Strategic Public-Private Partnership Guide for Sustainable CSA and CIS Delivery Working Paper Livingstone Byandaga, Desire Kagabo, Patrick Mvuyibwami, Adama Ouedraogo, Mathieu Ouedraogo November 2025 To cite this report Byandaga, L., Kagabo, D., Mvuyibwami, P., Ouedraogo, A., & Ouedraogo, M. 2025. AICCRA Strategic Guidance Report: Strategic Public-Private Partnership Guide for Sustainable CSA and CIS Delivery. Accelerating Impacts of CGIAR Climate Research for Africa (AICCRA) Acknowledgements Accelerating Impacts of CGIAR Climate Research for Africa (AICCRA) is a project that helps deliver a climate-smart African future driven by science and innovation in agriculture. It is led by the Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT and supported by a grant from the International Development Association (IDA) of the World Bank. About AICCRA Reports Titles in this series aim to disseminate interim research on the scaling of climate services and climate-smart agriculture in Africa, in order to stimulate feedback from the scientific community. Photos Cover photo: © Joseline Kiogora/ Alliance of Bioversity and CIAT Disclaimer This working paper has not been peer reviewed. Any opinions stated herein are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the policies or opinions of AICCRA, donors, or partners. Licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution – Non-commercial 4.0 International License. Partners WORKING REPORT Accelerating Impacts of CGIAR Climate Research for Africa (AICCRA) i ABSTRACT Agriculture in Africa faces increasing threats from climate variability and extreme weather events. CIS and CSA are crucial for informed decision-making by farmers and policymakers. Strategic Public–Private Partnerships (PPPs) enable resource mobilization, innovation, and scaling of climate services. This Strategic PPP Guide provides a step-by-step guide for building strategic partnerships for delivery and scaling Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA) and Climate Information Services (CIS) across Africa. It aligns with regional and national priorities for sustainable agricultural transformation by integrating public policy support, private-sector innovation, and community participation to strengthen resilience, productivity, and sustainability. It aims to institutionalize the delivery of bundled CSA and CIS solutions through inclusive, transparent, and market-driven partnerships that empower farmers to make informed, climate-responsive decisions. The PPP Guide is anchored on four PPP strategic pillars: (i) policy and governance, (ii)innovation and finance, (iii) knowledge and capacity development, and (iv) inclusive partnerships that define how public, private, research, and civil society actors collaborate to deliver impact (Saner et al, 2021). Public institutions ensure policy coherence and coordination; private innovators provide technologies, financing, and scalable delivery systems; research institutions supply data, tools, and capacity-building support; and civil society organizations promote equity and accountability. Guided by principles of user-centricity, inclusivity, transparency, and sustainability, the framework ensures that interventions address farmers’ real needs, bridge information gaps, and build long-term institutional capacity. Its core objectives are to enhance farmer resilience, strengthen institutional efficiency in CSA and CIS delivery, and foster viable PPP ecosystems that drive innovation, investment, and shared value creation. Supported by enabling policies, blended financing, and digital tools, this guide establishes a pathway toward a climate-resilient, inclusive, and market-responsive agricultural system that improves food security and livelihoods across the continent. WORKING REPORT Accelerating Impacts of CGIAR Climate Research for Africa (AICCRA) ABOUT THE AUTHORS Livingstone Byandaga (L.Byandaga@cgiar.org) is a Research Specialist - Climate Services-Climate Action at The Alliance of Bioversity International and the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT). Desire Kagabo (D.Kagabo@cgiar.org) is a Scientist - Project Leader, Climate Action at The Alliance of Bioversity International and the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT). Patrick Mvuyibwami (P.Mvuyibwami@cgiar.org) is a Senior Research AssociateClimate Action, at The Alliance of Bioversity International and the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT). Adama Ouedraogo (damslees@gmail.com) agribusiness economist is visiting Researcher at The Alliance of Bioversity International and the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) and Reseacher at Institut de l’Environnement et de Recherche Agricoles (INERA)/Burkina Faso Mathieu Ouedraogo (m.ouedraogo@cgiar.org) is a Senior Scientist - Climate information services-AICCRA, at The Alliance of Bioversity International and the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT). mailto:L.Byandaga@cgiar.org mailto:D.Kagabo@cgiar.org mailto:P.Mvuyibwami@cgiar.org mailto:damslees@gmail.com mailto:m.ouedraogo@cgiar.org WORKING REPORT Accelerating Impacts of CGIAR Climate Research for Africa (AICCRA) 1 CONTENTS Abstract ............................................................................................. i Contents ........................................................................................... 1 Acronyms .......................................................................................... 2 1. Introduction and background ........................................................ 4 1.1 Addressing Core National Challenges ......................................... 4 A. Climate Vulnerability and Food Security ......................................... 4 B. Capacity and Institutional Gaps .................................................... 4 C. Financial and Market Barriers ....................................................... 5 1.2 Outline of the Document .......................................................... 5 Chapter 1: The Role of Climate Information Services and Climate- Smart Agriculture in Africa ................................................................ 6 1.1 Key resilience challenges in Africa ............................................. 6  1.2 Emergence and interplay of CIS and CSA for resilience ................. 6 1.2.1 Climate Information Services (CIS) .......................................... 6 1.2.2 Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA) .............................................. 6 1.2.3 Bundling Climate Information Services and Climate Smart Agriculture .................................................................................... 7 1.3 Public–Private Partnerships (PPPs) ............................................. 7 1.4 Selection criteria for Partners in the PPP arrangement .................. 7 Chapter 2: A Guide to Accelerate CIS & CSA Delivery via PPP ............. 9  2.1 Need for a strategic PPP approach to CIS & CSA ........................... 9  2.1.1 Why adopt a PPP model? ........................................................ 9  2.1.2 Minimizing barriers ............................................................... 10  2.2 Key considerations when designing PPPs for CIS & CSA delivery ... 14  2.2.2 Capacity building and resource sharing .................................... 14 2.3 Summarising the PPP strategy development process .................. 15 Chapter 3: Activity I – Understanding the National / Regional Context ....................................................................................................... 16 Chapter 4: Activity II – Analysis of Climate Change, Hazards & Exposure ......................................................................................... 17 Chapter 5: Activity III – Prioritizing Value Chains for CIS/CSA services delivery ........................................................................................... 18 Chapter 6: Activity IV – Identification of Viable Solution packages (CIS and CSA Bundling for Resilience) ..................................................... 19 Chapter 7: Activity V – Designing Entry Points & Implementation Roadmap for the PPP ...................................................................... 20 ANNEXES ......................................................................................... 25 ANNEX 1. Sample PPP Template ................................................... 25 References ...................................................................................... 26 WORKING REPORT Accelerating Impacts of CGIAR Climate Research for Africa (AICCRA) ACRONYMS CIS Climate Information Services CSA Climate-Smart Agriculture PPP Public–Private Partnership SSA Sub-Saharan Africa GFCS Global Framework for Climate Services WMO World Meteorological Organization FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations CGIAR Consortium of International Agricultural Research Centers CGIAR Climate Research for Africa (AICCRA) CSOs Civil society organizations SMEs Small and Medium Enterprises SMS Short Message Service NARS National Agriculture Research Institutions NGO Non-governmental organization NCOFs National Centre of Organic Farming FM Frequency modulation ICT Information and communication technology NMHS National Meteorological and Hydrological Services ICPAC IGAD Climate Prediction and Applications Centre SLAs Service-Level Agreements KPIs Key Performance Indicators NAPs National Adaptation Plans NDCs Nationally Determined Contributions MFD: Maximizing Finance for Development UNECE United Nations Economic Commission for Europe UNDP United Nations Development Programme WORKING REPORT Accelerating Impacts of CGIAR Climate Research for Africa (AICCRA) 3 UNCDF United Nations Capital Development Fund GEDSI Gender Equality, Disability and Social Inclusion EPEC European PPP Expertise Centre MEL Monitoring, Evaluation and Learning WORKING REPORT Accelerating Impacts of CGIAR Climate Research for Africa (AICCRA) 1. INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND The African continent stands at a crucial juncture, where the challenges of a rapidly changing climate intersect with the imperative of achieving food security and sustainable economic development. Agriculture, which forms the backbone of many African economies and supports the livelihoods of the majority of its population, remains overwhelmingly reliant on rainfall. This makes agriculture acutely vulnerable to extreme weather events, shifting seasons, and increasing climate variability [WMO, 2014]. In response to this problem, Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA) and reliable Climate Information Services (CIS) have emerged as the most viable strategies to build resilience. CSA practices such as conservation agriculture, water harvesting, and the adoption of drought-tolerant crop varieties are proven methods to increase food productivity, adapt to climate change, and, where possible, mitigate the effects of climate change (Begna & Wakweya, 2025). However, the widespread adoption of these integrated services faces significant systemic barriers that government resources alone cannot overcome. This guide, A Strategic Public-Private Partnership Guide for Sustainable CSA and CIS Delivery, is designed to serve as a practical guide for policymakers, public sector agencies, and private sector investors seeking to overcome these barriers collaboratively. It posits that strategic Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs) are the essential tool for mobilizing the necessary capital, technology, innovation, and market linkages required to overcome barriers and scale CSA and CIS to millions of smallholder farmers across Africa [Postema, L. (2022).]. 1.1 Addressing Core National Challenges Scaling up and delivery of CSA for increased productivity, adaptation, and mitigation and ensuring effective CIS delivery are hampered by deeply rooted national challenges, which are the primary drivers for adopting a PPP approach: A. Climate Vulnerability and Food Security The African continent faces a pervasive threat from climate change whose impact is already undermining decades of development gains. This requires urgent action to transition away from traditional, highly vulnerable farming systems. The persistent challenge of food insecurity and malnutrition is directly exacerbated by climate shocks, demanding that resilience be the central focus of agricultural policy. B. Capacity and Institutional Gaps Scaling is constrained by fragmentation of Services. CIS and CSA services are often provided by fragmented institutional structures, limiting coordination between climate agencies, agricultural extension, and research institutions. Weak Public extension services frequently lack resources and localized, user- friendly communication channels to effectively disseminate tailored climate information services and train farmers on complex CSA practices. Working Paper Accelerating Impacts of CGIAR Climate Research for Africa (AICCRA) 5 And sometimes ambiguous or insecure land rights discourage smallholder farmers from making long-term investments in land improvement, which is a prerequisite for many CSA practices. C. Financial and Market Barriers Inadequate Public Finance: Public budgets are commonly insufficient to fund the large-scale infrastructure (e.g., decentralized weather stations, digital platforms, irrigation) and operational costs required to sustain CSA and CIS delivery at scale. Limited Access to Inputs and Credit: Smallholder farmers struggle to access the specialized, higher-quality climate-resilient seeds, affordable financing (e.g., tailored agricultural insurance), and equipment necessary to implement CSA. Unsupportive PPP Frameworks: Existing national PPP policies are often designed for large infrastructure projects (roads, energy) and fail to account for the, dispersed, and higher-risk nature of agricultural projects, particularly those involving 1.2 Outline of the Document This guide provides a comprehensive roadmap for designing, implementing, and monitoring sustainable PPPs for CSA and CIS. It is divided into the following chapters: Chapter 2: A Guide to Accelerate CIS & CSA Delivery via PPP establishes the core rationale for using PPPs in this sector, detailing the unique value that private sector engagement brings in terms of technology, risk sharing, and commercial viability. Chapter 3: Activity I – Understanding the National / Regional Context instructs users on how to assess the prevailing policy, legal, and institutional environment to identify strategic entry points and risks for private sector participation. Chapter 4: Activity II – PPP Structuring and Transaction Design walks through the steps of designing an effective partnership, including defining roles, allocating risk appropriately, and ensuring the commercial viability of the venture. Chapter 5: Activity III – Implementation, Monitoring, and Evaluation addresses the operational phase of the PPP, focusing on contract management, performance metrics, and inclusive mechanisms to ensure benefits reach smallholder farmers. WORKING REPORT Accelerating Impacts of CGIAR Climate Research for Africa (AICCRA) CHAPTER 1: THE ROLE OF CLIMATE INFORMATION SERVICES AND CLIMATE-SMART AGRICULTURE IN AFRICA 1.1 Key resilience challenges in Africa Climate change poses a severe threat to agriculture and food systems across Africa, especially in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), where limited adaptive capacity and weak institutions heighten people’s vulnerability to climate change. Erratic rainfall, rising temperatures, floods, and droughts have disrupted rainfed systems, reducing soil fertility and crop yields, with millions of smallholder farmers face growing risks to their livelihoods, food security, and income (Ofori et al., 2021; Ariom et al., 2022; Mutengwa et al., 2023). Strengthening agricultural resilience has therefore become a critical priority for sustaining productivity under increasing climate uncertainty (Teng and Craigen, 2025). Addressing these challenges requires approaches that combine adaptation and mitigation. To achieve the double benefit of enhanced adaption and mitigation, access to and use of CIS &CSA are crucial.  1.2 Emergence and interplay of CIS and CSA for resilience 1.2.1 Climate Information Services (CIS) CIS refers to the generation, processing, packaging and delivery of weather- and climate-related information tailored for users and involves the collection, organization, packaging, tailoring, and distribution of weather and climate information (Warner. D et al, 2022). PPP in CIS would address the gaps in the need for investments in robust observation and data management systems; short- , medium-, and seasonal forecasts; impact-based early warning systems; and sector-specific products for agriculture, water, energy, and health. Financial and risk tools such as weather-index insurance and climate analytics for investors are critical for private-sector engagement. Equally important are user-centered packaging and dissemination via mobile, radio, and digital platforms, supported by co-production processes that engage users in service design. These interconnected suite CIS investments create an enabling environment for scaling climate-resilient iinterventions through PPPs. 1.2.2 Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA) CSA guidance covers practices such as conservation agriculture, adding organic matter to soil, integrated nutrient management, choosing climate-resilient crops and varieties, and using water efficiently (FAO, 2013). There are several innovations in Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA) that enhance farmer resilience, private sector profitability, and inclusivity across Sub-Saharan Africa that can be achieved through public–private partnerships. These may include AI-driven digital advisory platforms, solar-powered drip irrigation and smart water systems, biofertilizer and biochar enterprises, solar cold storage and mobile agro-processing units, and bundled weather-index insurance with credit and carbon markets. However, for a successful PPP, the innovations should offer strong financial returns, scalable business models, and measurable social and economic benefits. In addition, the innovations should enhance productivity, reduce losses, create green Working Paper Accelerating Impacts of CGIAR Climate Research for Africa (AICCRA) 7 jobs, empower women and youth, and strengthening climate resilience in agricultural value chains. 1.2.3 Bundling Climate Information Services and Climate Smart Agriculture Bundling Climate Information Services (CIS) and Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA) offer farmers in Sub-Saharan Africa solutions that enhance climate change resilience for profitability in their small businesses. Examples of potential bundled services are digital agro-advisories bundled with drought-tolerant seeds, seasonal weather forecasts bundled with solar-powered drip irrigation and water management services. Other bundled services could be early warning alerts combined with weather-index insurance and input financing, and satellite-based crop monitoring linked to soil fertility recommendations and biofertilizer supply. When delivered through public–private partnerships, these bundles provide climate data, climate-resilient technologies, and financial risk management, creating scalable, bankable, and socially inclusive solutions that empower smallholders. These bundles also improve yields, reduce losses, and generate a positive economic impact across agricultural value chains (Mabhaudhi et al; 2025) 1.3 Public–Private Partnerships (PPPs) PPPs are defined differently by scholars. Some scholars see PPP as a tool of governance and management, as a tool for financial arrangement, as a development strategy and as a language game (Khanom, N.A, 2010). PPPs offer practical solutions to challenges of mobilizing private investment, technology, and expertise to complement public efforts. Public finance, on its own, is insufficient to meet the increasing demand for climate-smart agricultural infrastructure and innovation. PPPs focus on performance outcomes and align public and private incentives. Using PPPs as an approach facilitates scalable, commercially viable solutions that can expand the reach of CIS and CSA to farming communities across Africa (World Bank, 2017). Evidence from AICCRA pilots in Ghana and Mali shows that bundling Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA) and Climate Information Services (CIS) improves productivity, income, food security, and women’s participation (Tepa-yotto, 2022). Scaling these solutions across the sub-Saharan Africa requires strong national institutions, knowledge sharing, and inclusive Public–Private Partnerships to enhance investment in climate-smart agriculture. 1.4 Selection criteria for Partners in the PPP arrangement Once a decision on PPP has been reached, the next step is to determine relevant suppliers to partner with each country’s government and find an effective partnership for delivery of CIS and CSA (Ouedraogo A, 2025). The decision criteria for the right supplier includes relevant strategic attributes, organizational attributes and financial attributes. Strategic decision criteria also involves the market position, relationship building and marketing competence of the partners. WORKING REPORT Accelerating Impacts of CGIAR Climate Research for Africa (AICCRA) Partners should have a clear organizational structure, transparent ownership structure with clearly defined roles when considering organizational attributes. On the side of financial criteria, we consider profitability, liquidity and asset efficiency. It is also important to analyze the partners using the MICE framework so one can determine how institutions decide on the best approach to achieve success in partnerships. Working Paper Accelerating Impacts of CGIAR Climate Research for Africa (AICCRA) 9 CHAPTER 2: A GUIDE TO ACCELERATE CIS & CSA DELIVERY VIA PPP  2.1 Need for a strategic PPP approach to CIS & CSA  2.1.1 Why adopt a PPP model? Public Private Partnerships (PPPs) enhance the provision of Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA) and Climate Information Services (CIS) through combining the best that public and private institutions have to offer. This means that public oversight, policy support, and equity are combined with private innovation, financing, and efficient service delivery. These partnerships enable sustainable and resilient agricultural interventions, such as climate advisory services that are based on reliable and context specific weather forecasts (Lee et al., 2021; Clarkson et al., 2022; AGRIFIN, 2025). PPPs operate through multiple strategic mechanisms and benefits as illustrated below: I. Resource Mobilization and Synergistic Alignment ● Leverage Complementary Strengths. There is an establishment of clear delineation of roles where the public sector provides policy frameworks, regulatory oversight, and extensive outreach, while the private sector contributes innovation, financing, and operational efficiencies. ● Mobilize and Scale Investment: The utilization of public funding instruments (e.g., grants, guarantees) minimizes risks and helps to attract private capital into CSA/CIS interventions that successfully blend public goods provision with commercially viable service delivery. II. Technical Advancement and Operational Excellence ● Foster Innovation and Technology Transfer: The private sector acts as the primary driver for developing technological solutions. The public sector's role is to facilitate adoption, ensure equitable access, and establish standards for these technologies across the target populations. ● Enhance Efficiency, Service Delivery, and Risk Sharing: Implement robust governance models that apply the principle of optimal risk allocation. This ensures that risks are managed by the party best equipped to absorb or mitigate them. This also enhances accountability and ensures rigorous monitoring protocols are observed. III. Market Integration and Sustainability ● Support Market Linkages and Value Chain Integration: Develop mechanisms that efficiently connect smallholder producers with agribusinesses, ensuring reliable input supply, optimized output processing, and the establishment of assured off-take markets. ● Promote Sustainability and Institutionalization: Embed CSA/CIS interventions within long-term national and regional strategic frameworks, WORKING REPORT Accelerating Impacts of CGIAR Climate Research for Africa (AICCRA) transitioning them from discrete, short-term projects into permanent, institutionalized operational models. IV. Governance and Resilience ● Enable Multi-Stakeholder Collaboration and Inclusivity: The establishment of PPPs mandates the engagement of all relevant stakeholders like government bodies, the private sector, research institutions, civil society organizations, and farmer representatives, and this ensures equity, social inclusion, and robust accountability in program design and execution. ● Address Climate Adaptation and Resilience Imperatives: Combine the public mandate for national security and climate stability with private sector innovation and speed to rapidly deliver climate-resilient infrastructure and critical services Figure 1: A graphical representation of different actors in the PPP model  2.1.2 Minimizing barriers A strategic PPP approach must address major barriers such as fragmented institutional responsibilities, inadequate policy and regulatory frameworks combined with the absence of viable business models and safeguards for inclusivity Working Paper Accelerating Impacts of CGIAR Climate Research for Africa (AICCRA) 11 that undermine the effective and equitable delivery of CIS and CSA services to farmers. 2.1.2.1 Institutional roles and responsibilities Effective CIS and CSA delivery relies on coordinated PPPs: the public sector provides policy, infrastructure, and oversight; the private sector drives innovation and scalable services; civil society ensures inclusion and community responsiveness; and academia generates evidence and builds capacity. These roles collectively enable sustainable, bundled CIS and CSA solutions. Key Roles and Contributions: Public Sector: ● Establishes policies, regulatory frameworks, and institutional mechanisms for PPPs. ● Provides climate/weather data, extension services, and critical infrastructure. ● Facilitates risk mitigation (credit guarantees, subsidies) and oversees PPP contracts. ● Ensures inclusivity, equity, and alignment with national development plans. ● Integrates climate information into CSA advisory and training services (FAO, 2025). Private Sector: ● Invests in and deliver innovative CSA and CIS technologies and services. ● Introduces market-oriented solutions, digital platforms, and cost-effective delivery models. ● Co-invests with the public sector to reduce barriers to entry and also share risks. ● Packages CIS and CSA into bundled offerings for smallholder farmers. ● Connects farmers to markets, inputs, and advisory networks to enhance productivity and resilience (Zoetbrood, 2022; UNECA, 2021). Civil Society & Farmers’ Organizations: ● Advocates for inclusion and equity in CSA and CIS programs. ● Mobilizes communities, builds capacity, and provides localized feedback mechanisms. ● Monitors PPP implementation to ensure fair distribution of benefits. WORKING REPORT Accelerating Impacts of CGIAR Climate Research for Africa (AICCRA) ● Operates farmer-field schools, peer-learning groups, and community feedback loops (Davilla et al., 2024). Research Institutions and Academia: ● Provides scientific, technical, and methodological foundations for CSA and CIS. ● Conducts pilot studies, field trials, and cost-benefit analyses of bundled solutions. ● Builds human capacity and advises policymakers on evidence-based strategies. ● Validates CSA technologies and develops locally tailored CIS modules. ● Supports PPPs with monitoring, evaluation frameworks, and lessons learned documentation (Matteoli & Schnetzer, 2020; Negra et al., 2023). 2.1.2.2 Business models for private partners delivering CIS/CSA services to farmers or value-chains. To sustainably deliver Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA) and Climate Information Services (CIS), there needs to be viable business models that balance profitability and affordability. Subscription services, blended finance, and bundled products enable public-private partnerships to share costs, reduce risks, and integrate services, fostering innovation, adoption, and long-term resilience for farmers. Key Elements of the PPP Framework: ● Subscription-based services: Farmers pay small fees for personalized weather forecasts and crop advisories; basic information may remain free (e.g., Ignitia, West Africa). ● Blended finance: Combines public and private funding to reduce investment risks for small farmers and SMEs (Runde et al., 2021). ● Bundled services: Integrates CIS, CSA technologies, insurance, and inputs to increase adoption and resilience (Ouedraogo et al., 2025). ● Pre-competitive collaboration: Competitors cooperate on shared challenges while maintaining competitiveness. ● Shared value creation: Reduces costs, improves efficiency, and strengthens market competitiveness. ● Innovation and knowledge exchange: Promotes continuous improvement, technological adaptation, and socially inclusive, economically viable partnerships Working Paper Accelerating Impacts of CGIAR Climate Research for Africa (AICCRA) 13 2.1.2.3 Inclusivity Inclusivity in public-private partnerships (PPPs) is strategic and essential. It ensures that access to Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA) and Climate Information Services (CIS) is equitable. By engaging diverse stakeholders and tailoring services to the needs of women, youth, and people with disabilities, PPPs enhance adoption, resilience, and the overall impact of climate solutions across multiple demographics. Key Strategies for Inclusive PPPs: ● Diverse stakeholder engagement: The inclusion of farmers, extension officers, researchers, private innovators, and policymakers across different genders, ages, and socioeconomic levels. ● Participatory design: Co-design workshops and structured engagement capture the perspectives of marginalized groups. ● Accessibility-focused solutions: CSA and CIS tools and training are adapted for individuals with disabilities and varied literacy levels to ensure their accessibility. ● Equitable service delivery: Economic barriers are minimized, providing affordable solutions suitable for farmers at different financial capacities. ● Empowerment and adoption: Inclusion strengthens resilience, adoption of innovations, and long-term sustainability of agricultural practices. 2.1.2.4. Institutional transparency and data-sharing protocols A lack of transparency and trust can repel partners and beneficiaries (Dove et al, 2025), and this leads to slowing down of PPP projects. If PPPs are to gain and secure trust from stakeholders and end-users, they must maintain all achievable levels of open, near-real-time two-way information disclosure. This ensures that all relevant parties have access to timely, objectively verifiable, and interpretable information (Mukhopadya, 2016; Batjargal and Zhang, 2021; Reig et al., 2021; World Bank, n.d.). This principle is achieved through open data sharing, joint planning, and clear governance structures. Structured channels with centralized data platforms, SMS, or shared dashboards ensure that CIS and CSA advisories are consistently delivered to all stakeholders, reducing the asymmetry of information and allowing all actors of the partnership to source the same verified data. The collaborative framework with communication protocols clarifies the source, transition and final use of the information, ensuring accountability and preventing miscommunication which enhance trust within the value chain. WORKING REPORT Accelerating Impacts of CGIAR Climate Research for Africa (AICCRA)  2.2 Key considerations when designing PPPs for CIS & CSA delivery 2.2.1 Infrastructure & service-delivery backbone In designing the PPPs for CIS and CSA, there is a need to examine the availability and quality of observation and data systems. Accurate weather observations are essential for various sectors, including agriculture, transportation, aviation, and disaster management. Therefore, consistent collection of data on weather variations is crucial (Selvam, A. P., & Al-Humairi, S. N. S., 2023). Access to climate information services (CIS) and CSA remains a challenge for millions of people, especially smallholder farmers and livestock keepers across Africa (Demisse et al 2025). Weather services are often offered in English via television, radio, FM radios, websites, social media, and National Climate outlook forums which are not accessible to those who need it most. Many rural farmers have limited connectivity which means that services may need offline, face-to-face delivery channels like extension agents, farmer cooperatives, and women/youth groups where feasible.  2.2.2 Capacity building and resource sharing Technical and institutional capacities are critical for effective public-private partnerships (PPPs) in delivering Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA) and Climate Information Services (CIS). Strengthening skills in co-production, governance, and inclusive advisory services ensures that climate data is relevant, trusted, and actionable, supporting resilient, scalable, and socially inclusive agricultural decision-making. Key Capacity-Building Strategies for PPPs: ● Technical expertise enhancement: Train meteorologists, agronomists, extension workers, and private providers in CIS and CSA delivery. ● Governance and management skills: Build capacities in procurement, risk-sharing, accountability, and financial modeling (Wang, 2018; Fanzo et al., 2021; Smyth, 2021). ● Co-production of advisories: Collaboratively design, produce, and disseminate climate information with farmers, research institutions, and private innovators (Bremer et al., 2019). ● Alignment with national priorities: Integrate PPP activities with National Adaptation Plans (NAPs) and Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs). ● Inclusive training programs: Ensure participation of women, youth, and persons with disabilities in technical capacity development (Baztan et al., 2020). ● Sustainability and scalability: Strengthened human and institutional capacities improve coordination, trust, and adoption of CSA and CIS innovations. Working Paper Accelerating Impacts of CGIAR Climate Research for Africa (AICCRA) 15 Key resource sharing considerations under PPP arrangements Data and Knowledge Sharing: Establishing clear protocols for access, ownership, and use of climate, agricultural, and market data, ensures interoperability, confidentiality, and equitable benefits among partners (World Bank, 2017). Financial and Risk Sharing: Defining transparent mechanisms for co-investment, cost recovery, and risk allocation balances incentives between public and private actors (OECD, 2021). Infrastructure and Human Resources: Promoting joint use of facilities, extension networks, and technical expertise optimizes efficiency and avoid duplication in service delivery (EPEC, 2014). 2.3 Summarising the PPP strategy development process The PPP lifecycle ensures transparent, efficient, and results-focused delivery of Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA) and Climate Information Services (CIS). By following five stages—Project Identification, Feasibility, Procurement, Implementation, and Evaluation—partners define objectives, assess viability, establish contracts, deliver services, and monitor performance, fostering accountability, learning, and sustainable impact (World Bank, 2021). PPP Lifecycle Stages: ● Project Identification: Screen and define promising CSA/CIS projects, assessing if PPP adds value over traditional public delivery (World Bank, 2021). ● Feasibility: Assess technical, financial, social, and environmental viability; conduct cost–benefit analysis, risk assessment, and stakeholder mapping; prioritize value chains and service models. ● Procurement: Select private partners, finalize contracts, secure financing, and establish Service-Level Agreements (SLAs) and Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) for accountability (World Bank Group, 2021). ● Implementation: Execute project activities; public sector ensures enabling conditions, private sector delivers technology, operations, and innovation efficiently. ● Evaluation (MEL): Monitor KPIs and SLAs, enforce accountability, adapt to challenges, capture lessons, and improve current and future projects (World Bank Group, 2021). WORKING REPORT Accelerating Impacts of CGIAR Climate Research for Africa (AICCRA) CHAPTER 3: ACTIVITY I – UNDERSTANDING THE NATIONAL / REGIONAL CONTEXT Before structuring a PPP for CIS /CSA delivery, it is essential to assess the enabling environment, demand side conditions, institutional landscape, value chain dynamics and infrastructure. Without a robust context assessment, PPPs risk misalignment, low uptake, poor sustainability and limited resilience impact. Readiness assessment for CIS and CSA service delivery Step 1: Identify and synthesize relevant indicators Examples of useful indicators include: • Rural mobile/telecom penetration rate, internet access in rural areas. • Electricity access and reliability in farming communities. • Density and distribution of meteorological/hydrological observation stations. • Number of extension workers per 1,000 farmers; farmer organization/cooperative membership levels. • Current adoption rates of CSA practices (e.g., conservation agriculture, drought tolerant varieties). • Value chain size, organization level, market access levels.  Step 2: Review of the Enabling Environment Analyze the policy and institutional frameworks: National resilience strategy: NAPs and NDCs provide the policy mandate for climate-smart investments and PPPs in resilient infrastructure. Agriculture/CSA strategy: Identifies priority areas and opportunities for private investment in inputs, technology, and services. Digital agriculture policy: Clarifies data-sharing and innovation rules to enable PPPs in digital platforms and precision farming. PPP legal framework: Defines structures, procurement, and risk-sharing mechanisms that attract private investment. Private sector environment: Determines incentives, ease of doing business, and overall agribusiness investment climate. Farmer organization landscape: Strong cooperatives enhance aggregation, bargaining power, and CSA adoption, linking farmers to investors Working Paper Accelerating Impacts of CGIAR Climate Research for Africa (AICCRA) 17 CHAPTER 4: ACTIVITY II – ANALYSIS OF CLIMATE CHANGE, HAZARDS & EXPOSURE Step 1: Generate and analyse hazard/exposure maps ● Use available climate, agro-ecological and spatial data to map key hazards: drought frequency, flood risk, heat stress, pest/disease pressures. ● Overlay hazard maps with agricultural zones, value-chain production areas, smallholder density, infrastructure access and vulnerability profiles. Step 2: Supplement with stakeholder input (farmers, extension, local NGOs) about local hazard and vulnerability dynamics. This analysis ensures the PPP focuses services on areas where climate risk is greatest and resilience gain is highest WORKING REPORT Accelerating Impacts of CGIAR Climate Research for Africa (AICCRA) CHAPTER 5: ACTIVITY III – PRIORITIZING VALUE CHAINS FOR CIS/CSA SERVICES DELIVERY Step 1: Conduct a consultative prioritization process Engage stakeholders (farmers, agribusinesses, tech/data firms, extension services, local government) to identify candidate value chains. Criteria for identification could include: climate risk, market size, smallholder representation, value-chain stage involvement, readiness for services. Step 2: Define assessment criteria for value chains Suggested criteria include:   ● Climate vulnerability of the value chain (exposure and sensitivity). ● Strength of farmer organisation/cooperative presence and smallholder reach. ● Private-sector presence and potential for service delivery. ● Market access and growth potential of the value chain. ● Feasibility of delivering bundled CIS/CSA services (cost, infrastructure, adoption potential). ● Scaling potential and inclusion of women/youth. Step 3: Select focal value chains Based on the stakeholder process and scoring, select 2-3 value chains as focal points for the initial PPP. Document the choice rationale, expected resilience and productivity outcomes, required actors, service models, geographic focus Working Paper Accelerating Impacts of CGIAR Climate Research for Africa (AICCRA) 19 CHAPTER 6: ACTIVITY IV – IDENTIFICATION OF VIABLE SOLUTION PACKAGES (CIS AND CSA BUNDLING FOR RESILIENCE) Step 1: Map potential solution packages • Identify available CIS and CSA bundles that are relevant to the country and context: ● Bundled CIS and CSA advisories for drought-tolerant crop varieties and planting timing. ● Bundled early-warning systems for pests/diseases, farmer advisory services and insurance products. ● Bundled CIS and CSA advisories for drought-tolerant crop varieties and input supply ● Bundled CIS and CSA advisories for drought-tolerant crop varieties and Market linkage services for climate-resilient crops.  Step 2: Rank and choose priority solution Packages The solution packages are evaluated and selection of those with the highest feasibility, impact and business model potential take the PPP’s first phase. After the ranking then, define the service model, value proposition, partner roles and risk mitigation for each selected solution. WORKING REPORT Accelerating Impacts of CGIAR Climate Research for Africa (AICCRA) CHAPTER 7: ACTIVITY V–DESIGNING ENTRY POINTS & IMPLEMENTATION ROADMAP FOR THE PPP Step 1: Develop user-stories to identify service entry points A story functions as a design communication instrument that bridges cultural differences within multidisciplinary teams and aligns interventions with user objectives (Gruen et al 2002). Construct user-stories to explore how services will be used by different actors, for example: “A smallholder bean farmer in Region Z receives a seasonal climate forecast and a climate smart advisory through his cooperative. Because rainfall onset is delayed, he adjusts his planting date, and also selects a short maturity variety, and accesses Fertilizers via a local aggregator through the PPP arrangement” User-stories help clarify farmer journeys, service touchpoints, value propositions and service delivery challenges. Step 2: Match user-stories with service providers and institutional capacity Map which organisations can deliver which parts of the user-story: public (met service/extension), private (agribusiness, data/analytics firm, input supplier), farmer organisations/cooperatives. Identify service gaps, cost drivers, infrastructure and capacity constraints, risk zones (connectivity, adoption, finance). This helps refine service design and partnership structure  Step 3: Conduct preliminary cost estimation & financing model Estimate costs across categories: ● Observation/data infrastructure and service development/training. ● Farmer outreach and delivery (devices, connectivity, extension/training). ● Service delivery operations (advisory, input/market linkage). Step 4: Define PPP implementation roadmap The final step in this guide is to start a consultative process to evaluate a potential roadmap for the implementation of one or more specific solution package development activities. This process will vary from context to context, from national to regional initiatives. In a stakeholder workshop define: i. Governance structure: Establish steering committees and advisory boards. Effective PPP governance in Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA) and Climate Information Services (CIS) relies on clear institutional arrangements, inclusive steering committees, and advisory boards. By ensuring transparency, accountability, and multi-stakeholder coordination, governance structures strengthen legitimacy, enable evidence-based decisions, support national priorities, Working Paper Accelerating Impacts of CGIAR Climate Research for Africa (AICCRA) 21 and enhance sustainable, equitable, and impactful public-private partnerships (EPEC, 2014). Key Governance Strategies: ● Inclusive steering committees: Engage ministries, research centers, extension agents, private firms, cooperatives, academia, media, and NMHS. ● Strategic oversight: Review progress, align with National Adaptation Plans (NAPs) and Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs), and guide scaling. ● Coordination facilitation: Improve collaboration between government and private partners for faster implementation and resource mobilization. ● Evidence-based decision-making: Promote data sharing, performance reviews, and transparent processes. ● Inclusion focus: Ensure gender, youth, and disability representation in governance structures. ● Transparency and accountability: Maintain open policy, fiscal, procurement, contractual, monitoring, and reporting processes to reduce risks and build stakeholder trust (Reich, 2018; World Bank, 2016; OECD, 2008). ● Multi-level feedback: Incorporate local actors’ input, particularly farmers and cooperatives, into national-level decisions. ii. PPP contract model: The Implementation Roadmap defines the nature of the service contract. At this stage roles are defined, Service Level Agreements and performance indicators such as farmers reached, understanding and use of CIS/CSA, GEDSI are established. Key output of this sub activity is establishing financing models, risk/reward allocation, and exit strategy. In discussing the financing, the following needs to be taken into consideration: ● Blended finance approaches: Blended finance mechanisms such as combining donor grants, concessional loans, and private equity can lower perceived investment risks. The UNDP and UNCDF (2022) frameworks highlight that blending allows public and philanthropic funds to de-risk private capital while ensuring affordability for end-users. In CIS and CSA PPPs, blended finance can be structured through risk-sharing facilities, guarantees, or performance-based subsidies that reward private partners for achieving adaptation outcomes. WORKING REPORT Accelerating Impacts of CGIAR Climate Research for Africa (AICCRA) ● Impact investment: Impact investors play an increasingly vital role in financing climate-smart innovations, targeting both measurable environmental benefits and financial returns. The World bank PPP knowledge lab (2023) identifies impact investment as a key pathway for attracting private capital into public-good services such as CIS, provided that measurable outcomes (e.g., resilience indicators, data use metrics) are embedded in contract design. Impact capital can fund early- stage pilots, scale proven bundled CIS and CSA business models, and provide patient capital that values resilience and social outcomes like smallholder livelihoods, inclusion, climate adaptation which traditional commercial lenders may not prioritize ● Subscription fees and user-based models: Private partners can introduce tiered subscription models for data access, forecasts, or advisories, ensuring affordability while maintaining cost recovery. According to the CTA (2020) digital agriculture report, subscription-based systems encourage continuous innovation and service quality improvement, especially when combined with public subsidies for vulnerable users. It was found that informed users are more likely to engage sustainably in CSA practices and pay for tailored climate service FAO (2023). For example, in Northern Burkina Faso, among 170 farmers of cowpea and sesame, ~63% were willing to pay for CIS (seasonal forecast, daily info, agro-advisories) based on the predicted WTP values (Ouédraogo et al. 2018). The study emphasizes that awareness of climate information and capacity‐building positively influenced willingness to pay • Donor grants and concessional funds: Donor funding remains critical in the early phases of PPP development for CSA and CIS. Grants can be used for pilot testing, infrastructure setup, and capacity building, while concessional funds help bridge viability gaps before projects achieve full market potential. iii. Risk identification and mitigation Effective PPPs for Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA) and Climate Information Services (CIS) require proactive risk identification and mitigation (Mazher et al, 2022). Institutional, financial, and climatic risks can undermine performance if not well managed (Rasheed et al, 2022). Clear mandates shared financial responsibilities, and resilience-oriented planning enable partners to sustain services and protect investments against climate and market uncertainties. The strategy is to ensure a meaningful risk transfer to the private sector which has more commercial and financial risk-management capabilities that can generate efficiency gains for PPP projects (Beckers & Stegemann, 2021). Key Risk Identification and Mitigation Measures ● Institutional risks: Clarify mandates, harmonize PPP laws, and strengthen governance to prevent delays and policy inconsistencies (World Bank, 2016a; UNECE, 2008). Working Paper Accelerating Impacts of CGIAR Climate Research for Africa (AICCRA) 23 ● Financial risks: Use balanced risk-sharing, fiscal incentives, and cooperative-based aggregation to reduce uncertainty and enhance private engagement (FAO, 2016). ● Climatic risks: Integrate resilience planning, adaptive financing, and insurance mechanisms to safeguard infrastructure and service delivery (FAO, 2023; GFCS/WMO, 2020) iv. Timeline and phases: The Implementation Roadmap outlines a phased approach for operationalizing PPPs in Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA) and Climate Information Services (CIS) to ensure that investments are future proofed (Liu et al, 2018). It progresses from piloting and capacity building to scaling and institutionalization, embedding continuous monitoring, evaluation, and learning to ensure adaptive, inclusive, and sustainable delivery of climate-resilient agricultural services. Phased Implementation Roadmap Phase 1 – Pilot & Setup (Y1–2): Establish systems, test PPP models, build capacity, and generate early lessons. Phase 2 – Scaling & Consolidation (Y3–5): Expand successful models, strengthen financing, and enhance data transparency. Phase 3 – Institutionalization (Y5+): Integrate PPPs into national systems, ensure sustainability, and document impact. v. Monitoring & Evaluation (MEL) An effective PPP implementation roadmap integrates KPIs, data collection, and feedback mechanisms to ensure accountability and learning (Agarwal et al (2023), AL-SHAMAYLEH, et al,2025). Real-time MEL systems and participatory feedback channels enable transparency and adaptive management, while inclusive community engagement ensures that CIS and CSA services remain relevant, trusted, and responsive to farmers’ evolving needs. Key Implementation Elements ● Performance tracking: clearly define KPIs and performance trackers to monitor progress, data collection tools, and review cycles to guide adaptive decision-making (World Bank Group, 2023). ● Transparency: Use real-time dashboards and open data portals for open performance monitoring. ● Community participation: Engage farmers and cooperatives as co- creators through co-design and evaluation (Robinson et al., 2009). ● Feedback mechanisms: Utilize SMS surveys, community forums, and grievance systems to capture and act on user feedback. WORKING REPORT Accelerating Impacts of CGIAR Climate Research for Africa (AICCRA) (vi) Exit, Transition & Sustainability PPPs should start with the end in mind. The implementation roadmap must outline strategies to ensure long-term viability and impact beyond the initial contract or external funding, shifting dependency from public guarantees toward enduring local systems and market forces (World Bank, 2017). Sustainability is embedded through capacity building, co-production of knowledge, and institutional strengthening. By combining public policy support with private sector innovation and market mechanisms, PPPs achieve continuity, scalability, and self-reinforcement. Bundled CIS and CSA solutions reduce duplication, lower costs, and create economically attractive packages for all actors. The gradual shift to private sector leadership requires the PPP to promote a mature private sector capable of delivering services independently, reducing reliance on government guarantees or subsidies (World Bank Group, 2017). Similarly, the CIS/CSA services, products, tools, approaches developed are incorporated into high-level national planning documents such as NAPs and NDCs to secure government commitment and budgetary allocation (WMO, 2014). To ensure sustainability, there is need for Revenue Diversification which involves development of multiple local revenue streams (user fees, carbon credits, commissions or blended finance instruments) to replace external funding and public subsidies over time (World Bank Group, 2017). However, there is also need for Continuous Improvement. Working Paper Accelerating Impacts of CGIAR Climate Research for Africa (AICCRA) 25 ANNEXES ANNEX 1. Sample PPP Template Section Description 1 Project Title Name of the PPP project 2 Contracting Parties Names of the public authority and private partner 3 Objective Overall goal of the partnership 4 Duration / Term Contract period from signing to completion 5 Project Scope Main activities and outputs 6 Roles & Responsibilities Duties of each partner 7 Risk Allocation Distribution of project risks between partners 8 Payment & Revenue Model How the private partner is paid or earns revenue 9 Service-Level Agreements (SLAs) Standards for service delivery 10 Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) Metrics to monitor performance 11 Monitoring & Reporting Mechanisms for transparency and accountability 12 Dispute Resolution Process to handle disagreements 13 Change in Law / Force Majeure How legal or unforeseen changes are handled 14 Termination & Handover End-of-contract responsibilities 15 Sustainability & Exit Strategy Ensuring long-term continuity 16 References Supporting frameworks and tools WORKING REPORT Accelerating Impacts of CGIAR Climate Research for Africa (AICCRA) REFERENCES ADB. 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