but in most cases state-supported—the so called
micro-dams. Water harvesting and micro-dam construction have been largely promoted to
capture runoff water for multiple uses, including domestic, irrigation and livestock
especially in the northern part of the country. This widespread dam construction and
promotion of micro-dams is, however, slowly becoming questionable, as the negative
impacts (mostly agronomic and health hazards) in some cases outweigh the benefits, leading
to abandonment of the dams and associated land in some cases (Mintesinot and Mitiku;
Mitiku et al. 2002). It was acknowledged that this situation is largely due to insufficient
baseline studies (technical, socio-economic, agronomic) at the inception of these dams, and
the consequent lack of adequate scientific knowledge on the long-term impacts of the water
harvesting systems, both in terms of hydrology of the production system and
socio-economic and environmental outcomes. While many are convinced that water
harvesting can indeed make a difference in the country in terms of responding to the
nation’s food security needs, there is a consensus among experts on the huge need for
scientific information on both indigenous and introduced water harvesting technologies to
understand their particular characteristics and constraints, and appreciate the needs for
adaptation for successful water harvesting in the country.
Wetlands/aquatic ecosystems
Wetlands are increasingly recognised as an important component of not only the
environment, but the economic system as whole, with communities drawing much of the
resource requirements from such systems. The relevant challenge therefore is striking a
critical balance between beneficial uses of wetlands for generating livelihood for rural
communities without compromising environmental values and uses. Direct use of water
from wetlands affect hydrology in the basin, may cause pollution, eutrophication and
208 MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop
Kamara and McCornick
sedimentation from human activities, which may place these important systems at risk. For
beneficial uses of wetlands to be sustained, water and land resources management practices
need to be based on principles that support these ecosystems. Even at a global level, the
characterisation of the relationship between the water resources and the ecosystems is only
now beginning to receive the attention it deserves (Global Dialogue on Food and Nature).
In Ethiopia, where information on the characteristics of the wetlands and associated
ecosystems is limited, the knowledge gap necessary to develop best management practices is
large, and requires committed long-term research and capacity building.
Drainage
Inadequate natural drainage causes water logging, salinisation and, in some cases,
deterioration of soil quality through erosion, leaching, destruction of soil structure or even
soil losses (Mintesinot and Mitiku; Paulos; McCornick et al. 2003). These processes lead to
an eventual decline in the productivity of agriculture, and may subsequently lead to
abandonment. The Middle Awash Valley, for instance, and the localised problems with the
small-dam developments in Tigray are two of the areas in the country where salinisation,
caused by inadequate drainage, has resulted in declining productivity and subsequent loss
of land. Furthermore, in the highlands, water logged soils during the rain season, were
recorded to reduce the length of the growing season for rainfed agriculture (Gebrehiwot et
al. 1997). At the same time, it was acknowledged that purpose-built drainage networks are
expensive and difficult to justify. Localised initiatives were recognised as more feasible,
including water management strategies and interventions that target problem areas, but
noted to require scientific understanding of the local climate and agronomy, agro-ecology,
hydrology (water table, water quality, groundwater movements), cropping systems and
management practices. Developing capacity at the local level to understand these factors,
and considering drainage as a component of water management and the practical
interventions that could be adopted, was also recognised as necessary.
In summary, the critical issues regarding agricultural drainage in the country were
highlighted to include: the paucity of information on the specific characteristics of drainage
constraints; the absence of the capacity (and perhaps resources) at all administrative levels to
mitigate the constraints; and the absence of knowledge on the indigenous drainage
approaches. With regards to water quality, issues of particular importance were noted to
exist in the Awash River and the Rift Valley rivers (Girma Tadesse 2002, personal
communication). With Addis Ababa in the headwaters of the Awash valley, discharge of
untreated wastewater and pollutants into the river, is a serious issue. Downstream uses in
the most developed river in the country include domestic water supply and irrigation.
Elevated levels of fluoride, which exist naturally in the groundwater in the Rift Valley and
the Awash basin, however, make these sources unsuitable for domestic water supply
(WWDSE 2001).
MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop 209
Synthesis of research issues and capacity building in water and land resources management in Ethiopia
Livestock
The livestock sub-sector is very important in Ethiopia not only for local level food security
for the growing population but also for generating foreign exchange. Despite its relatively
low contribution to the GDP, livestock plays a paramount role in generating rural
employment: less than 10% of the total land area of Ethiopia is cropped (FAO 1996), and
extensive land use in the form of pastoral and agro-pastoral production dominates the
production systems. In the highlands, livestock husbandry is combined with crops in a
sedentarised system with open grazing and relatively high cropping intensities and livestock
densities. The pastoral lowlands, which include Afar in the north-east, the Somali in the
south-east, the Borana in the south and other minor groups, supply robust livestock to both
the domestic markets and international markets, and are thus noted as important source of
foreign exchange (Kamara 2001; Paulos).
Despite this relatively important role, it is noted that water for livestock and human
needs in pastoral communities remain a critical problem (Paulos). Pastoralists are often
compelled to trek for days in search of water at high temperatures and under stressed
conditions. Water supply for nomad relies mainly on occasional water in ponds and
puddles and in few instances, e.g. the Borana, traditional deep wells under very primitive
conditions whose water retention potential varies with rainfall (Kamara 2001). It is
therefore not uncommon to find the prevalence of water borne diseases (diarrhoea,
amoebic dysentery, bilharzias etc.) among such communities, whose water sources (ponds,
puddles, runoff, rarely rivers and irrigation canals) are largely polluted or unrefined for
domestic use. It is also noted that providing water under pastoral circumstances is difficult,
primarily because of low population densities, nomadic culture and harsh environmental
characteristics. Also, in providing new water sources (boreholes, ponds and cisterns or
birka) in these semi-arid areas, there is a risk of the livestock population rising above the
carrying capacity of rangeland, and a potential for aggravating the impact of catastrophic
events such as droughts.
Of particular importance was looking at possibilities of improving the productivity of
livestock and associated opportunities for poverty reduction (Peden et al.). The potential for
integrating crops and livestock in a ‘cut-and-carry’ and grazing system such that livestock
relies on the consumption of crop residues and free fodder was highlighted as worth giving
attention. In a context of growing water scarcity, such systems as are posited as having high
efficiency of water use since the water for crop production would have been used with or
without the animals feeding on the residues (Peden et al.). Being a by-product of crop
production, the crop residue does not require additional water for providing valuable feed
for livestock, while livestock provides farmers with additional value in terms of consumable
and marketable outputs (meat, milk etc.) without incurring significant additional demand
for water. These sort of opportunities, including the role of livestock in urban and
peri-urban agriculture, where water use efficiency is increased or other outputs generated
without necessarily using additional water were acknowledged as worth examining for
adoption and up-scaling where appropriate (Peden et al.).
210 MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop
Kamara and McCornick
Environment
Irrigated agricultural production was acknowledged as one which will continue to be an
important component in the development of Ethiopia, given the availability of water and
land resources, and the direct and indirect socio-economic and economic benefits.
However, as in other developing countries where irrigation consumes between 70 to 90% of
available water, it is noted that there can be significant negative impacts including ecosystem
deterioration in the form of water and land degradation, reduction in biological diversity,
social and economic impacts, and so on. These impacts have already been observed in the
relatively developed Awash valley, and are noted to appear in other basins especially in the
northern parts of the country (Mintesinot and Mitiku; Mitiku et al. 2002).
Health
The increased incidence of water related diseases such as malaria, schistosomiasis and
diarrhoea have been associated with the development of irrigated agriculture in the Awash
Valley, small dams in Tigray and elsewhere in Ethiopia (Mintesinot and Mitiku; Mitiku et al.
2001). Diarrhoea accounts for over 46% of infant mortality in Ethiopia. To a large extent,
environmental and health issues associated with irrigation and water development in
Ethiopia are noted to be linked to the limited knowledge of the issues, lack of capacity and
resources to investigate and mitigate the constraints and limited knowledge of indigenous
practices used to protect human health or the environment (Manoncourt and Murray
1996). As in other parts of the world, it was recommended that building irrigation systems
and water harvesting structures such that diseases are prevented is a more effective way of
reducing health hazards, rather than curing diseases, which is sometimes impossible. In this
regard, several examples and methods were highlighted, based largely on practical
experiences especially in Asia (Boelee).
Water supply and sanitation
Ethiopia has a very low level of water supply coverage, with only 17 and 35% of the rural and
urban population having access to safe drinking water, and similarly low levels of sanitation
coverage. This issue is recommended as one that should be paramount in considering the
management of the water resources of Ethiopia.
Urbanisation
Already the second most populous country in sub-Saharan Africa, the country faces
increasing population growth and rural–urban migration. The population of Addis Ababa
is, for instance, projected to almost double its present 2.5 million by the year 2025
(WWDSE 2001). Uncontrolled urbanisation places an increasing pressure on the land and
water resources of the surrounding area, altering the natural hydrology and degrading the
MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop 211
Synthesis of research issues and capacity building in water and land resources management in Ethiopia
quality of the water, which in turn impacts the downstream users, and ecological services
downstream. Moreover, the peri-urban agricultural activities in the form of vegetable
production and livestock have become increasingly recognised in terms of their importance
to livelihoods and food production, and possible impacts on public health and the
environment. The potential for peri-urban agriculture as a significant source of income and
livelihoods for the urban poor needs critical examination.
Hydropower
Estimated at 26 KWh, the per capita power generation capacity of Ethiopia is one of the
lowest in the region, and is only about 15% of that of Kenya. Only around 13% of the
population of Ethiopia has access to electricity (WWDSE 2001). This contrasts sharply with
the hydropower generation potential of the country, estimated at about 150 TWh, which is
100 times greater than the existing capacity currently being utilised (WWDSE 2001). It is
also asserted that some of the older reservoirs are gradually silting up, further diminishing
the generation capabilities that are already far below expectations. This issue remains crucial
and is prioritised in the National Water Resources Strategy, especially in view of the fact that
Ethiopia’s power generation potential, if effectively and efficiently exploited, makes it
possible for the country to export power to neighbouring countries and earn foreign
exchange (MoWR 2001).
Integrated water resources management
In an effort to operationalise its commitment to effective and efficient water management
issues in the country, the Government of Ethiopia has developed a comprehensive National
Water Strategy, based on the principles of Integrated Water Resources Management
(MoWR 2001; Gulilat). Among others, the strategy emphasises strategic issues under
general water resources management, and a detailed elaboration issues relating to
hydropower development, water supply and sanitation, and irrigation development within
the context of integrated water resources management from a basin perspective. The
development of Integrated River Basin Development Master Plans has already been
completed for four basins, and the Mereb, and the intention is to undertake the same for the
six remaining major drainage basins, namely Wabi Shebele, Awash, Genale-Dawa, Rift
Valley Region, Aysha and the Ogaden (MoWR 2001). In particular, the Awash Basin is
noted as one, which presents an immediate challenge to manage the water resources in an
integrated manner, given the rapid rate of urbanisation in the upper catchment with,
among other things, the impact on water quality, and the relatively developed state of the
water resources within the basin. In such basins, it is important to take a basin perspective,
not only with regards to the water quantity, but water quality as well (McCornick et al.
2002).
Recent advances in integrated water resources management were also highlighted and
discussed from a basin perspective (Sally). Among others, the relative importance of various
water management strategies at the development, utilisation and allocation stages of basin
212 MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop
Kamara and McCornick
development were highlighted. The significance of these phases of basin development
especially in the context of a closing basin were discussed, highlighting available tools and
methodologies that could be relevant for strategic management of water resources in
Ethiopia’s river basins (Sally). The strengths of these tools in leveraging the bargaining
position of different stakeholders (including nations) in water negotiations (e.g. shared
basins such as the Nile) were elaborated.
Research opportunities and capacity building
requirements in water and land management
The presentations and discussions in the workshop highlighted many relevant issues of
water and land resources management in Ethiopia. While noting that not all of the
presented problems can be addressed at the same time, it was also recognised that some of
the issues present opportunities for research and capacity building especially in the context
of the existing (favourable) national policies and highly committed political will. There is
already some knowledge on most of the issues raised, but most of it remains incomplete,
hence the need for capacity to generate new knowledge and aid implementation. Also,
much of the existing sources of information on water and land resources management in
Ethiopia recognise that there is considerable relevant experience, but a paucity of
information on indigenous practices, successful interventions and lessons learned.
Identified knowledge gaps
This section presents a summary of the issues, or knowledge gaps, identified during the
workshop. Further details on issues discussed in the working group sessions are also
presented.
• small-scale irrigation: it was recognised that there is a lack of effective strategies and tools
for the implementation of small-scale, community-managed irrigation in Ethiopia. In
particular, the following areas need attention:
? strategies that enhance community participation in smallholder irrigation; strategies
that enhance improvement of traditional technologies, and adaptation and scaling
up of already tested modern technologies; strategies that enhance the realisation of
multiple uses of water for productive purpose including livestock, and combination
of activities that maximised the efficiency of water use
? institutional issues and linkages (including tenure and property rights
? ensuring access of smallholders to other institutional support services such as
markets, credit and extension
• large-scale irrigation: effective strategies and tools for improving performance and
productivity of medium- and large-scale irrigation systems to:
? mitigate of the recurrent problem of land degradation resulting from salinisation of
irrigated lands
? alleviate of the problem of water logging of irrigated and rainfed areas and
MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop 213
Synthesis of research issues and capacity building in water and land resources management in Ethiopia
? address the problem of rising water tables and its consequence on soil salinisation
• research that highlights the relationship between irrigation and food security at various
levels (local level/national level)
• potential and strategies for the sustainable development and utilisation of groundwater
for irrigated agriculture
• enhancing the accomplishment of drought mitigation role of groundwater in pastoral
areas
• livestock linkages to water in a context of increasing water productivity from a systems
perspective with water as a key nutrient in livestock systems; role of water in certain
metabolic aspects of livestock management
• research on water productivity in agriculture in general
• water pricing and cost recovery issues in irrigation and other sectors needs to be critically
examined
• examining the potential for fisheries in many parts of the country
• closely studying the inter-linkages between water-related health and environment; a
deeper understanding of causative agents and applying preventive methods rather than
relying on cure, which in some cases cannot at all be achieved
• critically examining the impact of increased urbanisation (e.g. Addis Ababa) on land and
water resources, and the role of urban/peri-urban agriculture in contributing to food
security through
? generating livelihood of the family, and meeting immediate food security
? upstream–downstream issues and water quality
? health issues and the environment (sustainability)
? agroforestry issues not well articulated but remains a research priority.
Capacity gaps
Specific areas where further capacity is required, in addition to implementing activities
related to the above gaps in knowledge, include:
• national level institution or network to co-ordinate, link, support and disseminate
results of water and land resources research and capacity building
• capacity in the formation and operation of effective water users associations (WUA) in
various catchments
? effective community-based water supply and sanitation organisations
? enhance capacity for participation in the management of trans-boundary rivers, e.g.
as partners in the Nile Basin Initiative (NBI)
? adapt technologies and practices for smallholder irrigation
• capacity in dealing with property rights issues related to land and water
• capacity to form and operate credit and marketing co-operatives
• capacity for data collection, management and dissemination
? surveying and mapping of land title and demarcation of resource boundaries
? hydromet services, training and education, field trial and research station services
? monitoring of domestic water supply and quality
214 MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop
Kamara and McCornick
• capacity gaps—process
? regional level to provide support services to small-scale community managed
irrigation systems
? linkages between research and extension/dissemination (impact of research)
? public–private partnership for water supply (and sanitation) provision and
? investigation and mitigation of the environmental impacts of irrigated agriculture.
References
Bruce J., Hoben A. and Rahmato D. 1994. After the Derg: An assessment of rural land tenure issues
in Ethiopia. Land Tenure Center, University of Wisconsin, Madison and Institute of
Development Research, Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
CRS (Catholic Relief Services). 1999. Programmatic environmental assessment of small-scale
irrigation in Ethiopia. Cooperating Sponsors. Baltimore, Maryland, USA.
EARO (Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organization). 2001. Agricultural water management:
Brief Profile. (Unpublished document).
Ewnetu Z., Haile M. and Gebrehiwot K. (eds). 1999. Land husbandry in the highlands of Ethiopia.
Proceedings of a workshop held at Mekelle University College, Mekelle, Ethiopia, 10–14 November 1997.
Volume II. Training and Education Report 46. ICRAF (International Centre for Research in
Agroforestry), Nairobi, Kenya.
FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations). 1996. Production Year Book. FAO,
Rome, Italy.
FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations). 2000. Statistical Data Base. FAO,
Rome, Italy.
Futterknecht C. 1997. Diary of drought: The Borana of southern Ethiopia, 1990–1993. In: Hogg R.
(ed), Pastoralists, ethnicity and the state in Ethiopia. HAAN Publishing, London, UK. pp. 169–182.
Gebrehiwot K., Temu A.B. and Haile M. (eds). 1997. Land husbandry in the highlands of Ethiopia.
Proceedings of a workshop held at Mekelle University College, Mekelle, Ethiopia, 10–14 November 1997.
Volume I. Training and Education Report 41. ICRAF (International Centre for Research in
Agroforestry), Nairobi, Kenya.
Haile M., Ghebreyesus T.A., Witten K., Yohannes M., Byass P. and Lindsay S. 2002. Water
harvesting in micro-dams: Its impact on the socio-economic condition of the community and the
salinity of the irrigated fields in Tigray. (unpublished document).
Kamara A.B. 2001. Property rights, risk and livestock development in Ethiopia. Socio-economic Studies on
Rural Development. Volume 123. Wissentschaftsverlag Vauk, Kiel, Germany.
Kamara A.B., van Koppen B. and Magingxa L. 2002. Economic viability of small-scale irrigation
systems in the context of state withdrawal: The Arabie Scheme in the Northern Province of South
Africa. Elsevier Science, Physics and Chemistry of the Earth 27:815–823.
Manoncourt S. and Murray J. 1996. Ethiopian health facility assessment: Using local planning to
improve the quality of child care at health facilities in the Southern Nations, Nationalities and
Peoples’ Region. Regional Health Bureau, SNNPR/BASICS/ESHE, Awassa, Ethiopia.
McCornick P.G., Taha S.S.E. and El Nasser H. 2002. Planning for reclaimed water in the Amman-Zarqa
Basin and Jordan Valley. Conference and symposium on droughts and floods. American Society of
Civil Engineering–Environmental and Water Resources Institute, Roanoke, Virginia, USA.
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McCornick P.G., Grattan S.R. and Abu-Eisheh I. 2003. Water quality challenges to irrigated
agriculture productivity in the Jordan Valley. In: Second international conference on irrigation
and drainage, United States Commission on Irrigation and Drainage Conference, Phoenix,
Arizona, USA. (submitted for publication.)
MoWR (Ministry of Water Resources). 2001. National Water Strategy. MoWR, Addis Ababa,
Ethiopia. (Final draft).
MoWR (Ministry of Water Resources). 1999. Comprehensive and Integrated Water Resources
Management—Ethiopian Water Resources Management Policy. MoWR, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Penning de Vries F.W.T., Acquay H., Molden D., Scherr S.C., Valentin C. and Cofie O. 2002.
Integrated land and water management for food security. Comprehensive Assessment Research Paper
1. Comprehensive Assessment Secretariat, IWMI (International Water Management Institute),
Colombo, Sri Lanka.
Shah T., van Koppen B., Merrey D., de Lange M. and Samad M. 2002. Institutional alternatives in
African smallholder irrigation: Lessons from international experience with irrigation management transfer.
Research Report 60. IWMI (International Water Management Institute), Colombo, Sri Lanka.
Swallow B.M. and Kamara A.B. 1999. The dynamics of land use and property rights in semi-arid East
Africa. In: McCarthy N., Swallow B.M., Kirk M. and Hazell P. (eds), Property rights, risk and livestock
development in Africa. IFPRI (International Food Policy Research Institute), Washington, DC,
USA. pp. 220–243.
World Bank. 2000. World Development Report, 1999/2000. The World Bank, Washington, DC,
USA.
WWDSE (Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise). 2001. Water Sector Development
Program (Project ETH/98/001). Ministry of Water Resources, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
216 MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop
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Proposed framework for collaborative
research and capacity building programme
on water and land management in Ethiopia
D. Merrey,
1
Gulilat Birhane,
2
Paulos Dubale
3
and D. Peden
4
1. International Water Management Institute (IMWI), South Africa
2. Ministry of Water Resources (MoWR), Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
3. Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organization (EARO), Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
4. International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Summary
This framework is a working document prepared by the International Water Management
Institute (IWMI) in collaboration with the International Livestock Research Institute
(ILRI), the Ministries of Water Resources and of Agriculture of the Government of
Ethiopia, the Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organization (EARO), the Ethiopian
Science and Technology Commission (ESTC), Mekelle University (MU), and the
Arbaminch Water Research Institute (AWTI).
The first working draft was prepared by IWMI. It was revised based on feedback from the
Ministry of Water Resources (MoWR). The current version has been revised in the light of
comments made at the workshop.
Introduction
IWMI and ILRI
The International Water Management Institute (IWMI) is an international non-profit
research institute. It was established in 1984 as an ‘International Irrigation Management
Institute’, but changed its name in 1996 to reflect a broadening of its mandate. Its
headquarters is in Colombo, Sri Lanka. In the year 2000, IWMI established a major Africa
Regional Office located in Pretoria, South Africa. This reflects the Institute’s substantial
commitment to Africa.
IWMI’s goals are:
• to generate new knowledge and tools on water and land use in agriculture that can have a
real impact on improving the livelihoods of the world’s poorest people. IWMI specialises
in producing new knowledge on integrated land and water resources management and
ensuring that it reaches the intended users.
MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop 217
• to complement the efforts of other organisations working on water/poverty issues by
providing a multi-disciplinary research perspective covering hydrological, economic,
agricultural, health, environmental, sociological and institutional/policy dimensions of
water management. All IWMI’s work is done in partnership with national, regional and
international research organisations and with policy making and management entities
that would use the knowledge generated.
• to promote professional development and capacity building in developing countries,
which will enable these countries and IWMI’s partner institutions to better manage
their land and water resources.
1
• in Africa, IWMI’s specific goal is to contribute meaningfully to improving peoples’
livelihoods through better access to and management of land and water for productive
and other uses. This is done through interdisciplinary research in five global research
themes.
2
The International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) is a non-profit institution
governed by an international Board of Trustees created in 1995 by the merger of the
International Livestock Centre for Africa (ILCA), based in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, and the
International Laboratory for Research on Animal Diseases (ILRAD), based in Nairobi,
Kenya. Through the ILCA heritage, ILRI commenced research on livestock management in
Ethiopia in 1974. In collaboration with the Ethiopian government, ILRI conducts research
in various parts of Ethiopia.
ILRI works to improve the well-being of people in developing countries by enhancing
the diverse and essential contributions livestock make to smallholder farming. Two-thirds
of the world’s domestic animals are kept in developing countries, and rural smallholders
own more than 90% of them. Ethiopia contains more livestock than any other African
country. Ruminant animals provide poor farmers with some of the resources they need
most: high-quality food, animal traction and transport, manure to fertilise croplands, a daily
income through dairying, and insurance against disaster. The management of these animals
is highly dependent on water but also greatly affects water supply and quality that people
require for many purposes.
IWMI and ILRI are among the 16 food and environmental research centres, known as
the Future Harvest Centres, located around the world. Some 60 governments, private
foundations, and international organisations known as the Consultative Group on
International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) support these centres. As Centres supported
by the CGIAR, the common mandate of IWMI and ILRI is to produce international public
goods that contribute to poverty eradication.
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1. Further information on IWMI’s global programme can be found in its Strategy for 2000–2005, and on its
web site, http://www.iwmi.org.
2. IWMI’s research themes include, integrated water resources management for agriculture, sustainable
smallholder water and land management systems, sustainable groundwater management, water resources
institutions and policies, and water, health and the environment
Water resources and agriculture in Ethiopia
Ethiopia has abundant water resources with the annual surface runoff alone estimated to be
122 billion cubic metres (MoWR 1999). However, the spatial and temporal distribution of
these resources is very uneven. This is coupled with a wide range of climatic and topographic
conditions that create a diversity of agro-ecological and soil conditions across the country.
Subsistence agriculture is the dominant activity of the vast majority of the Ethiopian
population, providing employment for about 80% of the population and contributing over
75% of the country’s exports. The main cereal crops are maize, wheat, sorghum, barley,
millet and teff, with a total surface of 6.8 million hectares. Livestock is crucial for rural
livelihoods in Ethiopia, with 34.5 million head of cattle and 36 million sheep and goats
(FAO 2001). However, agricultural production (including livestock) remains far below
expectations, with production systems that lead to considerable degradation of land
resources. The generally low rainfall with very high spatial and temporal variability limit
production, and makes large parts of the country vulnerable to recurrent droughts; the
current drought (2002–2003) may have a devastating impact on millions of people.
Technological innovation has been less than in many other countries over the past few
decades. As a result of these factors, rural poverty is endemic.
To date, the water sector is at a low state of development and the developed
infrastructure is performing below expectations (MoWR 1999). There is evidence that the
country has sufficient water and irrigable land resources to meet the nation’s domestic food
needs and become a major exporter of agricultural produce. However, less than 5% of the
irrigable land has been developed, and even this is said to be performing below expectation
(MoWR 1999). This creates a critical need for looking at ways of exploiting the irrigation
potential of the country. Most of the irrigated area consists of small-scale gravity irrigation
using traditional techniques, while in the Awash Valley a few large modern farms can be
found. Domestic water use also counts among the world’s lowest, with only 31% of the
population having access to safe water supply. This factor, combined with widespread
malaria and serious malnutrition, underlies the serious health issues faced by the rural poor.
In addition to shortages of financial and human resources, Ethiopia needs to strengthen
its research base as a foundation for developing its water and agriculture sectors effectively.
A strong agricultural and natural resources research programme combined with
appropriate extension, training and other support services, is an essential pre-requisite for
expanding agricultural production. Similarly, to plan and use its water resources in an
optimal way, the country needs a strong research programme in integrated water resources
management. This becomes even more imperative as the country engages in a dialogue with
its neighbours on the Nile Basin Initiative (NBI). Currently, in both the water and
agriculture sectors there is significant capacity in some areas, but serious shortfalls in others.
In sum, for Ethiopia to address the wide variety and complexity of water and land
management issues it faces, and to fully engage in the management of the Nile Basin waters,
the nation must develop a strong indigenous research and water and land management
capacity. The major outcome of a recent joint IWMI–ILRI mission to Ethiopia was a
recognition by all parties that IWMI and partners like ILRI can make an important
contribution to developing a research base, and strengthening local capacity for water and
MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop 219
Research and capacity building programme on water and land management in Ethiopia
land research.
3
This paper sets out a proposed framework for collaboration with Ethiopian
partners to achieve these goals.
Collaborative research and capacity building
programme
The overall scope of the collaborative research and capacity building programme is water
and land resources management in Ethiopia. Emphasis will be given to sustainable
improvement of agricultural productivity, including livestock and fisheries; to its
relationship with human health and the environment; and to water resources management.
The programme, in accordance with the Ethiopian Water Resources Management
Policy (MoWR 1999), will be guided by the principles of integrated water resources
management (IWRM). Research will be targeted at different scales, from the crop to field,
micro-watershed and river basin levels, including trans-boundary issues.
The proposed programme will therefore have four broad objectives:
• to provide short-term support to policy makers, planners and senior managers with tools
and information that they can use as they define priorities and develop and implement
policies and programmes on poverty alleviation through efficient use of water and land
resources. This can be achieved through workshops, training courses, study visits etc.
• to initiate conceptual and practical research on high priority issues, including at least
some issues that would have results and benefits in a relatively short period, in
collaboration with Ethiopian partners. This research would seek to develop solutions to
problems in particular zones or under particular conditions
• to collaborate with local governments and non-governmental organisations (NGOs) to
improve their impacts on poverty reduction through practical action-oriented applied
research and scaling up of appropriate technologies and management systems and
• to plan and implement with Ethiopian institutions a programme of professional
development and capacity building that will contribute significantly to meeting
Ethiopia’s medium and long term requirements in terms of land and water resources
research and management.
Strategic approach to research programme
Key facets of the basic strategy for the research programme should include:
• development of technologies and approaches to water and land management that are
appropriate for Ethiopia. This may include adaptation and dissemination of lessons
learned elsewhere for Ethiopian conditions
• emphasis on capacity building within existing institutional entities (these are to be
defined by the Ethiopian partners, but will include a broad set of institutions including
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Merrey et al.
3. Report on Mission to Ethiopia, 25 February to 3 March 2002, by a team of five IWMI scientists and one ILRI
scientist.
the Ministry of Water Resources (MoWR), Ministry of Agriculture (MOA), EARO,
Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Environmental Protection Authority, various universities,
NGOs etc.)
• in the Nile Basin, work within the Nile Basin Initiative (NBI) framework. It is recognised
that it is Ethiopia’s intent to create the necessary capacity to fully serve the nation’s
interest with respect to the Nile waters
• support for implementation of the national water resources management and
agricultural policies
• inclusion and integration of Ethiopian scientists, policy makers and other professionals
into African regional and global activities that have direct relevance to Ethiopia,
including Ethiopian participation in global and regional programmes managed by
IWMI and ILRI.
Comparing IWMI’s and its partners’ comparative advantage with the needs of Ethiopia,
it is possible to envision a very large programme with many different areas of work.
Examples include:
• integrated watershed management
• river basin management
• policies and institutions for land and water management for crop production, livestock
and the environment
• improved land management, including soil conservation, soil fertility maintenance,
drainage and management of soil problems, rainwater harvesting etc.
• water reuse/wastewater irrigation and peri-urban agriculture
• sustainable use of wetlands
• integrated approaches to land, water and livestock management
• sustainable groundwater management
• health issues related to water, including malaria, bilharzias, nutrition, and drinking
water and sanitation
• design and management of large-scale irrigation schemes and other major water
infrastructure
• smallholder irrigation design, management, and viability; adaptation and use of low-cost
micro-irrigation technologies
• managing tradeoffs between development of water resources for agriculture and
environmental impacts such that water resources are developed to their optimal level
without incurring unacceptable environmental impacts and
• drought and flood forecasting, climate variability, coping strategies and mitigation.
At this stage it is proposed to develop the future research and capacity building
programme around three focal areas as follows:
• Household and farm-level integrated water and land resource management including:
water harvesting, domestic water supply, agro-ecological interventions to reduce malaria,
livestock husbandry practices, micro-irrigation technologies, land and fertility
management; and in peri-urban areas, recycling of waste water in agriculture.
• Integrated watershed and natural resource management including: small-scale
irrigation, policies and institutional arrangements at district and community levels,
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Research and capacity building programme on water and land management in Ethiopia
livestock and vegetation management, water harvesting, irrigation and drainage scheme
design and management, management of soil salinity, conservation of wetlands.
• River basin management including: policies and institutional designs at basin, regional
and national level; application of decision-support tools for water management;
large-scale irrigation, livestock and vegetation management; drought and flood
forecasting and mitigation, climate variability and change and its implications for long
term productivity.
These areas were generally endorsed by the workshop. As the programme evolves, the
above areas will be prioritised and key research questions identified to address the most
significant water and land management issues in Ethiopia.
Strategic approach to professional development
and capacity building programme
Achieving the level of water and land management research and management capacity
desired by Ethiopia will take a large investment in human resources development and
institution-building over at least a decade. IWMI and its partners can make an important
contribution to achieving this objective, though of course there will be other initiatives at
the same time. Our comparative advantage is in post-graduate research-based education in
co-operation with universities, training of trainers in the use of various tools and
methodologies, policy and strategic workshops and programmes, and support for
institutional reforms in both the agricultural and resources management sectors.
This component of the overall programme could therefore include the following:
In the short term
• Workshops, study tours, and short training programmes for senior policy makers, water
managers, and researchers aimed at providing tools, skills, and knowledge that could be
used immediately. These would be designed based on interest and demand.
• Support for MSc and PhD students’ research on topics that are important to Ethiopia
and within the comparative advantage of IWMI, ILRI and other CGIAR partners.
• Collaboration with NGOs, public and private institutions at district level etc. in field
testing and adapting innovations that will have a direct impact on people’s livelihoods
through better land, livestock and water management. An example is the current
co-operation on treadle pump adaptation with the Ministry of Agriculture.
In the medium to long term
• In co-operation with Ethiopian research institutions and universities, plan and
implement a programme that combines research, opportunities for post-graduate
studies (MSc, PhD, post-doctoral), and curriculum development. This could be
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Merrey et al.
implemented in a ‘sandwich mode’, i.e. helping Ethiopian universities to strengthen
their own capacity to provide post-graduate training by further strengthening existing
links and establishing new ones to universities in other parts of Africa, Asia, Europe, and
North America; and co-supervising research by students.
• Assist Ethiopian technical training institutions to improve their curriculum and
training skills to impart the necessary skills to technical staff in water and land
management.
• Develop and implement joint research projects on the above topics in a way that
provides opportunities for on-the-job training.
At the workshop, there was clearly a very high level of interest by all parties in such
capacity-building activities.
Governance
Participation
To achieve its targets, the Ethiopian collaborative research programme on water and land
resources requires a well-co-ordinated team of partners and participating organisations. To
avoid fragmentation, research projects and activities must contribute to the overall
framework. The necessary strategic planning is the proposed role of the Ethiopian National
Consultative Committee for Water and Land Management Research.
The research partners have primary responsibility for the output of the overall
programme. Participating organisations will collaborate on specific projects and activities, and
will be responsible for the outputs from the project or activity. Participating organisations
will be drawn from national and regional government agencies, national and regional
research organisations (e.g. EARO, ESTC etc.), universities (e.g. Arbaminch, Addis Ababa,
Mekelle etc.) and NGOs. The composition of the group of participating organisations is the
responsibility of the National Consultative Committee.
Governance
The Ethiopian Science and Technology Commission (ESTC) has recently completed a
study recommending the establishment of an institutional framework to support water
research, somewhat like the arrangements in the agriculture and health sectors. The
workshop endorsed the implementation of this institutional framework. It also endorsed
the planned research department within the Ministry of Water Resources. However, it is
recognised that implementation of these new institutions will take time. Therefore, the
proposed Ethiopian National Consultative Committee for Water and Land Research
should be established immediately to bridge the gap. The workshop also proposed that a
broad Memorandum of Understanding between IWMI and the Government of Ethiopia
be prepared as a framework for the collaboration.
MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop 223
Research and capacity building programme on water and land management in Ethiopia
The Ethiopian National Consultative Committee will guide the collaborative research
and capacity building programme with IWMI and ILRI on water and land management.
This will consist of senior representatives of major stakeholders, including the Ministries of
Agriculture, Health, and Water Resources; regional government agencies; national and
regional research organisations; and universities, in addition to representation from IWMI,
ILRI and possibly other CGIAR centres.
The National Consultative Committee’s primary functions are to:
• identify issues and requirements for research and capacity building
• guide the development and promotion of a coherent approach for the research
programme
• assist in raising the necessary resources and ensure their proper management
• facilitate the synthesis and dissemination of the research results to the broader
stakeholder community through institutional arrangements to be created
• monitor and assess the programme’s achievements
• ensure that the programme is contributing to the larger goals of Ethiopia in the
agriculture and water resources sectors.
In the short run, the Ministry of Water Resources has created the core group that
organised the December 2002 workshop (this proceedings); this group with some further
strengthening could lead the elaboration of the proposed long-term collaborative
programme.
Timeline
The intent is to develop and implement a long-term collaboration on water and land
management research in Ethiopia that has long-term substantial support from strategic
donors. The December 2002 workshop has produced an agreed framework for
collaboration, reflected in this proceedings, which provides a basis for designing the future
programme and proposals to attract funding.
Resources and funding
The envisaged programme is ambitious and beyond the financial means of IWMI, ILRI, or
indeed the Ethiopian Government by themselves. Therefore, it will be necessary for the
partners to develop a strategy for attracting long term funding from interested donors. All of
the partners fully recognise the need to raise funds, and will co-operate to do so. The
workshop identified the need to approach many kinds of partners for support. The donors
supporting the Nile Basin Initiative, among others, may also be interested in providing
support to this initiative. The CGIAR Challenge Program for Water and Food, in which
IWMI is the lead partner, will be another potential source of funding for research and
capacity building through a competitive grant process.
224 MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop
Merrey et al.
Other relevant Ethiopian initiatives
The following activities were brought to our attention; more may be added at the workshop
and as this collaboration matures:
• a recently completed study by the Ethiopian Science and Technology Commission
(ESTC) to identify research and development issues and needs for water resources
management in Ethiopia for the Ministry of Water Resources. This study has been
referred to above
• the Ministry of Water Resources’ on-going study to determine institutional
requirements for integrated water resources management (IWRM) for Ethiopia’s 12
major basins
• the Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organization has developed concept papers
(EARO 2002) on smallholder irrigation, water harvesting, drainage technology, and
environment and irrigation
• the Ministry of Water Resources is proposing to expand the mandate of the Ground
Water Development Training Center (10 km south of Addis Ababa) to include water
resources in general, and to undertake applied research.
References
EARO (Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organization). 2002. Concept papers on agricultural water
management. Soil and Water Research Directorate, EARO, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations). 2001. FAOSTAT 2001. Data
available at http://apps.fao.org.
IWMI (International Water Management Institute). 2002. Report on mission to Ethiopia, 25
February–3 March 2002. IWMI, Pretoria, South Africa.
MoWR (Ministry of Water Resources). 1999. Comprehensive and Integrated Water Resources
Management—Ethiopian Water Resources Management Policy. MoWR, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
MoWR (Ministry of Water Resources). 2001. National Water Strategy. Final Draft. Project
Coordinating Office, MoWR, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop 225
Research and capacity building programme on water and land management in Ethiopia
Summaries of working group sessions
Following the one-and-a-half-days of plenary sessions, the workshop broke into five working
groups. These working groups were:
• household and farm level
• integrated watershed management
• basin/trans-boundary level management
• funding and governance
• capacity building
The groups were expected to identify key issues of research and capacity building
interest to Ethiopia, explore potential research questions, identify key partnerships and
determine next steps. If time allowed, the groups were to draft relevant pre-concept notes.
The groups were also encouraged to provide feedback on the framework paper.
The remainder of this paper summarises the output from each of the five working
groups.
Group I: Household, farm, community level issues
This group focused its discussion on the following priority areas:
Poverty alleviation
• develop and select relevant household indicators of poverty in the Ethiopia context (e.g.
economic, food security, health, education, type of house)
• assess and analyse the causes of poverty especially in rural Ethiopia
• determine the level and incidence of poverty in specific communities and relate these to
current water and land management strategies, and identify ways for improvement.
Water harvesting
• research and capacity building on water storage technologies for their efficiency and
appropriateness (including technologies to reduce seepage and loss of stored water)
• potential and possibility of micro-irrigation with small pumps
• different technological approaches that address production in the highlands and
lowlands, especially the pastoralists
• water harvesting for domestic use, and for livestock
• moisture conservation in situ
• catchment protection with methods such as erosion control, aforestation).
226 MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop
Domestic water supply
• water quantity and quality issues that are important for human consumption
• storage and treatment technologies and practices
• water use and hygiene education
• water delivery and transport systems
• assessment and protection of groundwater.
Drainage and water use efficiency
• safe drainage of vertisol soils: Prevention of water logging and excess withdrawal
• water use efficiency at farm level
• supplementary irrigation.
Uptake of technologies and agricultural crops
• participatory on-farm development and testing of new technologies (e.g. affordable drip
irrigation systems)
• dissemination of existing farming technologies (e.g. tillage, irrigation, drainage, storage)
• distinction and relative importance of food crops, cash crops, fodder crops, chat.
Urban and peri-urban agriculture
• horticultural crops for urban demand
• potential for roof water collection
Marketing and other economic issues
• physical access to markets (roads)
• when to store, when to sell?
• post-harvest technologies (safe storage and transport)
• property rights: Land tenure, land ownership, land use rights, water rights,
fragmentation of land (high pressure on land for new families)
• issues related to direct taxes on harvest and taxes on inputs, contributions (e.g. church,
sports, community activities), repayment of loans and interest (payments by farmers
should not be done at harvest time when the prices for produce are low)
• habits: Non-farming days (religious holidays); uneconomical use of produce (e.g.
weddings, festivals); hygiene behaviour; local family planning issues; chat consumption.
Summaries of working group sessions
MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop 227
Health issues (malaria and other diseases)
• what are the dynamics of increased malaria transmission associated with irrigation and
dams?
• how does this change over time?
• who are affected?
• relation to livestock (e.g. breeding in hoof prints, diverting mosquitoes to or from
people).
• bed nets (e.g. coverage, affordability).
Potential partners—Ethiopian Ministry of Health; Bureaus of Water Resources
(Ethiopia); Bureaus of Health; Institute of Health Research; Universities: Addis Ababa,
Alemaya, Jimma, Arbaminch, Mekelle (also medical faculties); NGOs; UNICEF; WHO;
ILRI; IWMI; Private enterprises (e.g. treatment, bed nets); Bilaterals; Religious
organisations; Ministry of Agriculture; Ministry of Culture; Ministry of Labour and Social
Affairs; Regional Governments; Micro-finance Enterprises; Private Enterprises; Regional
Research Institutes; Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organization.
Group II: Integrated watershed management
After a detailed deliberation by fourteen experts of diverse technical backgrounds and from
different institutions, four key areas were identified as important focus areas for watershed
management in the country, from a research and capacity building perspective. These areas
included:
• water harvesting for small-scale irrigation, livestock and domestic use within a
watershed
• alternative energy sources and their potential to sustain livelihood and preserve
environmental needs within a watershed, including hydropower, wind, solar, animal
wastes, fuel-wood etc.; domestic water supply for human activities and livestock
• livestock, agroforestry and vegetation management, including the introduction of
legumes for soil nutrients replenishment, systems stabilisation through soil
improvements and provision of additional livestock fodder etc.
• health and environmental issues in a watershed. Important environmental issues in a
watershed of research and capacity building interest, among others, include soil erosion
and land degradation, soil and water conservation, and maintenance of biodiversity
within a watershed. Health issues relate more to the impact of different land and water
management strategies (including management for irrigation and livestock) on human
health–water related diseases etc.
The group identified various research questions, thought to be relevant for the
planning research and capacity building work in water and land management in Ethiopia.
The questions, grouped according to identified focus areas, are presented below, as is a
draft concept note.
Summaries of working group sessions
228 MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop
Focus area I: Water harvesting for small-scale irrigation
(SSI), livestock and domestic use
• identification of best traditional small-scale irrigation practices and water harvesting
technologies and assessment of their potential for up-scaling
• determination of runoff coefficients and rates of sedimentation from various
catchments for irrigation scheme design
• water situation assessment (quality and quantity) in watersheds for various productive
purposes, including surface and groundwater potential
• studies on salinity hazards in small-scale irrigation; prevention and soil reclamation
• potential for conjunctive use of surface and groundwater sustainably in watershed
context
• selection of biological soil water conservation (SWC) methods in a catchment
• integrated pest management in watersheds
• potential for cost recovery in SSI, including an assessment of optimal level of cost that
could be incurred by farmers sustainably, and key incentives for repayment of such costs
by farmers
• ways of increasing labour productivity in smallholder production; assessment of
complimentary income generating activities such as the integration of fisheries with
livestock production etc.
• role of markets in supporting smallholder production and livelihoods in a watershed,
e.g. access to input and output markets. Role of markets in stimulating the productivity
and profitability of production on smallholder irrigation schemes and
• impact of frequent land redistribution on productivity of smallholder farmers
(especially irrigation farmers), and farmers incentives for investment in soil and water
conservation.
Focus area II: Livestock, agroforestry and vegetation
management
• assessment of parameters and measurement of water productivity in the livestock
sub-sector in the context of growing water scarcity in a watershed
• potential biological methods of improving/sustaining soil fertility and water
productivity in crop–livestock systems in a context of growing scarcity.
Focus area III: Alternative energy sources in a catchment
• appropriate technology choice with regards to energy (solar, wind, water/hydropower,
animal dung, fuel-wood etc.).
Summaries of working group sessions
MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop 229
Focus area IV: Health and environment
• wetlands management, including potential for sustainable exploitation while
preserving environmental values, uses and functions etc.
• water related diseases in small-scale irrigation (health impacts of water-harvesting
technologies; micro-dams etc.)
• studies on appropriate farming practices that maintain biological diversity and
resuscitate environmental quality.
Pre-concept note
Purpose
Given the research questions stipulated above, to facilitate sustainable socio-economic
development through integrated natural resource management, focusing on water, within
a watershed context.
Research questions
(as listed above)
Expected outputs
• capacity building: through workshops and working with communities; through student
collaboration etc.
• generation of a database that will be a useful planning tool for watershed development
(useful for governments, NGOs, communities etc.)
• various research outputs and packages, with recommendations for policy and
development practitioners
• establishment of benchmark watershed that will be useful references for the planning
and development of other watersheds.
Activities and methods
• intensive literature review
• in-depth case studies
? designing of the study through and inception workshop
? data collection (empirical data)
? empirical analysis and
? reporting and dissemination.
Summaries of working group sessions
230 MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop
Impacts
• improved food production in catchments
• improved livelihood of communities and rural people living in catchments
• rehabilitation of degraded lands and
• improved capacity of communities to implement or continue projects or initiatives.
Interested partners
IWMI, ILRI, Ministry of Agriculture (Ethiopia), Ministry of Water Resources (Ethiopia),
Metaferia Consultant Engineers, Environmental Protection Authority (Ethiopia),
Institute for Biodiversity Research and Conservation, Addis Ababa University (Civil
Engineering Department), Water Aid Ethiopia, Tigray Water Resources Development
Bureau, Tigray Bureau of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Amhara Region Water
Bureau; Land, Mines and Energy Resources Bureau for Southern Region; Oromiya Water
Resource Bureau; Oromiya Natural Resources Bureau; Oromiya Environmental Bureau;
Arbaminch Water Technology Institute.
Possible funding sources
CGIAR Challenge Program on Water and Food, IDRC, IFAD, World Bank, AfDB, FGM,
GEF, IUCN, UNDP, USAID, EU, SIDA, Ethiopian Government.
Group III: Basin/trans-boundary issues
This group considered a number of issues, including various scales of analysis and
categories of research and capacity building issues. The scales included the entire basin
within a region or country, shared basins between regions or countries, small and large scale
irrigation, and other uses, including hydropower and water supply for domestic and
productive purposes.
The group then proceeded to review the Water Resources Policy, Water Resources
Strategy of Ethiopia and the Framework Paper Developed by IWMI for water and land
Management in the country. Various knowledge gaps and capacity building issues were
identified. The major areas of research and capacity building were identified under
technical, economic, institutional and legal, and social and environmental categories.
Technical issues
• river basin modelling and DSS
? groundwater,
? catchment, physical models
Summaries of working group sessions
MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop 231
• cost effective hydrologic and hydraulic design standards and guidelines
• river morphology, sediment transport and flow/flood characterisation
• application of emerging technologies—GIS and Remote Sensing
• water quality and quantity monitoring
• information management
• groundwater
• equitable sharing
• index catchments modelling
• performance evaluation
• optimal use of land and water and other basin resources
• multi-purpose reservoirs along rivers.
Economic issues
• public–private sector partnership
• incentive mechanism for private investment
• cost recovery
• marketing problems of irrigation output—facilities at scheme and national policy level
• flexibility in design—crop and water management patterns—alternatives
• marketing and credit infrastructure flexibility
• optimum water and land use planning—links
• impact—relevance of government water policy on the national economy
• cross-sectoral issues—water and other sectors of the national economy
• sustainability of investment
• impact on income and purchasing power
• efficiency in BOT for hydropower
• DSS to evaluate impacts of technologies, management approaches, and policies for
decision-makers
• share of investments for water resources development—regions
• cross-sectoral cost sharing
• water pricing and tariffs and
• economic efficiency and social equity.
Institutional and legal issues
• appropriate institutional set-up at all levels—international experience
• nature of partnerships/co-operative framework
• conflict resolution and negotiation
• water rights at different levels
• implementation of programmes—institutions
• information sharing with riparian countries
Summaries of working group sessions
232 MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop
• navigational use of rivers and lakes
• enforcement of water laws—permits
• indicators for monitoring the following:
? environmental impact
? technical performance
? economic performance
• wetland management strategy and
• soil salinity and other issues.
Group IV: Governance and resources
The discussions of this group were focused on institutional requirements for co-ordination
and support of water resources research, identifying challenges and possible sources of
funding, and identifying key partnerships. The details include:
Institutions
• endorse autonomous institution for co-ordination and support of water resources
research
? Similar to framework in agriculture and health sector
? ESTC report offers proposal for this
? Government should commit itself
? Gradual development of R&D institution
? Institution needs strategy for collaboration with international institutions
? Possibility of IWMI role in institutional development.
Challenge
• effective co-ordination of the Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organization and the
Ministry of Agriculture, Water Resources Research and Development Institute,
Ministry of Water Resources, EPA etc.
? metadata base will help bridge this gap
? suggest: joint technical committee, with clear guidelines and terms of reference.
• importance of institutional stability
• develop water-related research and capacity building project proposals focused on
government priorities—such as PRSP (food security and rural livelihoods and
Agricultural Development-Led Industrialisation, ADLI).
? water recognised as key sector
? government commitment to research—may respond positively
? government commitment may leverage donor funds
? include research and capacity building components in investment projects.
Summaries of working group sessions
MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop 233
Possible source of funding
• Government of Ethiopia
• private sector
• NGOs
• external support agencies—multilateral, bilateral, initiatives like NBI
• CGIAR Challenge Program on Water and Food.
Partnerships
• networking among existing water-related institutions, e.g. MoWR, universities, ESTC,
EPA, MOA, EARO, professional associations, NGOs etc.
• partnerships with international institutions, such as ICID, GWP, IWMI, ILRI (and
other CGIAR centres), Global Mechanism for Combating Desertification etc.
Recommendations
Ethiopian national consultative committee on land and water research, as recommended
in Framework Paper reinforces technical committees of the proposed water research
institute and EARO as well as universities, Geological Survey of Ethiopia, and other key
national stakeholders.
Group V: Capacity building
The group focused on the identification of primary issues and development of key research
questions on capacity building in water and land management. Primary issues entailed an
assessment of natural resource potential, development, utilisation and associated
opportunities. The primary issues, research questions and proposed research questions
include:
Assessment
• water resources potential
• land resources potential
• environmental impacts
Development
• Planning
• Design
Summaries of working group sessions
234 MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop
• Implementation
Utilisation
• effectiveness
• efficiency
Opportunities
• ample potential of water and land resources
• viable policy has been formulated at the government level
• sectoral/cross-sectoral strategies and action plans are being developed for
implementation of policy
• increased realisation of the need for research and capacity building in water and land
management
• intention to establish water research and development institute
• expansion of higher learning and technical training institutions
• growing collaboration with donor and international organisations including training
institutions.
Potential research questions
• analyse minimum capacity requirements for research on land and water resources
management with reference to:
? human resource
? financial resource
? institutional aspects
• evaluate existing programmes with the view to strengthening the relevance and
effectiveness of training in land and water resource management
• identify causes and extent of brain drain with a view to creating an enabling
environment for researchers.
Proposed next steps
• the identified research questions could be addressed under the framework of the
proposed water R&D institute
• the report of the study of R&D in the water sector could serve as a basis for developing
research ideas and priorities.
Summaries of working group sessions
MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop 235
Recommendations
• the proposed Water R&D institute should be established as soon as possible
• project proposals should be developed to address the specific research questions
identified under the proposed collaboration framework.
Key partnerships
• main stakeholders in land and water resource management
? urban and rural communities
? national and regional research institutions
? government institutions (e.g. AAWAS, EEPCO, NMSA, GSE, ministries of water
resources, agriculture, infrastructure, capacity building, rural development),
Regional Water Bureau)
? higher learning and technical institutions (e.g. AWTI, AAU, AU, MU, JU, BU, DU)
? industry (private and public)
? non-governmental organisations—local and international (e.g. Water Aid, Water
Action, SNV)
? international research organisations (e.g. ILRI, IWMI)
? donor agencies (e.g. GTZ, SIDA, Dutch Government, CIDA, USAID, JICA)
? consulting firms (e.g. WWDSE, MCE, Aquatech Consult, Continental Tropics)
Summaries of working group sessions
236 MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop
Closing remarks
H.E. Gebremedhin Belay
Vice Minister of Agriculture, Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia
Honourable Guests
Dear Participants
Ladies and Gentlemen
I am pleased to congratulate you on behalf of the Ministry of Agriculture and on my own for
the successful deliberation you had on the workshop ‘Integrated water and land
management research and capacity building priorities for Ethiopia’.
Ethiopia is endowed with a variety of natural resources and wide ecological diversity.
Indeed, the country’s available natural resources and the water and land use on the
sufficiently potential arable land are not developed to ensure the proper and sustainable
exploitation of the resources for improving the livelihood of the nation and its peoples.
Environmental degradation is aggravated and the intensity of soil erosion has been
increasing from time to time mainly due to high population growth on existing arable land,
which requires more settlement area, farming plot, grazing land, and energy mainly from
the natural forest.
The settlement pattern is not in balance with the land carrying capacity and other
resources. Population density widely varies from region to region and from one
agro-ecological zone to another.
In most of the lowland areas, there are relatively wide areas of arable land. In fact, these
areas may not require fertilisation for the first few years when put under cultivation.
However, until very recent years, there was lack of clear and properly articulated settlement
policy and strategy. This problem is compounded due to the low level of infrastructure
development, variable weather conditions, high incidences of diseases etc. These factors
have hampered the mobility and settlement of the people in these areas.
The Government of Ethiopia in its current rural development policy and strategy has
properly articulated the need for undertaking voluntary settlement and infrastructure
development where there is a possibility for investment and settlement.
Nevertheless, this is not something that the Ethiopian Government alone could carry
out with its limited resources. In this regard, resources from external agencies and
specialised institutions are highly expected.
Ladies and Gentlemen
Because of total dependency on rain fed agriculture, the occurrence of drought is always a
challenge for Ethiopia. Its effect extended from economic destruction to loss of life. This
particular year, the failure of crop alone is estimated to affect or threaten the lives of 14–15
MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop 237
million people, who have no reserve to feed themselves; as a result, the burden fell on the
shoulder of the nation and donor communities. You can imagine the crises in the absence
of timely intervention.
Actually, the impact of drought is not limited only to the livelihood of the society but
also affects the biodiversity, which must get due attention. Why? Because the existence of
biodiversity is important for the sustainable productivities of land.
Ladies and Gentlemen
In your three days deliberation, you have discussed a number of issues in relation to
integrated water and land management. I have been informed that the issues are actually
very important to address the agenda of poverty although basic research will still be needed.
Immediate research results for solving problems of local dimension and capacity building at
all levels in this respect are extremely important. Therefore, it appears that adaptive
research, which can bring immediate benefits to the community, should be given top
priority.
Ladies and Gentlemen
Before I conclude my statement, let me assure you that your recommendations will be taken
as important considerations by the Ministry of Agriculture and other stakeholders in
making further interventions.
Once more, I would like to thank the International Water management Institute
(IWMI), the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), the Global Mechanism
(GM) of the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD), the
International Development Research Centre (IDRC) and United Nations Economic
Commission for Africa (UNECA) for financial assistance for the workshop. I would also
like to extend my thanks to all of you who have made the plan a reality.
Finally, wishing happy journey to foreign and regional participants, I now declare the
workshop is officially adjourned.
I thank you.
238 MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop
Gebremedhin Belay
Programme
Workshop on integrated water and land management
research and capacity building priorities for Ethiopia
2–4 December 2002
Time Subject Presenter
2 December 2002
8:30 am Registration
Plenary session A: Opening
9:00 am Welcome address Ato Gulilat Berhane
9:10 am Workshop goals and expected outputs Dr Doug Merrey
9:30 am Opening remarks Dr Don Peden
Opening statement H.E. Ato Shiferaw
Jarsso
10:10 Coffee break
Plenary session B
Moderator: Ato Mesfin Tegegne, Vice Minister of Water Resources
10:30 am Keynote address in the area of land and
water resources
Dr Admassu Gebeyhu
(Consultant)
10:50 am Present and future of water resources
development in Ethiopia
Ato Gulilat Berhane
(MoWR)
11:10 am Present and future trends of natural
resources management: Land and water
in agriculture
Ato Belayhun Hailu
(MOA)
11:30 am Present and future of natural resource
management research: Strategy,
gaps/issues on research and capacity needs
Dr Demle Teketaye
(EARO)
11:50 am Discussions
12:30–1:30 pm Lunch
Moderator: Comm. Mulugeta Ameha
1:30 pm Global and African programme of IWMI:
Relevance to Ethiopia
Dr Doug Merrey
(IWMI SA)
1:45 pm Water harvesting in northern Ethiopia:
Environmental, health and socio-economic
impacts
Drs Mintesinot
Behailu and Mitiku
Haile (MU)
MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop 239
Time Subject Presenter
2:00 pm Policies and institutions to enhance the
impact of irrigation development on
productivity, income, natural resource
management and welfare in the highlands of
Ethiopia
Drs Birhanu
G/Medhin and Don
Peden (ILRI)
2:15 pm Water harvesting and land management in
semi/and dry land
AU
2:30 pm Agriculture, irrigation and drainage research
in the past and in the future.
Dr Paulos Dubale
(EARO)
2:45 pm Discussion
3:30–3:45 pm Coffee break
Moderator: Dr Peter McCornick
3:45 pm Advances in research in integrated water
resources management in agriculture
Dr Hilmy Sally
(IWMI)
4:00 pm Challenges and opportunities in capacity
building for water resources development and
research in Ethiopia: The AWTI contribution
and experience
Dr Sileshi Bekele
(AWTI)
4:15 pm Small-scale irrigation development and water
balance in western Ethiopia
Dr Taffa Tulu (Ambo
College of Agriculture)
4:30 pm Integrated watershed management (ILRI/IWMI)
4:45 pm Promoting global watershed management
towards rural communities: The May Zeg-zeg
Initiative
Jan Nyssen, Mitiku
Haile, Katrien
Descheemaeker, Jozef
Deckers, Jean Poesen,
Jan Moeyersons and
Trufat Hailemariam
(MU)
5:00 pm Discussion
6:00 pm Reception and Dinner – ILRI Campus
3 December 2002
Plenary session C
Moderator: Ato Teshome Workie
8:30 am An overview of the Ethiopian Rainwater
Harvesting Association (ERHA)
Sis. Meselech Seyoum
(ERHA)
8:40 am Comparative advantages and research interest
area of the Department of Civil Engineering
Dr Yilma Sileshi
(AAU)
240 MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop
Programme
Time Subject Presenter
8:50 am Rural water supply Ato Getachew Abdi
(MoWR)
9:00 am Discussion
Livestock, water, environment and health
Plenary session D
Moderator: Dr Azage Tegegne—ILRI Debre Zeit
9:20 am Livestock and water in Ethiopia Drs Don Peden and
Zinash Sileshi
(ILRI/EARO)
9:30 am Advances in livestock and water research and
capacity development
Dr Don Peden (ILRI)
9:40 am Managing water for livestock and fisheries
development
Dr Sileshi Ashine
(MOA)
9:50 am Community health, water supply and
sanitation
Ato Muchi Kidanu
(MOH)
10:00 am Discussion
10:30–10:40 am Coffee break
10:40 am Water, health and the environment in
irrigated agriculture
Dr Eline Boelee
(IWMI HQ)
10:50 am Water and the environment in Ethiopia Ato Mateos Mekiso
(EPA)
Plenary session E: Research and capacity building in water and land management
Moderator: Dr Abdul Kamara
11:00 am Research issues and capacity building in water
and land institutions
IWMI/Ato Abebe
Mekuriaw (ESTC)
11:50 am
Introduction to the draft ‘Framework for
collaborative research on water and land
management in Ethiopia’
Dr Doug Merrey
(IWMI SA)
12:10 pm Discussion
12:30–1:30 pm Lunch
1:30–1:40 pm Briefing about the breakout session
1:40–3:30 pm Breakout session I
Determine and prioritise key issues and needs in research and
capacity. Identify key partnerships and mechanisms for addressing
issues. Begin drafting concept notes.
3:30–3:50 Coffee break
3:50–5:00 Breakout session II
Continue activities from breakout session I
MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop 241
Programme
Time Subject Presenter
Enhance and develop concept notes
5:10 pm Close for the day
4 December 2002
8:30 am Summary of previous day, and agenda for
today
8:40–10:00 am Breakout session III
Continue activities from breakout session II
Prepare for presentation to plenary
10:00–10:30 am Coffee break
10:30–12:30 Plenary session E
10:30 am Reporting from breakout sessions
Presentation and discussion of breakout session results
Primary issues
Recommendations on framework
Key partnerships
Draft concept notes
12:15 pm Closing Vice Minister of
Agriculture,
Government of
Ethiopia
12:30–1:30 pm Lunch
242 MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop
Programme
List of participants
Addis Ababa University
Abdulkerim Hussein
P.O. Box 385
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Tel: (251–1) 124505
Fax: (251–1) 552601
E-mail: AEUA@CENG.AAU.EDU.et
Bayou Chane
P.O. Box 385
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Tel: (251–1) 551022 Ext. 291/124505
09–225075(Mobile)
Fax: (251–1) 552601
E-mail: bayou@ceng.aau.edu.et
Dereje Hailu
P.O. Box 385
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Yilma Seleshi
P.O. Box 385
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Tel: (251–1) 124505
Fax: (251–1) 552601
E-mail: yilmash@ceng.aau.edu.et
Ambo College of Agriculture
Taffa Tulu
P.O. Box 19
Ambo, Ethiopia
Tel: 362006/362037/363098
Amhara Region
Bayable Mersha
Water and Mines Bureau
P.O. Box 88
Bahir Dar, Ethiopia
Tel: (251–8) 201091
Fax: (251–8) 204676
Zewdu Ayalew
Bahir Dar, Ethiopia
Tel: (251–8) 201288
Arbaminch Water Technology
Institute
Muluneh Yitayew (on sabattical from the
University of Arizona)
Public Affairs Section US Embassy,
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
P.O. Box 1014
Tel: (Mobile) 09–232490
E-mail: myitayew@u.arizona.edu
Seleshi Bekele
P.O. Box 21
Arbaminch, Ethiopia
Tel: (251–6) 810771/810097
Fax: (251–6) 810820/810279
E-mail: awti@telecom.net.et/selshi-bekele@
yahoo.com
BIK Engineering
Birru Ittisa
P.O. Box 5279
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Tel: (251–1) 514373
Fax: (251–1) 519221
E-mail: bik eng@telecom.net.et
CIDA
Tamene Tiruneh
P.O. Box 1009
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Tel: (251–1) 715600
Fax: (251–1) 715744
E-mail: psuenvironment@telecom.net.et
MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop 243
Continental Consulting Eng.
Kelemu Sinke
P.O. Box 22640
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Tel: (251–1) 625578
Fax: (251–1) 625579
E-mail: cc@telecom.net.et
CRDA
Tiruwork Mekonnen
P.O. Box 5674
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Tel: (251–1) 650100
E-mail: crda@telecom.net.et
CRS
Bekele Abaire
P.O. Box 6592
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Tel: (251–1) 653593
Fax: (251–1) 654450
E-mail: crs@telecom.net.et
EARO
Michael Menker
P.O. Box 32
Debre Zeit, Ethiopia
E-mail: DZARC@telecom.net.et
Paulos Dubale
P.O. Box 2003
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Tel: (251–1) 454437
Fax: (251–1) 461294
E-mail:iar@telecom.net.et
Taye Bekele
P.O. Box 2003
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Tel: (251–1) 505596
Fax: (251–1) 611222
E-mail: iar@telecom.net.et
Yonas Yemshaw
P.O. Box 2003
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
E-mail: frc-head@telecom.net.et
Zinash Sileshi
P.O. Box 2003
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Tel: (251–1) 454432
E-mail: iar@telecom.net.et
EPA
Dereje Agonafir
P.O. Box 12760
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Tel: (251–1) 625558 Ext. 203/216
Fax: (251–1) 610077
E-mail: envpa@telecom.net.et
Mateos Mekiso
P.O. Box 12760
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Tel: (251–1) 624758
Fax: (251–1) 610077
E-mail: epa@telecom.net.et
Tewdros Nega
P.O. Box 12760
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Tel: (251–1) 183717/186202
E-mail: ep0l@telecom-net-et
ERHA
Girma Mengistu
P.O. Box 13367
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Tel: (251–1) 460927/458314
Fax: (251–1) 661679
E-mail: wact@telecom.net.et
Meselech Seyoum
P.O. Box 13367
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Tel: (251–1) 458314
E-mail wact@telecom.net.et
244 MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI Workshop
List of participants