92–9146–865–7 Poultry production and household livelihoods in Papua New Guinea, Samoa, and Vanuatu: A review of literature IL R I R E S E A R C H R E P O R T 126 CGIAR is a global agricultural research partnership for a food-secure future. Its research is carried out by 15 research centres in collaboration with hundreds of partner organizations. cgiar.org The International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) works to improve food and nutritional security and reduce poverty in developing countries through research for efficient, safe and sustainable use of livestock. Co-hosted by Kenya and Ethiopia, it has regional or country offices and projects in East, South and Southeast Asia as well as Central, East, Southern and West Africa. ilri.org iPoultry production and household livelihoods in Papua New Guinea, Samoa, and Vanuatu: A review of literature Poultry production and household livelihoods in Papua New Guinea, Samoa, and Vanuatu: A review of literature Mulugeta Y. Birhanu1, Gariba Danbaro2, Sandy Hoffman Mael3, Sootino Samau4, Janet Pandi2, Jeremiah Ahizo5, Wondmeneh Esatu1, Napoleon Vincent Vaiaso4, Fane Vinepa Taungakava4, Kellon Moses3, Alula Alemayehu1, Tadelle Dessie1, and Siaka Diarra6 1 International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) 2 Papua New Guinea University of Technology (PNGUoT) 3 Vanuatu Agriculture College (VAC) 4 National University of Samoa (NUS) 5 National Agricultural Research Institute (NARI) 6 Pacific Agri-Enviro Consultants December 2025 ©2025 International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) ILRI thanks all donors and organizations which globally supports its work through their contributions to the CGIAR Trust Fund This publication is copyrighted by the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI). It is licensed for use under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International Licence. To view this licence, visit https://creativecommons.org/ licenses/by/4.0. 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Cover photo: Sootino Samau ISBN: 92–9146–865–7 Citation: Birhanu, M.Y., Danbaro, G., Mael, S.H., Samau, S., Pandi, Ahizo, J., Esatu, W., Vaiaso, N.V., Taungakava, F.V., Moses, K., Alemayehu, A., Dessie, T. and Diarra, S. 2025. Poultry production and household livelihoods in Papua New Guinea, Samoa, and Vanuatu: A review of literature. Research report 126. Nairobi, Kenya: International Livestock Research Institute. Patron: Professor Peter C. Doherty A. C, FAA, FRS Animal scientist, Nobel Prize Laureate for Physiology or Medicine–1996 Box 30709, Nairobi 00100 Kenya Phone +254 20 422 3000 Fax+254 20 422 3001 Email ilri-kenya@cgiar.org ilri.org better lives, better planet through livestock ILRI is a CGIAR research centre Box 5689, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia Phone +251 11 617 2000 Fax +251 11 667 6923 Email ilri-ethiopia@cgiar.org ILRI has offices in East Africa • South Asia • Southeast and East Asia • Southern Africa • West Africa http://CGIAR Trust Fund https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0 iiiPoultry production and household livelihoods in Papua New Guinea, Samoa, and Vanuatu: A review of literature Contents Tables v Figures v Abbreviations and acronyms vi Acknowledgements vii 1 Introduction 1 2 Review approaches 3 3 Results and discussion 4 3.1 Poultry production and household livelihood 4 3.2 Type and geographical distribution of poultry species 4 3.3 Trends in primary poultry production 5 3.3.1 Trends in chicken meat production and productivity 6 3.3.2 Trends in hen egg production and productivity 8 3.3.3 Overall trends in poultry products supply and consumption 9 3.4 Type of poultry production systems 11 3.4.1 Traditional/backyard production 12 3.4.2 Small/medium-scale commercial production 12 3.4.3 Large-scale commercial or industrial production 14 3.5 Smallholder chicken production and productivity 14 3.5.1 Type of chicken breeds kept by smallholder farmers 14 3.5.2 Smallholder chicken husbandry practices 15 3.5.3 The productivity of chickens under smallholder management 16 3.5.4 Smallholder farmers’ breed selection and trait preference practices 16 3.5.5 Major chicken production constraints 17 3.6 Smallholder poultry products marketing 17 iv Poultry production and household livelihoods in Papua New Guinea, Samoa, and Vanuatu: A review of literature 3.7 Economic and nutritional contribution of smallholder poultry production 18 3.7.1 Economic contribution of smallholder poultry production 18 3.7.2 Nutritional contribution of smallholder poultry production 19 3.8 Overview of agricultural policy and research 21 4 Conclusions and research for development implications 23 5 References 25 vPoultry production and household livelihoods in Papua New Guinea, Samoa, and Vanuatu: A review of literature Tables Table 1: Geographical distribution of poultry population in Samoa and Vanuatu 5 Table 2: Average supply of poultry meat and eggs from 2010 to 2022 10 Table 3: Average value of chicken meat and hen eggs imports from 1990 to 2023 10 Table 4: Main types of chicken breeds kept by smallholder farmers 15 Table 5: Prevalence of food insecurity and unhealthy diet indicators 20 Figures Figure 1: Trends in chicken production from 1961 to 2023 6 Figure 2: Trends in total chicken meat (fresh and chilled) production from 1961 to 2023 7 Figure 3: Average growth rate of chicken meat production in different regions (1961–2023) 7 Figure 4: Average productivity of chicken meat from 1961 to 2023 8 Figure 5: Trends in hen egg production from 1961 to 2023 8 Figure 6: Average hen egg productivity from 1961 to 2023 9 Figure 7: Trend in the total quantity of fresh and chilled chicken meat (1990–2023) 11 Figure 8: Percentage of stunted children under five years of age in different countries (2000–2022) 21 vi Poultry production and household livelihoods in Papua New Guinea, Samoa, and Vanuatu: A review of literature Abbreviations and acronyms ACIAR Australian Center for International Agricultural Research DOCs Day-old chicks DLPAH Department of Livestock Production and Animal Health, Vanuatu FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations GDP Gross domestic product HDDS Household diet diversity score IFC International Finance Corporation ILRI International Livestock Research Institute IFPRI International Food Policy Research Institute ITC International Trade Center MAF Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries MALFFB Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock, Forestry, Fisheries, and Biosecurity MIS Market Information System OCOP One Country One Priority PNG Papua New Guinea PaCGG Pacific Chicken Genetic Gains SBS Samoa Bureau of Statistics USD United States Dollar OCOP One Country One Priority Product https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=web&rct=j&opi=89978449&url=https://www.sbs.gov.ws/&ved=2ahUKEwiy14PkwsyQAxVJ_rsIHbWbHRYQFnoECAwQAQ&usg=AOvVaw1k4KoYJm6x-XtFxWlEO2qj https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=web&rct=j&opi=89978449&url=https://www.sbs.gov.ws/&ved=2ahUKEwiy14PkwsyQAxVJ_rsIHbWbHRYQFnoECAwQAQ&usg=AOvVaw1k4KoYJm6x-XtFxWlEO2qj viiPoultry production and household livelihoods in Papua New Guinea, Samoa, and Vanuatu: A review of literature Acknowledgements This research was funded in part by the Australian Center for International Agricultural Research (ACIAR) (LS/2024/128) under the auspices of the Pacific Agri-Enviro Consultants. The findings and conclusions contained within are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the positions or policies of ACIAR. 1Poultry production and household livelihoods in Papua New Guinea, Samoa, and Vanuatu: A review of literature 1 Introduction The Pacific Islands countries are among the smallest nations in the world, with very low population sizes. These countries also have limited natural resources, remote and highly dispersed areas, and are highly susceptible to natural disasters and climate change (1). Compared to other developing economies in the Pacific and other regions, these countries experienced slow socio-economic growth in the previous decades (1). Some of them have been facing a dual challenge of subdued growth and slow poverty reduction (2). For example, in 2023, 39%, 21.9%, and 15% of the population in Papua New Guinea (PNG), Samoa, and Vanuatu respectively was below the national poverty line (3). Moreover, food security is also a major challenge in some of these countries. In 2024, PNG (46.7%) and Vanuatu (31%) had a high prevalence of stunting among children under five years of age (3). Agriculture is integral to the livelihood activities of households in Pacific countries. It accounts for 18.8% (2023), 11.9% (2023), and 25.5% (2021) of the GDP in PNG, Samoa, and Vanuatu, respectively (4). The sector makes a significant contribution to the food and nutritional security of households, as well as income generation. Like in other developing nations, the agricultural activities in these islands’ countries include crop production, livestock production, fisheries, and forestry. Yet these countries have limited arable land that can be used for crop and livestock production, which is relatively lower than in other developing nations (5). The majority (80%) of households are involved in subsistence or semi-subsistence agricultural production activities (6). Although households raise different livestock species, such as cattle, horses, sheep, goats, pigs, and poultry, pig and poultry production are the major livestock production activities in most island countries. The livestock production sub-sector supplies meat, milk, eggs, honey, and other products to local consumers. The production and productivity of the livestock sector appear low in some island countries, which is attributed to various constraints these countries experience. Developing competitiveness in the value chains of different agricultural commodities, including poultry, can significantly contribute to improving households’ livelihoods (7). As part of this effort, the Australian Center for International Agricultural Research (ACIAR) contracted Pacific Agri-Enviro Consultants to lead a preliminary study to develop a full-fledged project that enhances the poultry value chain. Known as the Pacific Chicken Genetic Gains (PaCGG), the initiative will be implemented in PNG, Samoa, and Vanuatu. This project aims to improve smallholder poultry production, productivity, and resilience, and enhance households’ income, nutrition, and other livelihood outcomes. The project’s phases will include an understanding of existing smallholder poultry production practices and their contribution to livelihoods, and the development and deployment of long-term, context-specific, and tailored interventions to improve smallholder chicken production and productivity in the proposed countries. PaCGG’s initial phase will be a scoping study to generate baseline evidence on existing poultry production, marketing, and consumption practices from various sources, including published and grey literature, secondary data sources, and government policies and strategies. The aim is to understand and document the current knowledge base on poultry research and development and identify regional research and development 2 Poultry production and household livelihoods in Papua New Guinea, Samoa, and Vanuatu: A review of literature gaps. This report presents the findings of a scoping study on current smallholder chicken production systems, husbandry practices, trends in poultry production, chicken production and productivity, poultry product marketing and consumption, and the socio-economic contribution of poultry production among resource-poor farmers in the three countries. The results of this review will inform the baseline studies and long-term research for development interventions in each country. The review also highlights each country’s poultry sector’s policies, strategies, research, and development efforts. 3Poultry production and household livelihoods in Papua New Guinea, Samoa, and Vanuatu: A review of literature 2 Review approaches There is a dearth of literature on poultry production inn PNG, Samoa, and Vanuatu. Hence, we adopted a scoping review approach to explore the available literature and generate comprehensive evidence on various topics (8, 9). The aim was to synthesize information on a broader issue related to poultry production, marketing, and consumption, and identify existing research and development gaps in these countries (94). Ninety-three pieces of literature from diverse sources, including published and grey articles, research reports, books, and policy documents, were used in this review. This review was also supplemented by secondary data analysis from national statistical offices, the FAOSTAT, and the International Trade Center (ITC), to explore national-level trends in production, consumption, and marketing. This review was conducted in collaboration with national partners in PNG, Samoa, and Vanuatu, involving experts from different fields. Although it was complex and challenging, the review tried to adopt a standardized approach for generating consistent and comparable evidence among countries. For this purpose, the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) team developed and shared a review template with national partners, which the partners in the three project countries used to draft their own independent reviews. The ILRI team used the draft reviews as a starting point and developed the aggregated review by including additional literature and secondary data analysis. 4 Poultry production and household livelihoods in Papua New Guinea, Samoa, and Vanuatu: A review of literature 3 Results and discussion 3.1 Poultry production and household livelihood Agriculture is the main livelihood activity in the three countries. In Vanuatu and Samoa, 91.2% and 94.3% of households, respectively, engage in agricultural activities. In both countries, these activities involve crop and livestock production practices. In Vanuatu and Samoa, among households engaged in farming activities, 62.7% and 49.6% raise at least one livestock species (10, 11). Similarly, a recent rural household survey by the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) shows that about 57% of the sampled households own at least one farm animal or fishpond (12). The livestock production system in the three countries involves pigs, poultry, cattle, sheep, goats, and other livestock, such as horses, in Samoa (10-13). Poultry and pigs farming are the two major livestock production activities in the three countries. For instance, among livestock keepers, 81.26% and 63.41% in Vanuatu and Samoa, respectively, are involved in poultry production, including chickens (10, 11). In Samoa, on average, a household keeps 26.2 chickens, with 87.12% of them holding fewer than 50 chickens. Although no recent data are available, in 1990 in PNG, 27% of households kept chickens (13). Similarly, in Vanuatu, households keep an average of 18.6 different poultry species. Many households keep poultry for their own consumption, while some raise poultry for income generation and other sociocultural purposes, including the traditional fa’alavelave (in Samoa) and as gifts. For instance, 21% of households in Samoa indicated they kept livestock mainly for customary purposes. 3.2 Type and geographical distribution of poultry species The poultry species in the three project countries mainly are chickens, ducks, and quails. In PNG, households also keep other poultry species, including geese, turkeys, and several breeds of Anas (dabbling ducks) such as Pekin, Campbell, Rouen, and Indian Runner (14). However, chickens are the most common poultry species kept by most households in these countries. For instance, in Vanuatu, households raise chickens, ducks, and quail; however, very few households, <2% keep ducks and quail. Evidence indicates a variation in the distribution of poultry species across different geographical areas. Table 1 presents a summary of poultry species distribution by various regions in Samoa and Vanuatu. According to the 2019 agricultural census, in four regions of Samoa, 63.4% of households raised poultry/chickens. While the share of poultry in the remaining three regions (i.e., Savaii, Northwest Upolu, and the rest of Upolu) was comparable, the proportion of households that raised chickens was lower in the Apia urban area region. In terms of the number of households, more households that raise chickens are found in the Rest of Upolu, followed by the Apia urban area region. According to the 2022 agricultural census in Vanuatu, approximately 81.3% of livestock-keeping households keep poultry. The distribution among 5Poultry production and household livelihoods in Papua New Guinea, Samoa, and Vanuatu: A review of literature various provinces looks comparable, although the highest and lowest proportions are found in Tafea and Shefa, respectively. Tafea Province has the largest proportion of the total poultry producers in the country, while Torba Province has the lowest proportion. Table 1: Geographical distribution of poultry population in Samoa and Vanuatu. Country Region/province % poultry/chicken raising HH (from livestock keepers) % share of the number of chicken/poultry raised Sources Samoa Apia urban area 67.3 9.1 (11) Northwest Upolu 68.6 26.1 Rest of Upolu 68.9 34.6 Savaii 54.0 30.3 Total 63.4 100.0 Vanuatu Torba 81.2 5.0 (10) Sanma 80.1 19.1 Penama 84.3 18.4 Malampa 77.1 16.3 Shefa 75.8 18.6 Tafea 88.4 22.7 Total 81.3 100.0 Note: The figure in Samoa refers to the total number of chickens and livestock keepers in 2020. The number of livestock keepers was 14, 163, while the number of chicken keepers was 8,981. The figure in Vanuatu refers to the total poultry and livestock keepers in 2022. The total number livestock keepers, in Vanuatu was 34,709, while the total number of poultry keepers was 28,206. Unlike Samoa and Vanuatu, PNG has no recent, disaggregated poultry holding census data. However, an agricultural survey conducted by IFPRI shows that among four regions (i.e., East Sepik, Madang, West Sepik, and the Autonomous Region of Bougainville), the Autonomous Region of Bougainville and Madang had the highest proportion of sampled households that raised poultry (chicken and ducks) (15). This suggests that the heterogeneity in chicken populations among different sub-national areas is possibly associated with heterogeneity in agricultural production systems, genetic diversity and distribution, sociocultural practices, access to inputs such as feed, and other environmental conditions. 3.3 Trends in primary poultry production According to FAOSTAT (16), the total number of chickens in each of the three countries reviewed has increased over the past six decades (Figure 1). On average, there were 2775.24 ± 181.40, 442.28 ± 6.71, and 351.42 ± 22.76 thousand chickens in PNG, Vanuatu, and Samoa, respectively, from 1961 to 2023. The observed trend in local chicken production appears mixed over the past few decades. While the total chicken population in PNG was showing significant growth, in Samoa was declining. In PNG, the stock increased from 730,000 in 1961 to 4,739,000 in 2023, while in Samoa, it decreased from 450,000 in 1961 to 417,000 in 2023. The average growth rates in PNG, Samoa, and Vanuatu were 3.27% ± 0.89%, 0.26% ± 1.15%, and 2.88% ± 1.19%, respectively. Similar to other developing countries, the observed growth in PNG and Vanuatu was expected, but the decline in Samoa was unusual. The country’s 2019 agricultural census also showed a 33% decrease in the number of households raising chickens and a 23% decrease in the number of chickens raised between 2009 and 2019. This could be associated with an increasing trend in imports of inexpensive chicken products, affecting the local sector and presenting other production and marketing challenges 6 Poultry production and household livelihoods in Papua New Guinea, Samoa, and Vanuatu: A review of literature Figure 1: Trends in chicken production from 1961 to 2023. Data source: FAOSTAT, 2025 3.3.1 Trends in chicken meat production and productivity According to FAOSTAT, PNG produced an average of 4,077.1 ± 2,000.4 tonnes of chicken meat annually over the previous six decades, with a minimum of 1,170 tonnes in 1961 and a maximum of 6,820 tonnes in 2023. Despite significant fluctuations, the average production increased annually by 3.06% (±6.11), with a minimum of -20.3% and a maximum of 29.7% in 1982 and 1981, respectively (Figure 2). The average gross production value was USD 7,654.7 ± 3,828.5 thousand (approximately USD 7.7 million), with a minimum of USD 2,110 thousand and a maximum of USD 128,680 thousand. Similarly, the average annual production in Vanuatu was 446.4 ± 246.3 tonnes, with a minimum of 96.0 tonnes and a maximum of 1,009.00 tonnes in 1961 and 2013. The average yearly production increased by 3.18±10.14 %, with a minimum of -21.0% and a maximum of 53.84% in 2016 and 1980, respectively. The average yearly gross production value was USD 762.19 ± 496.64 thousand, with a minimum of USD 184 thousand and a maximum of USD 1,873 thousand. However, in Vanuatu, the sector experienced continuous negative growth after 2014. The average production in Samoa was 385.7 ± 52.0 tonnes, with a minimum of 288.7 tonnes and a maximum of 512.0 tonnes in 2009 and 2005, respectively. This corresponds to USD 714.16 ± 106.505 thousand, with a minimum of USD 408 and a maximum of USD 978 thousand. On average, the chicken meat production grew by 0.53 ± 9.37%, with a minimum of -33.09% and a maximum of 49.89% in 2009 and 2010, respectively. Compared with PNG and Vanuatu, the growth rate in Samoa was highly variable and very low. Overall, the above evidence suggests a significant fluctuation in production, which may be attributed to various factors such as disease outbreak, high inputs cost, limited access to improved technologies, and natural disaster associated with climate changes. Although there was a growth rate in chicken meat production over the previous six decades, compared to regional and global averages, the growth rate in the three countries was very low (Figure 3). For instance, during the same period, globally, chicken meat production increased by 4.67 ± 1.94%, with a minimum of 1.06% and a maximum of 10.03%. In contrast, the growth rates in the three countries were lower than this. Similarly, the average growth rates in Asia and Africa were 6.1 ± 2.7% and 5.27 ± 3.06%, respectively. 7Poultry production and household livelihoods in Papua New Guinea, Samoa, and Vanuatu: A review of literature Figure 2: Trends in total chicken meat (fresh and chilled) production from 1961 to 2023. Data source: FAOSTAT, 2025 Figure 3: Average growth rate of chicken meat production in different regions (1961–2023). Data source: FAOSTAT, 2025 The documented growth in chicken meat production in the three Pacific Island countries can be attributed to an increase in the number of animals kept by households, an increase in the number of households keeping chickens, and an improvement in the productivity of the birds. Figure 4 presents the trend in the average meat productivity of birds in these countries and other regions since 1961. Compared with the global and regional average (i.e., 0.60 [world] and 0.66 [Africa], and 0.45 [Asia]). The productivity gain in PNG, Samoa, and Vanuatu was lower and stagnant. The average productivity growth rate from 1961 to 2023 was 0.027, 0.002, and 0% in PNG, Samoa, and Vanuatu, respectively. Low productivity and growth gains in these countries could be associated with the limited genetic potential of existing breeds, poor husbandry practices, and inadequate adoption of improved technologies. In general, the observed low production, productivity, and output variability indicate that the chicken production sectors of these countries are highly fragile and require context-specific strategies to enhance production and productivity. 8 Poultry production and household livelihoods in Papua New Guinea, Samoa, and Vanuatu: A review of literature Figure 4: Average productivity of chicken meat from 1961 to 2023. Data source: FAOSTAT, 2025 3.3.2 Trends in hen egg production and productivity There was growth in total hen egg production from 1961 to 2023 in the three countries. Total egg production refers to the total eggs produced in a shell by all types of hens in both the traditional sector (individually owned small flocks) and the modern sector (large-scale, intensive commercial poultry farms). The average annual total hen egg production in PNG, Samoa, and Vanuatu was 3,287.3 ±1617.1, 238.4±102.6, and 380.9 ±204.2 tonnes, respectively. During these periods, total hen egg production increased by an average of 2.7%, 1.8%, and 3.2% in PNG, Samoa, and Vanuatu, respectively (Figure 5). The average global annual egg production growth during the same period was 3.84% in Africa, 5.01% in Asia, and 3.03% in the rest of the world. Likewise, the average gross yearly values of total eggs produced were USD 4,089.0 ± 2,011.4, 296.5 ± 127.7, and 473.7 ± 254.1 thousand per annum in PNG, Samoa, and Vanuatu, respectively. The growth in egg production value was similar to the growth in the total number of eggs produced. Figure 5: Trends in hen egg production from 1961 to 2023. Data source: FAOSTAT, 2025 9Poultry production and household livelihoods in Papua New Guinea, Samoa, and Vanuatu: A review of literature The average hen’s egg productivity, measured by the number of eggs per hen, was 70.05 ± 4.23, 102.35 ± 8.68, 100.19 ± 10.31 eggs per hen in PNG, Samoa, and Vanuatu, respectively. The estimated productivity growth was significantly lower than the global and regional productivity growth (Figure 6). For instance, during the same period, the average global productivity in Africa, Asia, and the rest of the world was 173.97 ± 20.59, 108.81 ± 23.29, and 154.19 ± 31.9, respectively. The estimated egg productivity in PNG was significantly lower than the estimated global and regional average growth. Like low meat productivity, inadequate egg productivity could be associated with the limited genetic potential of existing chicken breeds, poor husbandry practices, and insufficient adoption of technology. Figure 6: Average hen egg productivity from 1961 to 2023. Data source: FAOSTAT, 2025 3.3.3 Overall trends in poultry products supply and consumption Table 2 summarizes the average supply of poultry meat and eggs (from all poultry species) from 2010 to 2022. The supply of poultry products encompasses both domestically produced and imported products. The average poultry meat and egg supply in the reported period in PNG was 2.97 and 0.52 kg/capita/year, respectively. The estimated values were significantly lower than the global and regional averages of 15.45 and 34.49 kg/ capita/year for meat and 9.63 and 6.30 kg/capita/year for eggs. Samoa’s average meat supply (70.26 kg/ capita/year) was significantly higher than the regional and global averages. A report by the Samoa Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries (MAF) also shows that the estimated poultry meat consumption was 100 kg/capita / year. However, in Samoa, the average egg supply was lower than regional and global averages. Despite a decline in total production and low productivity in Samoa’s poultry sector, higher consumption can be attributed to the import, mainly low-quality products such as dumped chicken leg quarters from the region and other countries. In Vanuatu, the average poultry meat and egg supplies were significantly higher than in PNG. Given the low productivity of meat and eggs in Vanuatu, domestic demand may be mainly fulfilled by importing these products from other countries within and outside the region. 10 Poultry production and household livelihoods in Papua New Guinea, Samoa, and Vanuatu: A review of literature Table 2: Average supply of poultry meat and eggs from 2010 to 2022. Country Average supply- (kg/capita/yr) Poultry meat Eggs Mean SD Min Max Mean SD Min Max N PNG 2.97 0.45 2.29 3.86 0.52 0.04 0.45 0.61 13 Samoa 70.26 7.90 60.18 81.93 2.25 1.02 1.26 4.64 13 Vanuatu 13.88 2.66 10.58 18.11 2.48 0.35 1.91 3.18 13 Oceania 34.49 0.84 32.90 35.98 6.30 0.38 5.44 6.79 13 Africa 6.36 0.44 5.82 7.17 2.29 0.07 2.15 2.41 13 Asia 10.43 1.24 8.97 12.49 10.25 1.00 9.06 11.65 13 World 15.45 1.06 13.97 17.04 9.63 0.66 8.85 10.58 13 Data source: FAOSTAT, 2025 On average, from 1990 to 2023, PNG, Samoa, and Vanuatu imported 7,874.7 ± 9,933.7, 8,593.8 ± 5,757.6, and 1,657.5 ± 1,493.6 tonnes of chicken, respectively. As indicated by the standard deviation and minimum and maximum values, there was significant variability in the volume of imports (Table 3). However, the overall growth trends in imports were positive, with rates of 23.8 ± 68.5, 12.32 ± 36.2, and 12.74 ± 17.8 in PNG, Samoa, and Vanuatu, respectively. The estimated import growth in PNG was significantly higher than in Samoa and Vanuatu (Figure 7). While the imports in Samoa showed an increasing trend since 1991, the imports in PNG and Vanuatu increased after 2007. For instance, chicken import in PNG in 2003 was 418 tonnes, while in 2023 it was 28,845.98, about 69 times higher. Similarly, in Vanuatu, the volume of imports in 2003 was 773 tonnes; in 2023, it was 5,452.4 tonnes, approximately 7 times more. A higher volume of imports and lower local production in Samoa and Vanuatu may suggest the countries’ dependence on lower-quality imported products, indicating this sector’s vulnerability to shocks. According to the MAF, 95% of the chicken consumed, mostly chicken leg quarters, is imported, which accounts for the largest share of food imports in Samoa. The increasing volume of imports could be associated with growth in the total population, local production and productivity, consumption patterns and trends, and the availability of other animal-source foods. For example, both egg and meat productivity in PNG were lower than the overall productivity in other countries in the same period, as indicated by Figures 4 and 6. Table 3: Average value of chicken meat and hen eggs imports from 1990 to 2023. Meat of chickens, fresh or chilled Import quantity (in tonnes) 1990–2023 Mean SD Min Max N Papua New Guinea 7874.7 9933.7 1.0 28846.0 34 Samoa 8593.8 5757.6 1200.0 20098.7 34 Vanuatu 1657.5 1493.6 154.0 5452.4 34 Hen eggs in shell, fresh Papua New Guinea 154.5 245.2 2 771 25 Samoa 236.7 260.0 10.7 786 26 Vanuatu 82.1 119.4 11.0 602.7 34 Data Source: FAOSTAT, 2025 11Poultry production and household livelihoods in Papua New Guinea, Samoa, and Vanuatu: A review of literature Figure 7: Trend in the total quantity of fresh and chilled chicken meat (1990–2023). Data source: FAOSTAT, 2025 PNG, Samoa, and Vanuatu import chicken meat from the region and beyond. According to the International Trade Center (ITC), in 2023, the major supplying markets for meat and edible offal of fowls of the species Gallus include Australia, China, New Zealand, and Indonesia for PNG; USA, Australia, China, New Zealand, Singapore, Brazil, American Samoa, Fiji, and Canada for Samoa; and Australia, New Zealand, and Fiji for Vanuatu. High and increasing chicken meat imports from other countries may also suggest that this sector’s competitiveness is lower in the three countries compared to supplying countries. For instance, in 2019, the retail price for chicken meat in PNG was about USD 8/kg for meat, USD 4.2/kg for live weight, and USD 5.7/kg for dressed weight, while in Indonesia, the retail price of live chicken was USD1.5/kg in the same year (18). 3.4 Type of poultry production systems The poultry production system in Pacific Island countries can be classified based on the type of management, scale of production, and level of integration. In most countries, the production system is broadly classified into three categories: traditional/backyard production, small- to medium-scale commercial production, and large- scale industrial/integrated production. Producers may adopt various management practices within each of the above production systems, including extensive, free-ranging, semi-intensive, and intensive management systems. For instance, using multiple indicators, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) classifies family poultry production systems in developing economies into four categories: small extensive scavenging, extensive scavenging, semi-intensive, and small-scale intensive systems. Sometimes, countries classify the sector based on the level of commercial orientation and scale of production. For instance, Gimiseve (19) classifies the broiler production system in PNG as small-scale (typically raising 50 to 100 chickens), medium- scale, and large-scale commercial production. Considering the available literature and the three-country context, the poultry production system in this review is classified into three categories: traditional/backyard production, small- to medium-scale commercial production, and large-scale commercial or industrial production. 12 Poultry production and household livelihoods in Papua New Guinea, Samoa, and Vanuatu: A review of literature 3.4.1 Traditional/backyard production The traditional or backyard poultry production system is the dominant production system in the three countries. This production system has been integral to household livelihood activities for more than a decade. Although households can adopt intensive production practices, most of them keep local or indigenous chickens with an extensive or semi-intensive management system (10, 11, 19). Typically, households in this production system maintain an average of fewer than 50 local chickens, with no or minimal supplementary feed and only a night shelter. Even if there is no recent data on the proportion of households raising village chickens, evidence from the 1990 census shows that about 27% of all households in PNG raise scavenging chickens (20). In this production system, households maintain an average of 10.52 ± 4.41 chickens, with a minimum of 1 and a maximum of 34 chickens (19). Similar figures were reported by Schmidt, Gilbert (15). Like in other developing countries, the traditional backyard production system in chicken farming has very low yields. A hen lays an average of 40 eggs annually, in 3.7 ± 2.13 clutches yearly. There are high losses of chickens due to theft, mortality, and predatory attacks. This system resembles the extensive or scavenging-based systems in other developing tropical African and Asian countries (21-23). Although households mainly produce poultry for home consumption, they also generate income from surplus produce (13, 24). In general, this system is characterized as low-input-low-output with multiple constraints in breeding, housing, feeding, health, and marketing. In Samoa, most smallholder poultry production activities can be categorized as traditional or backyard production. According to the 2019 census, the average chicken holding in this production system was 26.2, with about 74% of households having a flock size of 10-49, averaging 26 chickens per household. Only 1.1% of households kept more than 99 chickens (11). Nevertheless, the 2015 agricultural census shows that the average flock size was 32 (25), which is higher than the 2019 flock size. Almost all households, 98.55% of which raise chickens, adopt free-ranging methods, and 95.44% do not provide supplementary feeds. Only 3% provided supplementary feed such as brown rice and brewery grain (11, 25). Like in other developing countries, this production system is characterized by multiple challenges, including high chicken mortality and limited technical knowledge among producers (26, 27). According to the Vanuatu Department of Livestock Production and Animal Health (DLPAH), the traditional backyard production system in Vanuatu is characterized as a low-input, low-output practice, with an average of 10 chickens (male and female), but may have up to 16 chickens. Most smallholder poultry producers (95.3%) practice free- ranging (10). Birds are free to roam around the village boundaries, and very few of them provide sheds or fences for protection. Approximately 97.5% of households keep local chickens, while 2.5% keep layers, and 1.8% keep broilers. While most households raise chickens primarily for home consumption, a few raise them for both home consumption and to generate additional income. Like in other countries, this system faces various challenges, including the loss of chicks and eggs due to disease and other factors. The proportion of chicken loss from the total number of chickens was about 39.5%, while the proportion of egg loss from the total eggs disposed of was 24% (10). Similar to PNG and Samoa, this production system has multiple production and marketing constraints. 3.4.2 Small/medium-scale commercial production In the small- to medium-scale commercial production system, farmers primarily keep commercial chicken breeds, such as broilers, layers, and hybrids, which are developed for semi-intensive and intensive production systems. Chickens in this system exhibit better body weight, growth, and egg productivity performance than indigenous chickens, which are primarily used in traditional/backyard systems. Despite the dominance of traditional/ backyard production systems, small and medium-scale commercial production systems have also emerged in the peri-urban, urban, and some rural areas of these countries, driven by government policies and strategies aimed at achieving self-sufficiency and reducing dependence on imported products. 13Poultry production and household livelihoods in Papua New Guinea, Samoa, and Vanuatu: A review of literature In PNG, the small- to medium-scale commercial production system began in the mid-1970s and has significantly contributed to increasing the national poultry egg and meat supply (20, 28). This production system is typically practiced in urban and peri-urban settings, or near major roads and markets in rural areas, and is mainly adopted by outgrowers and independent farmers’ schemes, including households, individuals, youth, and religious groups (20, 29–31). Producers typically maintain commercial strains of broilers, layers, and occasionally dual- purpose chickens, such as the Rhode Island Red and Australorp (32). The size of farms varies from micro- to medium-scale and is primarily profit-oriented, aiming to generate supplementary income. Some producers use commercial broilers (50–100 day-old chicks [DOCs]) sourced from hatcheries through Agmark, Chemica, and Farmset distributors. Kohun and Pandi (33) reported average production metrics of 50–140 birds per batch, 2–6 batches per year, and mortality rates ranging from 0.7% to 7%. Primarily, broiler farmers raise chickens for 42 days before marketing (32). Chicken productivity in this system is superior to that of traditional backyard production systems. Broiler chickens can reach a liveweight of 1.72 kg in 6 weeks, and mortality rates are also lower, averaging just 5–6% (29). Better productivity in this production system can be attributed to improved technologies, better health practices, extension and advisory services, enhanced feeds, improved housing, and increased inputs availability (33). Farms in this production system primarily rely on family labor to undertake various activities, such as feeding, watering, cleaning, and marketing. Labor is shared among household members, with men often responsible for sourcing inputs and women handling sales at roadside stalls or local markets. Unlike in the traditional system, products from this sector mostly enter the formal chicken meat market (18). The small- to medium-scale commercial production system, however, presents multiple challenges, including high startup costs (shed construction and land access for commercial production), increasing feed prices, high transport costs, poultry diseases and other health issues, and limited management skills and knowledge (32, 34). The rising feed cost is the most significant challenge, primarily due to the transaction costs associated with importing feed ingredients and transporting them within the country. In Samoa, small- to medium-scale commercial poultry production practices are limited. However, to reduce the country’s dependency on low-quality imported poultry products, efforts were made to introduce new poultry farming units in some parts of the country. For instance, in partnership with the Samoan Government, the Pacific Regional Integrated Food and Security Initiative to COVID-19 (PRISCO19) supported the opening of five egg- producing poultry farm units in a semi-free-range setup (35). The new poultry unit sites were in Sapapalii and Auala on Savai’I island, and at Faleula, Vaoala, and Siuniu on Upolu Island. The support included the provision of poultry shed construction materials, poultry feed, an extra stock of veterinary laboratory consumables for surveillance purposes, and chicks older than one month to ensure farm survivability. This support was part of the government and international community’s effort to enhance the commercial poultry sector, reducing import dependency and boosting the economy, thereby ensuring food security and creating employment opportunities. In Vanuatu, there is limited evidence on small- to medium-scale commercial poultry production practices. In the country, this production system represents a step up from the traditional backyard production system, where farmers engage in a few commercial layers, broiler and dual-purpose chicken production. Although this production system is not widely practiced, some farmers use a few chickens sourced from commercial hatcheries. For instance, a report by FAO (36) documented that 50 or 60 farmers were operating commercial chicken layer and cockerel production systems in Efate and several other islands, including Santo, Malekula, Pentecost, and Tanna. Farmers operating within the boundaries of this production system may manage between 50 and 300 birds using basic chicken housing and imported day-old chicks, depending on the availability of imported feed supplemented by local inputs (36). The government and donors have been making various efforts to introduce commercial breed-based production practices through technical assistance and the distribution of climate- resilient chicken breeds. For instance, in 2015, the National Agricultural Research Institute (NARI) of Papua New 14 Poultry production and household livelihoods in Papua New Guinea, Samoa, and Vanuatu: A review of literature Guinea provided technical expertise to small-scale poultry farmers on Efate Island through innovative agriculture, applying new and improved research-based technologies introduced by the institute. There has also been a One Million Chicken Initiative, funded by the FAO, which started in 2021 and will last for five years. The project’s target was to achieve 1 million chickens by 2025. Moreover, the DLPAH has set up provincial breeding centers, supplying chicks to smallholder farmers. Through the One Country One Priority (OCOP) initiative promoted by FAO, the Vanuatu government also has a plan to improve the production and productivity of the local poultry sector (37). Like in other countries, this production system faces various problems associated with access to DOCs, high feed cost, and other health and management-related challenges. 3.4.3 Large-scale commercial or industrial production Large-scale commercial production systems have a shorter history than traditional and small- to medium-scale commercial production systems in the three countries. In PNG, this system was introduced in the 1970s through strong government support aimed at enhancing local supply, with deliberate policies restricting imports (13). These measures were replaced in 1992 with high tariffs on poultry imports, providing continued protection to local producers (30). Major vertically integrated poultry companies, including Niugini Tablebirds Ltd (NGTB), Zenag, and CLTC (now a subsidiary of NGTB), dominated large-scale industrial poultry production. These are highly integrated companies with their own grandparent and parent stock breeder farms, hatcheries, feed mills, processing plants, and marketing units. Moreover, over the last five to 10 years, new players have entered the market, producing broilers and layers in a few provincial capitals, including Signature Poultry (Western Highlands Province), Innovative Agriculture (Southern Highlands and Hela Provinces), and Sepik Fresh (East Sepik Province). Commercial farms may distribute some DOCs through retail outlets, such as small- and medium-scale commercial producers. This production system supplies poultry products through formal market chains, including supermarkets, hotels, restaurants, and institutional catering services. It is characterized by economies of scale, high levels of technical efficiency, standardized inputs, and access to structured value chains, distinguishing it from smallholder and semi-intensive systems. Unlike PNG, Samoa and Vanuatu do not have a well-developed, large-scale, integrated commercial chicken industry. For instance, the Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock, Forestry, Fisheries, and Biosecurity (MALFFB) (38) shows one large commercial broiler chicken farm in Vanuatu that can raise about 200,000 chickens (143 tonnes) annually. Once a thriving industry, the commercial large-scale production system has withered over the last 20 to 30 years due to various challenges. Challenges to the competitiveness of this industry (meat and egg) include the high cost of importing chicks, the high cost of feed, maintaining quality chicken housing, and food safety concerns regarding bird processing. For instance, Toa Farm was established in the late 1990s and was acquired by Chiko Farm in 2011. Chiko Farm had a capacity of 19,000 hens and 50,000 broiler chickens per month. However, the farm had to close its operations in 2021 due to the devastation caused by Cyclone Pam. 3.5 Smallholder chicken production and productivity 3.5.1 Type of chicken breeds kept by smallholder farmers Smallholder chicken production may involve both traditional/backyard production and small-scale commercial- oriented production systems. Hence, chicken breeds kept by smallholder farmers may include indigenous, hybrid/crosses, and exotic chickens (10, 39, 40) (Table 4). However, indigenous or local chickens account for the most significant proportion of chicken breeds kept by farmers in PNG, Samoa and Vanuatu. Some smallholder 15Poultry production and household livelihoods in Papua New Guinea, Samoa, and Vanuatu: A review of literature farmers keep other breeds, adapted to the local ecological conditions. For instance, farmers in PNG keep dual- purpose Australorps, commercial broiler chickens (such as Ross Broiler and Cobb Broiler), and commercial layer chickens. Evidence also shows that today’s indigenous chicken population in the country is the result of uncontrolled interbreeding between the early indigenous chickens, initially introduced by Austronesian settlers over 3,500 years ago, and improved breeds introduced during colonial and post-colonial periods (24). Table 4: Main types of chicken breeds kept by smallholder farmers. Breed Type Country PNG Samoa Vanuatu Nondescript Indigenous Yes Australorp chickens Exotic Yes Yes Ross and Cobb Broiler Exotic Yes Yes Yes Red jungle fowl Indigenous Yes Naked neck Indigenous Yes Rohde Island Red Exotic Yes Fizzle feather Exotic Yes Sussex Exotic Yes Commercial layer chickens Exotic Yes Yes Yes As indicated above, smallholder chicken production in Samoa mainly involves indigenous breeds (11). Nevertheless, farmers also raise commercial broiler chickens (such as Ross Broiler and Cobb Broiler) and commercial layer chickens. There have been efforts to improve the production and productivity of the sector through the introduction of improved genetics. In 2016, pure exotic breeds such as New Hampshire, Barnevelder, Rhode Island Red, White Leghorn, Indian Game, and Orpington were introduced in the country. In Vanuatu, 97% of smallholder chicken producers keep local chickens, while only 1.8% and 2.5% keep broilers and layer chickens, respectively (10). The red jungle fowl is the primary indigenous breed in Vanuatu. Evidence indicates that the cross between the red jungle fowl and other breeds, such as naked neck, Australorp, Rhode Island Red, Sussex, and fizzle feather, is common. Through efforts to improve local genetic resources, in 2021, chicken breeds such as Sussex, Black Australorp, and Rhode Island Red were imported from New Caledonia to enhance the local chicken genetics. Hence, some smallholder farmers keep crossbred chickens. However, there are concerns that the inadequately controlled breeding may lead to uncertainty regarding the diversity of existing indigenous chicken breeds. For instance, according to the FAO (36), the ordinary village fowl raised throughout Vanuatu is a crossbreed of the bush fowl (Gallus gallus) with many other chicken breeds introduced over the years. As there is no controlled breeding system, there is also a higher likelihood of crossbreeding among the various exotic breeds. There were also efforts to produce resilient and high-producing hybrids through crossbreeding with local breeds. However, this had resulted in the loss of some purebred chicken due to poor management. 3.5.2 Smallholder chicken husbandry practices Most smallholder indigenous chicken producers in PNG, Samoa, and Vanuatu employ traditional or backyard production practices with limited inputs, mainly night shelter and ad hoc supplementary feed. In PNG, farmers provide limited shelter and supplementary feeds, such as kitchen scraps and various locally available feedstuffs, including sweet potatoes, taro yams, bananas, corn, vegetables, fruits, termites, earthworms, kitchen waste, and other residues from locally grown food crops (19). Poultry housing is rarely provided; at night, the birds may sleep on trees, rooftops, or under raised-floor houses (13, 41). Typically, chick mortality is more common, which is highly associated with factors such as a lack of knowledge about vaccination, quarantine, and other disease prevention and treatment methods. Village health service providers or smallholder farmers provide limited 16 Poultry production and household livelihoods in Papua New Guinea, Samoa, and Vanuatu: A review of literature healthcare services for indigenous chickens, including vaccination and treatment with medication. Moreover, biosecurity practices are also limited during the production and transportation of birds. According to the Samoa Bureau of Statistics (SBS) (11), the main chicken rearing systems in Samoa include free range (98.4%), enclosed on one’s own land (1.4%), and enclosed on somebody else’s land (0.2%). Most farmers (95.34%) do not provide supplementary feed. In Vanuatu, the primary methods of keeping poultry under smallholder production practices include fenced (3.6%), sheds (0.6%), free-range (93.5%), and other methods (0.4%) (10). Most poultry-producing smallholder farmers in Vanuatu keep chickens in a free-range system in very small plots (median of 0.002 hectares). Generally, Samoa and Vanuatu’s smallholder chicken management systems are traditionally dominated by a free-ranging system with limited supplementary feeding and a housing system mainly used at night. 3.5.3 The productivity of chickens under smallholder management In general, the productivity of chickens under the smallholder production system in PNG, Samoa, and Vanuatu is relatively low, similar to that of most developing countries in sub-Saharan Africa, Southeast Asia, and the Pacific (19, 42–45). In PNG, available studies on the performance of indigenous chicken indicate the presence of significant variability in productivity associated with genetics and management-related factors (46, 47). For instance, a field survey shows that, on average, a hen produces 10.8 ± 5.28 eggs per clutch, with 1 to 5 clutches per year, resulting in an estimated 40 eggs per year (19). Chicks’ productivity is relatively low, with an average hatchability of 70% and a survival rate of 50% at 12 weeks and 30% at 30 weeks. This low productivity is attributed to genetic and non-genetic factors, including poor feed, health, and housing (48). The production and productivity of chickens under smallholder management can be improved through adopting improved breeds and better management practices, such as feeding and housing. Introducing locally adapted and farmer-preferred chicks is one of the suggested approaches. For instance, Quartermain (40) indicated that crossbreeds can reach 1.18 kg by 22 weeks, attain a 43% survival rate by 30 weeks, and start laying eggs at around 26-30 weeks. Recent studies have also documented that the growth rates, survival, and reproductive performance of both pure native and crossbred chickens can be significantly improved under better feeding and management practices (47, 48). Although there is limited empirical evidence on the productivity of chickens under smallholder management in Samoa and Vanuatu, available evidence shows that the productivity of these chicken breeds is very low. For instance, according to Market Information System , local chickens have a smaller body size, with an average live body weight of 1.5–2 kg at maturity for males and approximately 1.5 kg for females. According to farmers’ and researchers’ personal observations, the productivity of hens at the smallholder level ranges from 3 to 10 eggs per clutch, with a survivability rate of 40–50% and a low to suboptimal growth rate. Brooding may last up to several months and can take up to five months. Despite several donor-funded projects introducing new strains of chicken in Vanuatu, there have been no formal attempts at investigating the productivity of those new or native strains. This may be associated with limited research in these areas, suggesting potential gaps that could be addressed. 3.5.4 Smallholder farmers’ breed selection and trait preference practices Studies on smallholder farmers’ breed selection and trait preference practices in PNG, Samoa, and Vanuatu are very limited. Nevertheless, available evidence suggests that smallholder farmers in PNG exhibit distinct preferences for specific traits and employ selection practices to retain birds with particular characteristics. For 17Poultry production and household livelihoods in Papua New Guinea, Samoa, and Vanuatu: A review of literature instance, Martin et al. (19) reported that 35.3% of respondents perform selective and crossbreeding mainly through exchanging, culling, and isolating birds, focusing on phenotypic traits and cultural values. Farmers utilize attributes such as feather type and color, ecotype, body size, and egg production to develop more effective flocks. In Vanuatu, a discussion with a few farmers suggests that brooding ability, hatching ability, egg productivity, plumage colour, predator avoidance, tameness, resilience to climate change, shank color (yellow), and frizzled feathers are essential characteristics that farmers consider when selecting hens. For cocks, they consider reproductive capacity, growth performance, plumage color, predator avoidance, tameness, meat taste, fat color (yellow), comb type (single, rose), and shank color (yellow). The absence of adequate evidence on farmers’ chicken breeds and trait preferences may indicate limited effort in breed improvement activities, suggesting the need to generate evidence to inform future research and development interventions. 3.5.5 Major chicken production constraints As indicated previously, smallholder chicken production and productivity are low in the three countries due to multiple and interrelated challenges. Key challenges include the inherently poor egg and meat productivity of indigenous chickens, high feed cost, limited access to finance, poor access to reliable markets, poor infrastructure in remote villages, inadequate market linkages, and lack of coordination and collective actions (19, 27, 34, 39, 41). Farmers have limited access to improved chicken breeds, which can be attributed to inadequate breed research and development efforts within the system. At the same time, due to limited health and biosecurity practices, chickens are highly vulnerable to disease outbreaks and parasitic infestations. Smallholder poultry farmers in rural areas also lack sufficient access to veterinary services and extension advice for controlling diseases and parasites. Predation and theft are also significant challenges, largely due to inadequate poultry housing and related management practices. Increasing and high input costs for housing, balanced diets, vaccinations, and medicines are the other challenges for smallholder farmers. For smallholder commercial poultry producers, key constraints include high feed and DOCs costs, shortage of infrastructure (electricity, water, roads, and storage facilities) and skilled labor (limited training on poultry husbandry practices), inadequate access to land, limited access to finance and market, and insufficient enabling environments (14, 33, 34). Feed costs are inflated by the reliance on imported ingredients and high transportation expenses, particularly for producers operating far from feed mills (95). Many smallholder farms had to close operations because they could not afford the high cost of imported feeds. In recent years, this has motivated researchers to explore alternative locally available feedstuffs to reduce increasing feed costs and improve farms’ sustained production and profitability (33, 34, 47). In addition, the limited productivity of widely used indigenous chickens and the lack of access to cost-effective feed options are key constraints for chicken production in the three countries (27, 34, 39). 3.6 Smallholder poultry products marketing The livelihood contribution of smallholder poultry production includes income generation, the supply of animal-source food, and fulfilling sociocultural obligations of farmers in rural villages and peri-urban areas. Most smallholder farmers in PNG, Samoa, Vanuatu practice poultry production primarily for subsistence, while a few surplus products are used to generate additional income to support livelihood activities. Although the supply is low, surplus poultry products are supplied to various buyers through different marketing channels. For instance, in PNG, surpluses are supplied through formal and informal market channels. The formal market channel includes supermarkets, hotels, restaurants, and catering services. The key suppliers of these outlets are large-scale and a few medium-scale enterprises that can meet the required regulatory standards for quality, hygiene, and volume. 18 Poultry production and household livelihoods in Papua New Guinea, Samoa, and Vanuatu: A review of literature Additionally, some outgrowers operate under contract farming arrangements, and independent smallholder broiler farmers supply poultry products to larger commercial operators who then process and distribute them to different buyers. The informal markets channel, on the other hand, includes farm gate sales, local open markets, roadside stalls, restaurants, fast-food joints, and social events such as festivals. Small and medium- scale commercial producers, as well as subsistence native chicken farmers, typically utilize these marketing channels. While these producers are often constrained by scale, infrastructure, and market access, there are emerging cases of supermarkets sourcing poultry products from the informal sector. In such arrangements, informal market suppliers deliver raw products that supermarkets process and package for resale. This practice can potentially enhance market access for smallholders and enable them to expand their operation scale sustainably. The marketing channel for poultry products in Samoa includes local consumers, supermarkets, hotels, and restaurants. While most farmers only raise chickens for subsistence, a few may sell surplus products to generate income. According to the 2019 agricultural census, only 10% of households raising chickens sold and generated an average income of just over USD 100 per household (11). Farmers sell chickens directly at the farm gate, while others deliver them to consumers upon order. Framers may market chicken either slaughtered or sold alive. Based on the 2015 agricultural census, 29.55% of the chicken-producing households sold chicken products, 42.02 % sold slaughtered chickens, and 70.23% sold live chickens (25). During this period, 63.5% of the total adult chickens marketed were sold as live adult chickens (25). Imported chicken is Vanuatu’s largest chicken meat segment, primarily comprising wings (36%). However, locally produced fresh chicken meat also has a strong market appeal. Some of the smallholder farmers also sell these products. For instance, in the last 12 months of 2022, 34.4% of chicken was sold to slaughterhouses and other outlets (10). Households also sell part of the slaughtered chicken for consumption. Similarly, 31.4% of the eggs produced were sold in 2022, averaging five dozen eggs per household. Apart from the existing production level constraints, the smallholder poultry producers in the three countries also experience various marketing constraints including limited market access, associated with inadequate infrastructure such as poorly maintained roads, insufficient transportation services, weak coordination and collective actions. A lack of functional market facilities, including shelters, low marketable outputs, long distance to reliable markets and cold storage, unhygienic processing environments and inadequate linkages are the major constraints (19, 34, 47). Moreover, fierce competition with low-quality and inexpensive poultry products imported from abroad is another key challenge for local producers. Although there is no clear evidence of the effect of low-quality imported poultry products on the welfare of households (i.e., for producers and low-income consumers), some countries have been attempting to address some of the challenges associated with fierce competition through policy changes (49–52). 3.7 Economic and nutritional contribution of smallholder poultry production 3.7.1 Economic contribution of smallholder poultry production The economic contribution of poultry production in PNG, Samoa, and Vanuatu is documented in various studies. These contributions include income generation, job creation, poverty reduction, and improving gender equity and inclusion. For instance, the 2011 census in PNG shows that 39.4% of poultry-producing rural and urban households sold poultry products to generate income (53). However, most of them (60.6 %) keep poultry for meat and eggs for household consumption. Similarly, a study by Martin et al. (19) documented that 34.1% of the sampled respondents keep chickens for income generation in rural PNG. Although there is no data on the 19Poultry production and household livelihoods in Papua New Guinea, Samoa, and Vanuatu: A review of literature percentage of households involved in the marketing of poultry products from the total poultry meat and eggs produced, more than 20% and 31% of the meat and eggs were marketed to generate income. Linden (54) states that small and medium commercial enterprises contributed PGK 400 million (more than USD 141 million) to the national economy in 2012. Research also shows that the smallholder production practices can provide economically viable business opportunities to farmers, including youth and women (19, 47, 55). Although there is limited empirical evidence, the smallholder poultry industry, particularly the commercially oriented production practice, makes a significant economic contribution, including the creation of employment opportunities along the value chain, from input supply to production and chicken processing (34). As previously indicated, most smallholder poultry-producing households in Samoa focus on subsistence production, and the income generated from chicken production is relatively low. For instance, the 2019 census showed that only 10% of households participated in the marketing of chicken products, generating an average income of USD 100 per household (11). Despite the higher demand for poultry products, the limited engagement of households in business-oriented chicken production may be associated with various factors, including lower production and productivity, limited awareness and perception among households, poor market linkage for inputs and outputs, limited access to infrastructure, and an inadequate commercial-oriented production system. Households in Samoa use chickens for customary purposes. For example, from the total number of chickens slaughtered by households in 2015, 40.15% were slaughtered for customary purposes (25). Moreover, according to the 2019 census, 21% of the livestock-keeping households reported that customary practices were the primary purpose of keeping livestock, including chickens (11). Despite its significant potential for contributing to household income, the share of income from chicken farming in total livestock income was approximately 4% in 2015, followed by cattle (65%) and pigs (27%) (25). During this period, only 16% of the households were involved in marketing chicken products. Available evidence also shows the valuable economic contribution of smallholder poultry production in Vanuatu. In 2022, the poultry sector contributed a total gross value of VUV 849.866 million (10), from which the smallholder sector contributed VUV 828.657 million. The local chicken accounts for the largest proportion of production (VUV 803.786 million), followed by duck (VUV 14.290 million) and broilers (VUV 10.581 million). According to the Vanuatu Bureau of Statistics (VBoS) , in 2022, the total number of poultry species disposed of was 19.2% sold to slaughterhouses and others, while 27.2% were slaughtered at home, primarily for home consumption (86.12%) and income generation (13.04%). This suggests that households practice selling part of the poultry they produce for income generation, and that existing market opportunities exist for producers. In general, the economic contribution of smallholder poultry production is expected to increase significantly in the future due to a growing trend in egg and meat consumption, as well as consumers’ preference for white meat over red meat (56, 57). However, meeting this demand requires addressing both the production and marketing level challenges through integrated and context-specific interventions (56). 3.7.2 Nutritional contribution of smallholder poultry production In developing countries, including the Pacific Islands, households’ food and nutritional security is strongly associated with smallholder agricultural production and productivity (58, 59). Although there is significant heterogeneity in the scope and level of food supply among island countries, domestic agricultural production plays a crucial role in meeting national food demand (60). Smallholder subsistence-based production, including livestock, contributes the largest proportion of food supplied. However, a higher reliance on subsistence-based production and lower production and productivity, which associated with multiple factors, make most island countries vulnerable to food and nutritional insecurity, as well as the consumption of unhealthy imported foods (6, 61). PNG, Samoa, and Vanuatu have been experiencing these challenges including stunting, obesity, and the consumption of low-quality imported products. 20 Poultry production and household livelihoods in Papua New Guinea, Samoa, and Vanuatu: A review of literature Evidence indicates that PNG is among the most highly food-insecure countries in the region (Table 5). A three- year average food insecurity indicator from 2014 to 2023 shows that the prevalence of moderate and severe food insecurity among the total population was 57.3%, 2.25 times higher than the global average. Similarly, the prevalence of severe food insecurity during the same period was 27%, which is 2.92 times the global average. Although it is still higher compared with some countries in Asia and developing countries, the prevalence of moderate and severe food insecurity in Samoa and Vanuatu was significantly lower than in PNG. On the other hand, the average prevalence of obesity among the adult population (18 years and older) in the three countries was higher than the global average. The obesity in Samoa was 4.6 times higher than the global average, which could be associated with a higher prevalence of unhealthy diet consumption practices. Table 5: Prevalence of food insecurity and unhealthy diet indicators. Country/region Moderate & severe food insecurity (2014–2023 3-year average in percent) Severe food insecurity in the total population (2014–2023 3-year average in percent) Prevalence of obesity in the adult population (200–2022: annual in percent) Mean SD Mean SD N Mean SD N Africa 52.00 3.91 19.50 1.53 8 12.45 2.25 23 Asia 21.61 3.04 8.22 1.43 8 6.46 2.14 23 Oceania 23.71 0.83 9.26 0.38 8 24.92 2.85 23 PNG 57.30 0.00 27.00 0.00 6 16.77 2.00 23 Samoa 23.60 0.00 3.40 0.00 6 54.79 4.86 23 Vanuatu 23.30 0.00 2.40 0.00 5 18.43 1.54 23 World 25.51 2.88 9.24 1.33 8 11.97 2.13 23 Data Source: FAOSTAT, 2025 In developing countries, household agricultural production practices can have a significant impact on the nutritional outcomes of children and women (62). The level of disaggregated data for household members also shows that children and women are primarily affected by food and nutritional security issues. For instance, in the most populous country in the region, PNG, there is a higher prevalence of stunting among children under five years of age than the global and regional averages (Figure 8). From 2000 to 2022, the average prevalence of stunting was 46.23%, 1.67 times the global average and 2.41 times the regional average. Vanuatu’s average prevalence of stunting was similar to the global average but higher than the regional average. Moreover, despite a decreasing trend in the global average of stunting, there was an increasing trend in PNG and Vanuatu. Samoa’s average prevalence of stunting was among the least, despite a slight increasing trend in the previous few years. Although Samoa is one of the countries highly dependent on imported foods, its relatively lower food insecurity and higher prevalence of obesity could be associated with consumption of unhealthy and poor-quality imported food. For instance, the average value of food imports in total merchandise for Samoa was 196.5%, while the average values for PNG and Vanuatu were 8.23% and 104.14%, respectively. An increasing dependence on imported food and limited local production may increase a country’s vulnerability to food and nutritional insecurity. A high prevalence of undernutrition, including stunting, can be associated with lower consumption of food from animal sources (63-66). Smallholder poultry production can significantly contribute to addressing this issue by enhancing access to animal-source foods and reducing food and nutritional insecurity, especially among resource-poor households in developing countries (56, 57). This could be linked to unique aspects of poultry production, such as a short production cycle, lower land and capital requirements, the availability of locally adapted and resilient strains, and unique nutritional components found in eggs and meat. Nonetheless, pathways for enhancing the food and nutritional security of rural and peri-urban households through poultry development may include directly consuming meat and eggs, as well as using the additional income generated to 21Poultry production and household livelihoods in Papua New Guinea, Samoa, and Vanuatu: A review of literature purchase other essential foods. For instance, empirical evidence from various countries indicates that consuming eggs in early childhood is associated with positive nutritional outcomes (67-70). However, evidence also suggests that household food and nutritional security is directly associated not only with food production, but also with awareness of nutrient-dense food consumption, household health and hygiene practices, and other sociocultural factors. A study by Tesha (71) reveals a positive correlation between stunting prevalence and food production in Tanzania, underscoring the need to integrate nutrition-sensitive interventions to address food and nutritional insecurity in areas with a high prevalence of both. The positive effects of context-specific and tailored agricultural interventions, which include social and behavioural change communications, on countries’ food security and dietary diversity, including meat and egg consumption, have been documented in various studies (71, 72). Nutritional training can also contribute to increasing the adoption of technologies by helping farmers to experience the dietary benefits of nutritional interventions (73). The crucial role of integrating nutritional interventions into value chain investments to enhance food and nutritional security is also documented (74). Figure 8: Percentage of stunted children under five years of age in different countries (2000–2022). Data source: FAOSTAT, 2025 3.8 Overview of agricultural policy and research Agriculture is among the most important economic sectors in all Pacific countries, supplying food and creating jobs and employment opportunities(75–78). Enhancing the agricultural sector’s production and productivity, including livestock production, is a policy priority in most Pacific Island countries (17, 78–80). Hence, agricultural policies in most of these countries prioritize increasing the competitiveness of livestock production systems, such as pigs and poultry, as one of the most critical issues (80, 81). For example, in PNG, increasing the competitiveness of small animals, such as poultry, including egg layers, is one strategy for enhancing local food production (81). The 2023–2034 national agricultural sector plan also sets improving the village chicken production and developing the value chain as one of the core strategic objectives (82). Similarly, the government of Vanuatu has also prioritized the poultry sector, mainly chicken, under the One Country One Priority Product (OCOP) initiative, which promotes the sustainable development of Special Agricultural Products, developed by the FAO (83). The rehabilitation of the poultry industry through public-private partnerships to develop an independent and sustainable poultry industry has also been prioritized by the Vanuatu government (84). Transforming the agricultural sector, including poultry production, to boost local production is also considered 22 Poultry production and household livelihoods in Papua New Guinea, Samoa, and Vanuatu: A review of literature one of Samoa’s 2030 food system transformation pathways (17). Moreover, considering the multiple challenges the commercial poultry production sub-sector has been experiencing, which have led to a lack of competitiveness due to cheap and low-quality imported products from various countries, countries may prioritize improving the sub-sector through special measures, such as import bans. Research and development efforts aimed at enhancing the production and productivity of the poultry sector have a long history spanning decades. For instance, in PNG, various attempts were made to improve the smallholder chicken production by distributing dual-purpose chickens and Muscovy ducks in the 1960s and 1980s (40). Various poultry research activities focused on broad areas, including breed improvement, feed, health, and other value chain development issues (31, 32, 34, 46). Significant evidence and lessons that can be scaled out are documented in various grey and published literature. For instance, a recent in-depth interview by Fang et al. (85), shows that local mini-feed mills can substantially reduce feed costs and increase farmers’ gross profits compared to using feed from commercial feed suppliers. In PNG, the 2023–2034 national agricultural sector plan has also recognized the vital role of agricultural research and innovation in transforming subsistence-based production into commercial-oriented production through strong engagement with national and international research and development partners (82). Research for development efforts in traditional village poultry production systems have remained limited in in the Pacific Islands countries including PNG (40). This has constrained rural households from enhancing their food security and increasing their income from available genetic resources. Additional efforts are still needed to improve the productivity of indigenous chicken breed-based production in the three countries (86). For instance, genetic characterization of indigenous breeds can contribute to identifying chicken ecotypes suitable for different agroecologies (87). Studies also show that indigenous chicken can be a potential genetic source for developing locally adapted and high-producing chicken breeds (86). Some of the previous research focused on a single innovation and lacked integration. Future research efforts should focus on identifying and testing integrated innovations that involve improved genetics, feed, health and market improvements alongside other value chain development interventions (88). These may include identifying and testing tropically adapted improved chicken breeds and improving the productivity of indigenous breeds through targeted and tailored breed improvement programs (89). Considering the economic and environmental dimensions, research on feed should also be a key aspect especially because conventional feed ingredients such as grains and oils cannot be grown in the region, which makes commercial production system highly dependent on high-priced imported feeds. This research should support the various efforts to improve farmers’ access to feeds, primarily locally available feeds (39). One approach could be using locally available feed ingredients as part of the feed rations which has been demonstrated to be technically and economically feasible (32, 90, 91). Nonetheless, further research and development interventions are required to develop context-specific feed ingredients (92). Additional research on feed may involve introducing the most cost-effective feed options, studies on feed processing, technical capacity building, and establishing community feed mills (36, 85, 92). Furthermore, strengthening collaborative regional research for development efforts among Pacific Island countries could help address regional-level challenges and create a platform for sharing knowledge and skills and increasing investment in livestock research which is currently weak (93). 23Poultry production and household livelihoods in Papua New Guinea, Samoa, and Vanuatu: A review of literature 4 Conclusions and research for development implications Poultry production is integral to smallholder household well-being, especially in rural areas, where they make multiple contributions to nutrition and livelihoods. This review of literature has identified the heterogeneity in the scope and level of poultry production and productivity in PNG, Samoa and Vanuatu, as well as the similarities. The sub-sector encompasses traditional/backyard production, semi-intensive small- to medium-scale production, and large-scale commercial production systems. In the three countries, the traditional backyard village production system dominates the poultry sub-sector, mainly based on indigenous or local chicken breeds. This production system supports the livelihoods of most rural households by supplying high-quality protein from animal sources and helping households generate supplementary income. However, its traditional and subsistence-orientation, relying primarily on indigenous chickens, make the sector’s productivity inherently poor. Very few poultry producers in these countries aim to generate income from their enterprises. Findings from this review include that single and disintegrated approaches have not yielded improvements in poultry production in the three countries, suggesting the need for co-designing and co-implementing integrated innovation packages that target breeding, feeding, health, housing, and overall value chain development. Interventions in the village poultry production system may include building the technical capacity of smallholder farmers and enhancing their awareness of conserving indigenous chicken breeds. Improving the production and productivity of the sector will require developing the value chain and promoting informed consumption of poultry products, with a focus on changing household consumption behaviours. The review emphasizes the importance of characterizing and conserving indigenous chicken through breeding programs enhance the productivity of existing indigenous ecotypes. Moreover, efforts that reduce feed costs and promote the use of locally available ingredients are vital. To enhance the contribution of the small- and medium-scale commercial production system to local poultry product supply, improving access to DOCs, lowering feed costs, improving market linkages, strengthening value-added practices, and limiting competition from low-quality imported products will be essential. Given existing market opportunities, introducing high-yielding, tropically adapted, and improved breeds, along with establishing a multiplication and dissemination strategy for them, may be among the feasible solutions to address constraints associated with access to more productive poultry. These efforts must be context-specific, considering each country’s socio-economic status and development policies and strategies, as well as short- and medium-term challenges. For instance, in countries with a high population, low consumption of poultry products, and high malnutrition such as PNG, priority should be given to introducing fast-growing and high-yielding chickens, along with allied inputs and services. On the other hand, in countries with better food and nutritional security and limited access to exotic breeds and other inputs, improving the productivity of indigenous chickens may be a more pressing priority. 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