Received: 15 May 2019  |  Revised: 6 August 2019  |  Accepted: 13 August 2019
DOI: 10.1002/ppp3.10084  
R E V I E W
Enset-based agricultural systems in Ethiopia: A systematic 
review of production trends, agronomy, processing and the 
wider food security applications of a neglected banana relative
James S. Borrell1  |   Mark Goodwin2* |   Guy Blomme3  |   Kim Jacobsen4 |    
Abebe M. Wendawek5 |   Dawd Gashu6 |   Ermias Lulekal7 |   Zemede Asfaw7 |    
Sebsebe Demissew7  |   Paul Wilkin1
1Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Richmond, 
Surrey, UK Societal Impact Statement
2Department of Genetics and Genome Enset is a staple food for over 20 million people via its starch-rich corm and pseu-
Biology, University of Leicester, Leicester, dostem, yet it is virtually unknown outside a narrow zone of cultivation in southern 
UK
3Bioversity International, c/o ILRI, Addis Ethiopia. Due to acculturation and urbanization coupled with climate change, emerg-
Ababa, Ethiopia ing pests and the introduction of new crops, the extensive indigenous knowledge 
4Royal Museum for Central Africa, Tervuren, associated with this crop is in danger of being lost, imperilling the future food secu-
Belgium
5Department of Biology, Hawassa rity and prosperity of millions of Ethiopians. Here, we synthesize the current state 
University, Hawassa, Ethiopia of enset ethnobotanical research, identifying key gaps and challenges, and provide 
6Center for Food Science and Nutrition, a framework for further enset research to safeguard this important, but neglected, 
Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa, 
Ethiopia tropical crop.
7Department of Plant Biology and Summary
Biodiversity Management, Addis Ababa 
University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia Enset (Ensete ventricosum (Welw.) Cheesman) is the major starch staple of the 
Ethiopian Highlands, where its unique attributes enhance the food security of ap-
Correspondence
James S. Borrell, Royal Botanic Gardens, proximately 20 million people and have earned it the title “The Tree Against Hunger”. 
Kew, Richmond, Surrey, UK. Yet enset-based agriculture is virtually unknown outside of its narrow zone of cultiva-
Email j.borrell@kew.org
tion, despite growing wild across much of East and Southern Africa. Here, we review 
Funding information
This work was supported by the GCRF historical production data to show that the area of land under enset production in 
Foundation Awards for Global Agricultural Ethiopia has reportedly increased 46% in two decades, whilst yield increased 12-
and Food Systems Research, entitled, 
“Modelling and genomics resources to fold over the same period, making enset the second most produced crop species in 
enhance exploitation of the sustainable Ethiopia—though we critically evaluate potential issues with these data. Furthermore, 
and diverse Ethiopian starch crop Enset 
and support livelihoods” [Grant No. BB/ we address a major challenge in the development and wider cultivation of enset, by 
P02307X/1]. reviewing and synthesizing the complex and fragmented agronomic and ethnobo-
tanic knowledge associated with this species; including farming systems, process-
ing methods, products, medicinal uses and cultural importance. Finally, we provide 
a framework to improve the quality, consistency and comparability of data collected 
across culturally diverse enset-based agricultural systems to enhanced sustainable 
*This article is dedicated to the memory of our colleague and friend Dr Mark Goodwin. 
This is an open access article under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, 
provided the original work is properly cited.
© 2020 The Authors. Plants, People, Planet © New Phytologist Trust
Plants, People, Planet. 2020;00:1–17.  wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/ppp3  |  1
2  |     BORRELL Et aL.
use of this neglected starch staple. In conclusion, we discuss the challenges and op-
portunities for enset cultivation beyond its restricted distribution, and the regional 
food security potential it could afford smallholders elsewhere in Southern and East 
Africa.
K E Y W O R D S
agricultural systems, agroforestry, crop wild relative, food security, home gardens, indigenous 
knowledge, medicinal use, sustainable agriculture, tropical crop ecology
1  | INTRODUC TION Ethiopian domesticated crop that has never been cultivated out-
side Ethiopia, despite wild populations of E. ventricosum occurring 
Ethiopia is ranked 104th of 119 countries in the most recent from Ethiopia, and eastern DR Congo (along the rift valley moun-
Global Hunger Index (von Grebmer et al., 2017), with 28.8% of tain ranges) to South Africa (Figure 1). This highly localized culti-
the population undernourished from 2014–16. The national costs vation (though by many socio-cultural and ethnolinguistic groups) 
of malnutrition have been estimated at US$ 4.7 billion annually, may in part explain limited research to date, despite indications 
with significant long-term socio-economic consequences (African that enset could play a key role in meeting food security challenges 
Union Commission World Food Programme United Nations (Brandt et al., 1997), not only in Ethiopia, but also further afield.
Economic Commission for Africa, 2012). Despite being a center Enset (Ensete ventricosum, Musaceae), is an unusual crop/plant from 
of diversity and domestication for food crops, Ethiopia has been a sister genus to the bananas (Musa). Enset differs from domesticated 
the largest recipient of targeted food aid (World Food Programme, bananas in that the mature plant does not produce edible fruit (these 
2013). Ethiopia's agricultural history is characterized by the do- are filled with numerous large and hard seeds, similar to many other 
mestication of cultigens including coffee (Coffea arabica L.), tef wild banana species). Instead the plant is grown for 3–12 years, before 
(Eragrostis tef (Zuccagni) Trotter), khat (Catha edulis Forsk), noog the pseudostem and corm are harvested and collectively processed 
(Guizotia abyssinica (L.f.) Cass.), finger millet (Eleusine coracana L.) into starchy food products (Shack, 1966). Enset serves as a staple food 
and enset (Ensete ventricosum (Welw.) Cheesman) (Harlan, 1969, for about 20% of the Ethiopian population, over 20 million people, 
1971; Khoury et al., 2016). Whilst coffee has become one of the mainly in the south and south-west of the country (Borrell et al., 2018). 
most highly traded global commodity crops (Ponte, 2002), and Under appropriate conditions it is estimated that 60 mature plants can 
others have widespread and growing international importance provide enough food for a family of five to six people, over the course 
(e.g., tef, [Cheng, Mayes, Dalle, Demissew, & Massawe, 2017]), of a year, when consumed with other dietary components; typically 
enset has remained largely overlooked. It is perhaps the only major meat, dairy, and cabbage (Demeke, 1986).
F I G U R E  1   (a) The distribution of wild and domestic enset in Eastern and Southern Africa. It should be noted that domestic enset displays 
a range expansion east towards and across the Ethiopian rift valley system, beyond the current distribution of wild enset; (b) inset Ethiopia 
with the main study areas discussed in this article
BORRELL Et aL.      |  3
Enset farming systems contribute to the long-term sustain- a national context. Smallholders account for 96% of the cultivated 
ability of food production through several mechanisms. Enset is area in Ethiopia (Taffesse, Dorosh, & Gemessa, 2013), with at least 
perceived to be relatively tolerant of drought (Garedew, Ayiza, 48 ethnic groups native to the Southern Nations, Nationalities and 
Haile, & Kasaye, 2017; Zerfu, Gebre, Berecha, & Getahun, 2018), Peoples Region (the major enset growing region), 88 recorded lan-
withstand heavy rain, tolerate flooding, and endure frost damage guages (Population Census Commission, 2007) belonging to four 
(Degu & Workayehu, 1990). Enset can be harvested at any time major groups (Omotic, Semitic Nilotic, and Cushtic) and a corre-
during the year, be harvested at any growth stage over a period sponding multitude of ethnobotanic practices. Therefore, here we 
of several years (up to an including the early flowering stage), and investigate and summarize reported uses and management of enset, 
the fermented products can be stored for long periods (Brandt et recent trends in cultivation, emerging by-products and opportuni-
al., 1997; Garedew et al., 2017; Sahle, Yeshitela, & Saito, 2018). ties for improvement. We hope that by providing a framework within 
This combination of characteristics gives enset an important role which to report enset ethnobotanic research, we can enable and ca-
during times of famine in the areas in which it is traditionally cul- talyse development of this important Ethiopian food security crop.
tivated. Enset's resilience and versatility has earned it the name 
'The Tree Against Hunger' (Brandt et al., 1997) and it already forms 
the basis of many households' food security (Negash & Niehof, 1.1 | National production and yield trends
2004; Sahle et al., 2018).
We consider that there are two major challenges for the im- Analysis of data from Ethiopia's Central Statistics Agency (CSA, 
provement of existing enset farming practices and the adoption 1995–2017), shows the area of land under enset production has in-
of enset-based agriculture outside of the current distribution in creased approximately 46% over the past twenty years, whilst yield 
south west Ethiopia. The first, is poor characterization of ecolog- has been reported to increase twelve-fold (Figure 2; Dataset S1; see 
ical requirements, genetic diversity, and the impact of changing Methods in Supporting Information), implying substantial productiv-
climate, recently reviewed in a companion paper by Borrell et al., ity improvements. We have concerns over the validity of these data 
(2018). The second, addressed here, is poor documentation of the for several reasons. First, these data are at odds with several stud-
extensive ethnobotanical knowledge and practices associated with ies reporting that farmers perceive enset production to be declining 
enset cultivation and recent enset household production trends in (Abebe, 2013; Negash, 2001; Yemataw et al., 2017; Zippel, 2005). 
F I G U R E  2   Enset agriculture in 
Ethiopia, showing (a) hectares in 
production (circles) and yield (squares). 
Dashed lines indicate interpolation 
between incomplete data. Red circles 
denote values based on incomplete 
reported data. Yield data is not available 
prior to 2008. All data sourced from the 
Central Statistics Agency Agricultural 
Sample Survey (1996–2018); (b) national 
yield for the ten highest yielding crops 
in Ethiopia (2017–18); and (c) yield per 
hectare for the ten most widely produced 
crops (2017–18). Enset ranks second in 
yield per hectare and is the fourth highest 
yielding crop per hectare
4  |     BORRELL Et aL.
Second, over a similar period, (1996–2017) the Ethiopian population 
increased 77% from 59 to 105 million (Center for International Earth Box 1 Challenges and sources of variation in esti-
Science Information Network, 2017). This disparity could be partly at- mating area under production and yield for enset 
tributed to a proportional reduction of enset land area per person, as agriculture in Ethiopia
enset agriculture fails to keep pace with population growth, however, 
this is unlikely to be the case for overall yield. Third, there appears to Estimating hectares under production
be little evidence for policy or crop development-based drivers that • Transplanting occurs up to five times, at increasing spac-
could have contributed to the reported productivity increase. Instead ing meaning that enset density varies with age class.
Cochrane and Bekele (2018) report undocumented ‘methodological • Final mature spacing differs in different regions, poten-
changes' at the Central Statistics Agency and highlight concerns over tially dependent on variables such as precipitation and 
quality, methods and politicization of the data, with inconsistencies soil moisture.
over several other tuber crops such as taro and sweet potato. • Enset is sometimes intercropped with other food or cash 
A final pervasive source of error in estimating enset yield is the crops such as coffee (Coffea arabica); in some areas such 
difficulty in applying agricultural survey methods developed for annual as Gedeo and Sidama, enset is also grown in the under-
or perennial crops (e.g., cereals) to enset, a multi-year crop, where the story of agroforestry systems.
intermediate stages can be harvested, harvesting ends the life of an • Enset is harvested most frequently at 4–6 years old, but 
individual enset plant (unlike perennial crops that continue producing may be harvested from as little as 2 years, until flower-
yearly after the initial harvest) and complex transplanting strategies ing, which may be 12 years in some conditions.
frequently alter the number of plants per hectare (summarized in Box • A variable portion of total enset hectarage (often 15%–
1). More recent surveys (2012–17) (Central Statistics Agency, n.d.) have 25%) harvested each year, depending on household re-
employed an approach where the number of plants harvested is re- quirements and performance of other crops.
corded, and this is multiplied by the anticipated yield of food products • Annual mortality, including impact of pests and diseases 
(mainly kocho, bulla and amicho, see below) per plant. However, the is poorly known.
time lag between planting and harvesting (4–10 years, depending on Estimating yield
the local conditions and management efficiency), may result in data • Yield varies due to varying performance in highly het-
artefacts; for example overharvesting (harvesting enset at a faster rate erogeneous agroecological conditions across the crops' 
than enset plants are replenished) could give the temporary impression distribution.
of increased production, whilst the overall hectarage declines, unless • Yield likely varies due to differing performance of ge-
rigorous survey methods are employed. Thus an empirical evaluation netically distinct landraces.
of hectares in production, the number of harvested plants and overall • Yield varies based on age at harvest.
yield is key to monitoring enset's role in providing food security. • Yield per hectare sometimes comprises a hectare of har-
Yield assessments for 2017/18 report that enset was the sec- vested enset, or alternatively the yield of enset that can 
ond most produced crop species in Ethiopia, with the fourth highest be sustainably removed from a hectare each year (for 
yield per hectare (Figure 2), highlighting its importance to Ethiopian example, ~1/6th of the total area).
agriculture (Central Statistics Agency, n.d.). Nevertheless, estimates • Yield and ratio of different food products (kocho, bulla 
of enset yield (per-plant and per-hectare) in the literature vary sub- and amicho) vary depending on cultivated landrace.
stantially (Table 1). Whilst much of this variation can be attributed • The number of plants harvested and yield may be with-
to the challenges in surveying enset outlined previously (Box 1), held or misreported.
there are also important differences in enset cultivation density and • Water content of derived products rarely quantified.
yield in different regions, likely attributable to local agroecological • Local unit names and weights for enset products also 
conditions (Shank & Ertiro, 1996). For example, lowland parts of the vary, even across small spatial scales (e.g. neighbouring 
Gurage region are typically drier than other enset growing areas and communities).
this may be a contributing factor to it having one of the lowest enset 
planting densities, reducing competition between plants (Sahle et 
al., 2018) (see Table 1). In the same study, the authors show annual 2001). Despite this reputation, continuing to develop higher enset 
yields per hectare can vary from 2.9–7.7 tons when compared across yields remains a key focus for Ethiopia's agricultural system as as-
local agroecological zones. Pijls, Timmer, Wolde-Gebriel, and West serted by Taffesse et al. (2013) and many other researchers.
(1995), based on another survey in the Gurage region, measured the 
energy yield per area and unit of time for enset as 1,450 kcal/m2 
per year, substantially higher than that of other common Ethiopian 1.2 | Regional importance
staples such as cereals, potato, sweet potato and banana. Therefore, 
when considered per unit of space and time, in some localities enset The prevalence of enset agriculture across Ethiopia is highly heterog-
earns the title of most efficient Ethiopian crop (Tsegaye & Struik, enous, depending on both amenable agroecological conditions and 
BORRELL Et aL.      |  5
TA B L E  1   Enset yield per plant, yield, and number of plants per hectare reported in the literature
Estimate Notes References
Yield per plant
30.5 kg Author also reported subaverages of 30, 34, and 27 kg, in Endebir, Kambata Makiso (1975)
and Sidama districts respectively.
25 kg — Ashagari (1984)
27 kg Kocho only, (30 kg total yield) Alemu and Sandford (1991)
30.8 (±9.3) kg Encompasses measurements across 20 woredas in five zones. Evans (1993)
34 kg Kocho only Pijls et al. (1995)
39.2 kg Authors also report a range of 12–100 kg across all samples. Shank and Ertiro (1996)
8–70 kg  Tabogie (1997)
16–37 kg Author also noted an average harvest of 19 kg bulla Tsegaye (2002)
52 kg Kocho at 40% dry matter Zappacosta, Robinson, Edirisinghe, & 
Ronchini (2007)
15–61 kg Unsqueezed (wet weight) Shumbulo et al. (2012)
20 kg Dry weight Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation 
(2014)
50.3 kg Consisting of 27 kg Kocho, 23 kg amicho and 1 kg bulla Central Statistics Agency (2013–17)
16.2 (±7) kg These data included all plant sizes on the farm, encompassing those too small Sahle et al. (2018)
to normally be harvested.
Yield per hectare  
2.4 t National estimate Central Statistics Office 1968 (sourced 
from Pijls et al., 1995)
3.3–7 t Study undertaken in Wolayta zone Wolayta Agricultural Development Unit 
1978 (sourced from Shank & Ertiro, 
1996)
8.3 t — Ashagari (1984)
6.6–23 t National estimate (50% moisture content) Alemu and Sandford (1991)
9.5 t Study undertaken in Gurage zone Pijls et al. (1995)
10.8 t Derived from six smaller unreported studies. Chiche (1995)
10–12 t Study reported use of N, P and K fertilizer, with yields 3–4 times lower with- Uloro and Mengel (1996)
out fertilizer application.
21.7 t National estimate Central Statistics Agency (2008–11 
mean)
147.7 t National estimate Central Statistics Agency (2012–17 
mean)
6.5 (±0.3) t Study undertaken in Gurage zone Sahle et al. (2018)
Plants per hectare  
2,300 — Alemu and Sandford (1991)
2,500 Based on 2 m × 2 m plant spacing Zappacosta et al. (2007)
10,000 — Shumbulo et al. (2012)
2,222 Based on plant spacing of 1.5 m × 3 m Gates Foundation (2014)
1,024 ± 89 Empirical field measurements using 10 m x 10 m plots Sahle et al. (2018)
local cultural preferences. Enset is most abundant in northern and 1.3 | Household utilization, supply and demand
eastern zones of the Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples 
Region (SNNPR), but is also an important crop in Oromia and parts of Household utilization of enset (available CSA data averaged for the 
eastern Gambela. Figure 3 presents current yield across enset produc- period 2008–16) also indicates its important role in household food 
ing districts (woredas), and recent trends in the land area under enset security, with enset having the highest consumption rate for both 
agriculture from the period 1997–2014 (the most recent data available humans and livestock, the most used crop for ‘wages in kind’ and the 
by district; see Dataset S2 and Methods in Supporting Information). lowest sale rate (Figure 4). It is perhaps due to this high degree of 
6  |     BORRELL Et aL.
F I G U R E  3   The major enset-producing 
areas in South and South-west Ethiopia. 
(a) Area under enset production (hectares) 
for the year 2014 (the most recent data 
available at zonal level); (b) trends in 
the area under enset production for the 
period 1997–2014
F I G U R E  4   Enset household percentage utilization, with data averaged over the period 2008–2015. Perennial crops exclude enset
BORRELL Et aL.      |  7
household use that, unlike cereal crops, trends in the market price of yield (Tabogie & Diro, 1992). In areas where extended droughts 
enset products are poorly known. Although a recent study by Sahle are common and watering is difficult, it may be preferable to use 
et al. (2018) mapped supply and demand for kocho in the Wabe River whole corms to reduce corm desiccation; in other areas watering 
catchment of the Gurage Mountains in southern Ethiopia (Gurage and application of manure is advised (Karlsson et al., 2015).
zone, SNNPR). Here, the average kocho demand per person was met Various technologies have been developed to increase sucker 
by 16 plants, which is consistent with Demeke (Demeke, 1986). Sahle production (Yemataw, Tawle, Blomme, & Jacobsen, 2018). Makiso 
et al. (2018) did, however, note that only 38% of households can (1996) refers to a macro-propagation method to regenerate enset 
meet demand from home gardens. There was a good supply of kocho plants by cutting the corm, with leaf bases intact, vertically into 
in most areas, but demand exceeded supply in 25% of the catchment. small pieces which are then planted in plastic tubes or bags and 
raised in a growth chamber with proper temperature and humidity 
(20°C and moist medium of soil or any other material). Other rapid 
2  | ENSET AGRONOMY AND FARMING propagation methods have been reported by Diro, van Staden, and 
SYSTEMS Bornman (2004), including zygotic embryo culture (Bezuneh, 1980; 
Diro, van Staden, & Bornman, 2003; Negash, 2001; Negash, Puite, 
2.1 | Propagation and tissue culture Schaart, Visser, & Krens, 2000), shoot tip culture (Afza, van Duren, 
& Morpurgo, 1996; Negash et al., 2000; Zeweldu, 1997), and cal-
Domesticated enset is exclusively propagated vegetatively using lus culture and somatic embryogenesis (Mathew, Manuel, & Philip, 
suckers from the appropriately prepared corm of a young plant. As 2000; Mathew & Philip, 2003). Micro-propagated enset plants are 
enset plants are generally harvested before full emergence of the prone to various issues, including blackening resulting from phenolic 
inflorescence, seeds are rarely available to farmers, although pref- oxidation of explants, necrosis and the formation of unwanted cal-
erence for vegetative reproduction is normally attributed to the lus. Low levels of multiple shoot formation are also observed from 
increased vigor of the suckers/plantlets (Alemu & Sandford, 1991). shoot tip explants (Diro et al., 2004), thus these approaches do not 
There is a single domesticated enset landrace from the Ari region, yet provide an alternative to sucker propagation.
known to spontaneously sucker from the leaf petiole base. Enset 
seeds from cultivated landraces are characterized by low germina-
tion rates (Negash, 2001), while higher germination rates have been 2.2 | Transplanting and harvest
observed for wild enset (Z. Yemataw, pers. comm.). Wild enset is 
assumed to reproduce exclusively via seeds, because spontaneous Harvested suckers are planted in a nursery plot (0.5 to 1 m2 plant−1) 
suckering has not been observed. where they grow for about one year. Subsequently, suckers are con-
Suckers initiate from growing buds found in concentric cir- secutively transplanted into ever more widely spaced arrangements, 
cles on the upper section of the corm. While some variation in with a final minimal spacing of 2 to 4 m2 plant−1 (Bezuneh & Feleke, 
corm preparation are reported between different ethnic groups 1966; Hiebsch, 1996; Tsegaye & Struik, 2002), with wider spacing 
(Diro, Haile, & Tabogie, 1996) the principal aspects are consistent. more common in areas of lower soil moisture e.g., Gurage (Sahle et al., 
To produce suckers for planting, a farmer will harvest the pseu- 2018; Table 1). Since the corm and pseudostem are harvested, higher 
dostem and save the corm of a desired plant to initiate suckers. yields can be expected by successive transplanting steps which 
In contrast to banana, naturally occurring sucker production is delay flowering, thus allowing a longer period of time for vegetative 
rare due to the very high dominance of the apical meristem, which growth, which includes assimilation of starch in the pseudostem and 
must be destroyed/removed to stimulate sucker production. After corm. Therefore, direct transplanting is advised when early yields are 
the removal of the apical meristem, corms are kept in its entirety the objective, but more frequent transplanting will result in higher 
or are split into two or four equal parts. After preparation, the yields per plant (Tsegaye & Struik, 2000). Once equilibrium (plant-
corm/corm pieces are planted 20–30 cm deep in loosened soil, ing = harvesting) has been achieved, annual yields will be higher for 
mixed with manure. Corms from plants of 2–4 years old and about twice transplanted plants compared to once transplanted as this 
10–35 cm in diameter are preferred (Bezuneh & Feleke, 1966; encourages greater partitioning of dry matter to the harvestable 
Yemataw, Mohamed, Diro, Addis, & Blomme, 2014). Each corm parts (Blomme, Jacobsen, Tawle, & Yemataw, 2018; Tsegaye, 2007). 
(piece) will produce between 40 and 200 suckers, depending on Systems involving up to five transplanting stages are used in some 
the cultivar, size and age of the mother plant, soil characteristics, areas (J. Borrell, pers. obs.). An additional benefit of repeated trans-
rainfall, land preparation and time of planting (Shumbulo, Gecho, planting is the smaller overall space required (i.e., all plots with vary-
& Tora, 2012). Suckers appear 2–3 months after planting (Tsegaye ing plant size/density are grown together). Full maturity of the enset 
& Struik, 2002). Time to sucker emergence is shorter for split plant is reached after 4 to 12 years, depending on the landrace and al-
corms and a higher number of seedlings are generated this way titude of the farm, with higher locations significantly increasing crop-
compared with entire corms (Karlsson, Dalbato, Tamado, & Mikias, ping cycle duration (Negash, 2001). The ideal moment to harvest is 
2015). Early emergence is associated with more vigorous suck- at inflorescence emergence. At that time, dry matter yield is highest. 
ers, which promotes success of establishment, higher and earlier After flowering, assimilates are redirected toward the inflorescence 
8  |     BORRELL Et aL.
(a) (b) (c) F I G U R E  5   (a and b) Enset corm with 
newly emerging shoots; (c) young enset 
plantlets at second transplanting stage. 
Spacing and number of transplanting 
stages varies across different regions; (d) 
2–4-year-old plants at second and third 
transplanting stages; (e) wider spacing 
at final transplanting stage, with fresh 
application of manure; (f) mature enset 
with dry leaf sheaths removed, ready for 
harvesting. Upper portion of the corm, 
(d) (e) (f) with roots removed is also visible; (g) 
traditional hut in Hadiya Zone surrounded 
by enset; and (h) enset leaf sheaths appear 
adapted to store water, here water is 
observed over a month since the last 
substantial rain
(g) (h)
and away from the pseudostem and corm (Tsegaye & Struik, 2000). A from livestock which are traditionally housed immediately adja-
summary of growth stages is presented in Figure 5. cent to the enset for ease of transfer. As a result soil, fertility in 
enset fields is reported to be greater than in surrounding fields 
or pastures (Shank & Ertiro, 1996). The rate, timing, and method 
2.3 | Enset farm management and fertilization of manure application varies among households and depends on 
the growth stage of the plantation and the availability of manure 
As a perennial crop enset fields generally do not require tilling (de- (Tsegaye & Struik, 2002).
pending on intercropping practices), though sequentially spaced and Compared to other crops, there are very few fertilizer re-
sized holes are dug for subsequent transplanting stages and then re- sponse trials for enset. Bezuneh (1984) applied 3 kg manure-com-
used for successive individuals. Due to large leaf surfaces rainfall is in- post, 500 g N and 400 g P2O5 per plant, in an effort to determine 
tercepted, limiting erosion. Enset leaf bases also appear to be adapted the yield potential of enset. Plants were harvested after one 
to trap water close to the pseudostem, with pools of water observed transplant and 40 months at 1800–2000 m above sea level and 
even several months into the dry season (Figure 5h; J. Borrell, pers. a spacing of 5 m2 per plant. Fresh kocho weights per plant of 
obs.). Irrigation practices have not been observed. Enset appears to 18.5, 22.2 and 29.8 kg respectively for the landraces “Ferezae”, 
have a larger root system and thicker root cords compared to banana “Tuzuma” and “Adow” were achieved, however control compari-
(possibly aiding plant stability in its preferred natural habitat of steep sons were not reported. Uloro and Mengel (1996) applied 100 kg/
riverbanks and slopes), with 89%–96% of roots in the upper 40 cm ha N and 100 kg/ha P fertilizer, reportedly improving general 
soil layer (Blomme, Sebuwufu, Addis, & Turyagyenda, 2008). Enset plant appearance, plant above-ground growth, fresh biomass and 
leaves and discarded parts of the pseudostem are frequently used as fresh rhizome yield of enset in soils which were low to medium in 
a mulch, which enhances soil moisture and organic matter. their nutrient status. Inclusion of 200 kg/ha K in the fertilization 
Enset farming systems are reported to require relatively lit- program further improved plant morphology and rhizome starch 
tle off-farm input, however manure application is widespread production, although K did not have a noticeable effect on above 
and considered essential by enset farmers. Manure is derived ground biomass yield. Fertilizer application gave dry weight starch 
BORRELL Et aL.      |  9
yields in the range of 10–12 t/ha, which is three to four times importance given to enset within each cropping system (Brandt et 
higher than without fertilizer application. al., 1997; Shank, 1994; Westphal, 1975), for example enset–coffee–
maize is the dominant system of Sidama zone. Additional variation 
is observed due to wealth of farming households, farming skills, 
2.4 | Enset agrisystems landholding size, availability of resources, access to a highway and 
altitude (Abebe, 2005). Mellisse, Descheemaeker, Giller, Abebe, 
Enset-based agriculture is considered one of the most sustainable and Ven (2018), in an analysis of home gardens, found that overall 
of the indigenous farming systems in Ethiopia, with a human carry- crop productivity was lowest in the traditional enset–coffee sys-
ing capacity higher than other crops and cropping systems for the tems (1,820 kg Dry Matter [DM] ha−1) and highest in the newly 
same agroecology and inputs (Brandt et al., 1997), although further evolved enset–cereal–vegetable systems (3,020 DM kg ha−1). 
empirical evaluation is necessary. Many enset-based farms are de- Energy productivity from food crops was higher in enset-based 
rived from forest, whereby farmers clear away the undergrowth to systems (43 Gigajoules (GJ) ha−1) compared to other systems, but 
plant enset, coffee, and other crops, leaving the upper story trees, the revenue was lowest in enset-based systems (719 US$ ha−1) and 
resulting in multi-story agroforestry systems which are thought to highest in newly evolved chat-based systems (6,817 US$ ha−1). 
have remained relatively stable for centuries (Kippe, 2002). Thus many farmers may need to adapt to new agronomic systems 
Ethiopian agricultural systems are typically highly diverse. and crop combinations that maintain enset's role as a sustainable 
Asfaw and Nigatu (1995) identified a total of 162 crop species cul- staple, whilst ensuring sufficient cash crop income.
tivated throughout the highlands of southern, western, eastern and 
central Ethiopia. On average, enset farms produce more than 10 dif-
ferent crop and livestock species (Sibhatu, Krishna, & Qaim, 2015), 3  | PROCESSING METHODS, PRODUC TS 
with farmers growing up to 20 different enset landraces within one AND CULTUR AL IMPORTANCE
plantation (Zippel, 2005). With the lowest proportion sold of any 
Ethiopian crop (Figure 4), cash crops and livestock are integral to There is considerable variation in the morphological and agronomi-
enset-based production systems (Kandari, Yadav, Thakur, & Kandari, cal properties of enset (Yemataw, Tesfaye, Grant, Studholme, & 
2014; Tsegaye, 2002). However, enset does provide a high level of Chala, 2019), as well as the processing methods in different parts of 
flexibility and security, in that larger enset plants can be sold as a Ethiopia (see for example Abate, Gebremariam, Hlebsch, & Brandt, 
standing plant before being processed or a portion of fermented 1996; Hunduma & Ashenafi, 2011; Tedla & Abebe, 1994). A number 
kocho or bulla may be taken from the storage pit for sale at any time. of these practices are illustrated in Figures 5 and 6. The processing 
Distinctive enset production systems can be categorized of enset is traditionally a role for women, who act as a reservoir of 
based on environmental, agronomic, and cultural criteria, and the knowledge about the techniques involved, but the tasks involved are 
(a) (b) (c)
F I G U R E  6   (a) Enset midribs used as 
cattle fodder; (b) young enset plantlets 
are transported to the market. There is a (d) (e)
common assertion that plants originating 
at higher elevation are more vigorous with 
less disease, though there is no empirical 
evidence for this. Damp enset leaf sheaths 
are used as packaging; (c) enset fiber, 
known locally as gantcha, a by-product of 
kocho preparation; (d) women harvesting 
enset by scraping the pulp from leaf 
sheaths in Gurage Zone. Kocho and bulla 
are both prepared from this pulp; and (e) a 
very large kocho fermentation pit, Hadiya 
Zone
10  |     BORRELL Et aL.
labor-intensive and tedious (Hunduma & Ashenafi, 2011). Garedew et ‘Nifo’ and ‘Zoober’). It is the least commonly encountered prepa-
al. (2017), in an analysis of the indigenous knowledge of enset manage- ration method. Similarly, bulla is only available in much lower quan-
ment in the Shekicho people of the SNNPR, highlights the danger of tities than kocho, and is generally more expensive because of the 
indigenous knowledge being lost as younger people turn away from additional processing involved. As a result, a premium price is paid 
enset-based agriculture, and thus the documentation of the diver- as it is pure starch, with no fiber or other stem-derived materials. 
sity of agronomic practices, and especially processing methods, is a The dietary diversity of enset production systems is reviewed in 
priority. (Jacobsen, Blomme, Tawle, Muzemil, & Yemataw, 2018).
3.1 | Enset food products 3.2 | Enset fiber and packaging products
At harvest, starch is decorticated (scraped) from the paren- Fiber is extracted from the pseudostem and leaves, largely as a by-
chymatous pseudopetioles forming the pseudostem (consisting product of kocho production (Figure 6) (Blomme, Yemataw, et al., 
of overlapping leaf sheaths), grated and pressed from the corm 2018). The fibers are dried to make sacks, ropes, sieves and mats. 
(the underground base of the stem that serves as a storage organ) The fibers can be 4 m or more in length, depending on the height 
and collectively processed, using fermentation pits, into a number of the pseudostem, and are strong and flexible. Fiber can also be 
of starchy foods. Landraces that yield a white paste of fermented extracted from the leaf sheath, petioles and midrib, which are com-
pulp and a white bulla are selected for kocho or bulla produc- monly used for animal feed, compost and fuel for fires. Teli and 
tion, whilst landraces that produce a friable and sweet corm are Terega (2017) analyzed the characteristics of enset fiber, including 
selected for amicho production. The traditional tools developed tensile strength, elongation at breaking point and thermal stability, 
for this purpose include: The watani, a flat wooden plank against and found it to be comparable with many other natural fibers such 
which leaf sheaths are laid for decortication. The javga, a wooden as abaca, flax, sisal, hemp, and jute. Blomme, Yemataw, et al. (2018) 
tool with a pointed end (crusher) to mash the pseudostem and a found enset fiber to have a tensile strength of 9.8–17.5 kg g−1 m−1. 
serrated end (grater) to pulverize the corm. Finally, the sibisa: a Enset fiber has the potential to be used for a range of novel applica-
split bamboo (scraper) held at both ends and used to scrape the tions beyond traditional uses, and there is likely to be variation in 
length of the leaf sheath. Names reported are from West Shewa performance across genetically diverse landraces.
Zone (Oromia). Enset leaves are used for many purposes, including lining the 
The most prevalent product is kocho, a starch-rich product fermentation pits for kocho, wrapping kocho and other traditional 
obtained by fermenting the resulting pulp (from scraping the breads during baking, transporting butter and honey to market, 
pseudostem and mashing the corm) wrapped in enset leaves in an making mattresses and cushions, and as fuel (Tedla & Abebe, 1994). 
underground specially prepared pit within the enset home garden. Leaves and dried midribs are also used as thatching for houses and 
Crucially there is a perception that fermentation will not be suc- fences, as well as for mulch. It should be noted that wild enset plants 
cessful or effective if the pit is not positioned within the enset are also commonly harvested for these purposes in western regions 
planting area, perhaps indicating shade or temperature are im- where both wild and domestic enset co-occur.
portant. The remaining fiber is removed and the resulting paste 
is baked to make a flatbread with a slightly sour flavor, kocho. 
This flatbread is extremely popular in Ethiopian restaurants and 3.3 | Animal fodder
is often served with kitfo (raw minced beef mixed with butter and 
spices). Bulla is a by-product of the production of kocho and is pre- A number of authors have analyzed the role of enset as animal feed 
pared from the liquid extracted when the scrapings and pulp are (Fekadu & Ledin, 1997; Gizachew, Hirpha, Jalata, & Smit, 2002; 
squeezed. The starch contained in the liquid is separated out by Nurfeta, Eik, et al., 2008; Nurfeta, Tolera, et al., 2008; Nurfeta, Tolera, 
settling and removal of excess water or by evaporation to produce Eik, & Sundstøl, 2009) (see Figure 6). Mohammed, Martin, and Laila 
a white powder that can be stored for long periods. Rehydrated (2013) identified the leaf as a good source of animal fodder, containing 
bulla can be used in a variety of ways, including making pancakes, 13% protein, 20% crude fiber and 10% sugar. It is also a good starting 
dumplings, porridge, soup or a drink. In the SNNPR bulla is mixed material for silage production. There is not enough fiber in the pseu-
with seasoned butter and spices to produce small grains that are dostem to make it a suitable fodder for ruminants, but this problem 
used much like couscous; whereas, in Western Oromia, bulla is can be avoided if the remains of the pseudostem, after kocho prepa-
mixed with seasoned butter and fresh milk to produce a gelatinous ration, are mixed with other plant material. The pseudostem, like the 
foodstuff. Amicho is the fleshy inner portion of the corm, which leaf blades, contains potassium, magnesium, zinc and manganese in 
can be cooked by boiling—much like an Irish potato. Amicho tends suitable amounts for ruminants, while the calcium levels are not high 
to be derived from younger plants around three years of age (J. enough to support the animal and lactation. The pseudostem provides 
Borrell, pers. Obs.), although there are varieties that are claimed a similar amount of energy to oats and performs similarly to barley in 
to produce good quality amicho even at maturity (e.g., landraces net energy provision for lactation (Mohammed et al., 2013).
BORRELL Et aL.      |  11
3.4 | Nutritional content that farmers partly identify different enset landraces based on the 
qualities of the kocho, bulla, and amicho they produce (Tsegaye, 
Considering the importance of enset as a dietary staple food, com- 2002).
pared to other regional crops only a relatively small number of nu- In a dietary survey of 39 households containing 237 people, Pijls 
tritional analyses have been undertaken on raw enset plant tissues et al. (1995) showed that the average daily intake of 0.55 kg of enset 
(Fanta & Satheesh, 2019; Fekadu & Ledin, 1997; Mohammed et al., products provided 68% of the total energy intake, 20% of the pro-
2013; Nurfeta, Eik, et al., 2008), covering a small selection of va- tein and 28% of the iron, but no detectable level of Vitamin A. The 
rieties (max n = 10), with a low number of replications (max n = 3), low protein content is often addressed by adding alternative pro-
summarized in Table 2. Overall, the calorie content of kocho per tein sources to the diet. For example, kidney beans or cabbage are 
100 g of edible material is reported 200 kcal or 57% lower than the often eaten with enset products (Abebe, Stoecker, Hinds, & Gates, 
corresponding value for 100 g of food grains (Urga, Fite, & Biratu, 2006). Indeed the enset farming system accommodates many food 
1996). Other studies have investigated the nutritional value of plants including legumes, vegetables, and fruits in addition to ani-
the resulting enset food products (Atlabachew & Chandravanshi, mal products and the culture of adding these in food preparations 
2008; Forsido, Rupasinghe, & Astatkie, 2013) or as a component that can effectively supplement the nutritional balance of the enset 
of animal feeds (Afele, 2014; Nurfeta et al., 2009; Talore, 2015). food system.
Only one recent paper by Bosha et al. (2016) included an assess- Enset is reported to provide important dietary micronutrients 
ment of the nutritional content of wild enset individuals in com- although sample sizes are low, and results highly variable. Abebe 
parison with domestic varieties. They analyzed kocho produced et al. (2007) in a study of subsistence farming in households in 
from three wild and three cultivated varieties after fermentation Sidama in southern Ethiopia, found that cereals (mainly unrefined 
for 30 or 90 days. In general, the cultivated plants scored better maize) contributed the major source of energy, protein, iron and 
than the wild ones for protein, fat, sugar, and mineral content, but zinc, whereas starchy foods prepared from enset were the primary 
the wild plants contained greater starch. It is important to note source of calcium and an additional source of iron. Atlabachew and 
TA B L E  2   Nutritional analysis of enset pseudostem and corm
Pseudostem Corm
Analysis Unit Mean (SD) Min-Max Samples Mean (SD) Min-Max Samples
Macronutrients
Dry matter % as fed 10.2 (4.8) 5.5–20.2 17 21.5 (4.6) 14.1–29.3 18
Crude protein % DM 4 (1) 2.5–6.2 21 3.5 (1.1) 1.8–5.9 21
Crude fiber % DM 12.3 (8.1) 5.8–23.2 5 9.3 (6.5) 3–17.5 5
NDF % DM 56.6 (22.2) 17.6–84.2 18 46.4 (24.4) 13.1–89.3 18
ADF % DM 14.5 (6.3) 7.4–27.5 18 6.9 (1.8) 4.8–11.3 18
Lignin % DM 1.5 (0.7) 0.8–2.9 7 1.3 (0.7) 0.1–2.1 7
Ether extract % DM 0.7 (0.5) 0.4–1.7 6 0.5 (0.2) 0.3–0.8 6
Ash % DM 8.7 (2.1) 5.6–12.5 20 4.6 (1.1) 3–7.4 20
Starch % DM 62.2 (7.5) 50–70 5 74.6 (6.6) 68–85 5
Total sugars % DM 1.6 (0.9) 0.5–2.5 5 1.5 (0.8) 0.6–2.2 4
Gross energy MJ/kg DM 16.6 — — 17.1 — —
Micronutrients
Calcium g/kg DM 9.8 (9.6) 3–34 16 2.2 (1.7) 0.5–6.1 16
Phosphorus g/kg DM 2.6 (2.4) 0.8–8.8 16 2.5 (2.4) 0.8–8.8 16
Potassium g/kg DM 38.3 (10.3) 20–52 16 19.6 (7.1) 8.6–30.6 16
Sodium g/kg DM 0.1 (0) 0–0.2 11 0.1 (0.1) 0–0.3 11
Magnesium g/kg DM 3 (3.5) 0.6–10.5 16 2.1 (2) 0.6–6.3 16
Manganese mg/kg DM 56 (13) 40–82 12 31 (10) 10–47 12
Zinc mg/kg DM 14 (32) 1–116 12 130 (53) 62–226 12
Copper mg/kg DM 4 (3) 1–12 12 5 (3) 2–12 12
Iron mg/kg DM 158 (49) 103–227 10 86 (58) 34–237 10
Note: Raw data collated from (Fekadu & Ledin, 1997; Mohammed et al., 2013; Nurfeta, Eik, et al., 2008; Nurfeta, Tolera, et al., 2008; Nurfeta et al., 
2009; Talore, 2015; Zewdie, Olsson, & Fetene, 2008). Table adapted from (Heuzé, Thiollet, Tran, Hassoun, & Lebas, 2017).
12  |     BORRELL Et aL.
Chandravanshi (2008) found that the potassium concentration in and anaerobic spore formers, lactic acid bacteria, and others in the 
kocho and bulla was the highest, followed by sodium, calcium, and Enterobacteriaceae family and yeasts. During the initial phase, it 
magnesium. In general, kocho contained more minerals than bulla, was suggested that Leuconostoc mesenteroides is responsible for ini-
but both are rich in calcium and zinc compared to other locally avail- tiating the fermentation process succeeded by homofermentative 
able starchy foodstuffs and contain comparable concentration of Lactobacillus species. At the final stage of fermentation, the pH can 
copper, iron and manganese. Mohammed et al. (2013) reported that drop to 3.8 accompanied by a sharp rise in acidity due to accumu-
the corm contains 17 of 20 amino acids and has similar or higher lation of organic acids. During the process, the number of spoiler 
concentrations than potato for 12 of them. microorganisms decreases.
Characterizing and standardizing the bacteria and yeast species 
currently used in enset fermentation is important for improving qual-
3.5 | Enset traditional medicine ity and consistency of food products and supporting the develop-
ment of an effective standard set of starter cultures. Gizaw, Tsegaye, 
Enset is widely considered an important medicinal plant in Ethiopia, and Tilahun (2016) isolated seven non-Saccharomyces yeast species 
with remarkable consistency across diverse ethnic groups in its re- from fermented kocho and bulla samples, using metabolic and mor-
ported uses, and the phenotypic traits that characterize medicinal phological character similarity to identify them as; Cryptococcus 
values. Primarily, but not always, plants used medicinally have red albidus var. aerus, Guilliermondella selenospora, Rhodotorula achen-
or reddish–purple leaf blades with midribs and pseudostems that are iorum and Trichosporon beigelii, Cryptococcus terreus (99%), Candida 
red to a varying degree (Alemu & Sandford, 1991; Assefa & Fitamo, zylandase (98%) and Kluyveramyces delphensis (86%). However, this 
2016; Tsehaye & Kebebew, 2006). study only encompassed samples from a single area of South West 
There are two principal medicinal properties commonly at- Ethiopia, while there is substantial variation in processing techniques 
tributed to enset. First, boiled corm (amicho) of various varieties, and potentially yeast cultures across the region (Gashe, 1987; Urga 
often consumed with milk, allegedly cures fractured or broken et al., 1996). More recently Birmeta, Bakeeva, and Passoth (2018) 
bones (Tsehaye & Kebebew, 2006). We hypothesize that this could isolated cultural microbes across different stages of fermentation 
be attributed to high calcium content of certain varieties speed- identifying 12 yeast and 17 bacteria species using rDNA sequencing, 
ing recovery. Second, the amicho of several varieties are consumed showing that microbial composition changes through the fermenta-
with milk and butter to facilitate placental discharge in both hu- tion process.
mans and livestock (Assefa & Fitamo, 2016; Tsehaye & Kebebew, There is significant potential to improve the efficiency and 
2006). In some cases, it may also induce abortion (Tsegaye, 2002). effectiveness of enset processing, which is currently a labor-in-
In addition, Pijls et al. (1995) reported the use of enset root to treat tensive process. The Shakacho people, for example, add Mandillo 
nematode worms. This is supported by a report from Hölscher and (Crassocephalum macropappum) stem during enset fermentation, 
Schneider (1998), who identified a novel phenylphenalenone in which appears to result in a pH lower than natural fermentation. As 
enset, as well as compounds already known from other Musaceae. a result Mandillo is thought to better reduce spoilage and increase 
Phenylphenalenones may have anti-bacterial, anti-cancer, and ne- shelf life (Gonfa, 2016). Ashenafi (2008) and Tafere (2015), in general 
maticidic properties Hölscher and Schneider (1998). Tsegaye (2002) reviews of fermented products in Ethiopia, highlighted the value of 
found that farmers in Sidama, Wolaita, and Hadiya used the corm or controlled fermentation studies with selected cultures and starters 
other parts of specific enset landraces to cure cirrhosis, diarrhoea to optimize the processes involved. Both Hunduma and Ashenafi 
or venereal diseases. (2011) and Gizaw et al. (2016) recommended that this could reduce 
labor for women, help to avoid spoilage during fermentation, im-
prove the long-term storage and product quality, and reduce waste 
3.6 | Enset microbiome and fermentation and increase food security.
Traditionally, the scrapped parenchymatic tissue of the pseu-
dostem and pulverized corm of enset are buried in an earthen pit 3.7 | Cultural importance
wrapped by enset leaves and subjected to fermentation, to increase 
the organoleptic property and shelf life. The fermentation proce- Enset also plays an important cultural role for several Ethiopian 
dure reduces toxicity of plant raw materials, while contributing to ethnic groups who have traditionally cultivated Enset (Assefa & 
flavor (Urga et al., 1996). Some loss of protein and dry matter is Fitamo, 2016; Negash & Niehof, 2004; Olango, Tesfaye, Catellani, 
associated with the fermentation process (Besrat, Mehansho, & & Pè, 2014; Shank, 1994). Tsehaye and Kebebew (2006) found that 
Bezuneh, 1979; Tsegaye, 2002), possibly due to the permeability farmers in Kaffa Zone (SNNPR) are aware of, and cultivate, a num-
and long duration of storage for fermentation (2–3 months) in the ber of different varieties specifically in relation to myths, poems 
pit, which allows leaching of water-soluble proteins and amino acids and beliefs about their medicinal and ritual significance. Assefa and 
(Tsegaye, 2002). Before fermentation, kocho has high moisture Fitamo (2016) similarly report songs and rituals associated with 
content, neutral pH and several microorganisms, including aerobic specific aspects of enset in the Sidama culture. The Gurage people, 
BORRELL Et aL.      |  13
to whom enset is an important staple, label themselves the “people 
Box 2 A framework for ethnobotanic surveys of of enset” (Shank & Ertiro, 1996). Sahle et al. (2018) described the 
enset across diverse communities and agrisystems role of enset in Gurage economic and social life, which involves the 
in Ethiopia extensive and well-planned cultivation and storage of enset along-
side other crops such as coffee and khat in a mixed horticulture. 
Ethnobotanic survey framework Within the family, women have the major role in processing and 
• Research programmes should be consistent with the cooking of foods from enset and it is often described as a “women 
International Society of Ethnobiology Code of Ethics, crop” on account of women's significant role in the processing, 
outlining the proposed research to candidate farmers, cooking, and selling of enset products (MacEntee, Thompson, 
with similar explanations to local agricultural extension Forsido, & Jihad, 2013).
agents. International researchers should be mindful of 
developing appropriate Access and Benefit Sharing 
Agreements (ABSAs). 4  | CONCLUSIONS AND A FR AME WORK 
• Communication with other researchers, particularly FOR SUSTAINABLE DE VELOPMENT
those that may be working in the area or wider region 
is crucial to avoid duplicated work effort and survey fa- Due to the complexity of enset propagation, management, har-
tigue—particularly among communities close to agricul- vesting, and processing, enset agricultural practice is currently 
tural universities, field stations or readily accessible on inseparable from the ethnobotanical knowledge housed by nu-
major roads. merous Ethiopian ethnic groups for which enset is a starch sta-
• Hypothesis generation and study design should be ple. Therefore it is unsurprising that compared to other crops, 
clearly defined and aim to minimise confounding vari- enset has not transitioned at any scale to industrial production. 
ables. For example, analyses are frequently reported Only 99 tons were reported from commercial farms in the pe-
that compare farms among Ethiopian agro-ecological riod 2011–2015, and we consider these data and the existence of 
zones, however if differences are found it is difficult to commercial farms questionable (Central Statistics Agency, n.d.). 
conclude whether the driver is, for example, climatic, A combination of complex ethnobotanic knowledge, the relative 
edaphic or socio-cultural. isolation of highland agroecologies and long-term cultural bound-
• Location (GPS) should be reported in addition to local aries is likely to have impeded the spread of enset historically. 
village, kebele and woreda names. Grid references can Indeed from field observations by the authors, the distribution of 
be reported at ~1 km resolution with data aggregated enset agriculture appears, in many areas, to more closely match 
within study sites to protect farmer anonymity. the distribution of specific cultural groups, rather than environ-
• The method used to select farmer respondents is im- mental conditions—although empirical evaluation of enset distri-
portant to reduce risk of bias. Many studies use model bution remains to be performed. Future sustainable development 
farmer or key informant interviews, which are appropri- of enset will depend on appropriate and equitable documentation 
ate for some questions, whilst comparatively few have and exploitation of this extensive knowledge. For example, in the 
used random surveys. context of increasing disease incidence in the Musaceae and the 
• Key data to ensure usability of survey data by other impact of climate change on East African agriculture, there are 
researchers include; location, responded selection considerable opportunities in recording farmers perceptions of 
method, landrace names, the local language, the social disease resistant, drought tolerant and early maturing landraces 
or cultural group and if appropriate, sample sizes and to guide breeding and genomic analyses (Borrell et al., 2018). 
processing method. There is also likely to be considerable undocumented ethnobo-
• Additional metadata should be collected and reported tanic knowledge on cultivated enset that is in danger of being 
to maximize the utility of data for other researchers, lost. For this reason, we outline in Box 2, a framework within 
such as; alternative uses, medicinal applications, disease which to report data from enset ethnobotanic studies, to helps 
or frost tolerance, pest and pathogen incidence, identi- ensure that comprehensive quantitative information is gathered 
fying morphological features, co-cultivated crops, har- and documented to facilitate use and interpretation by other re-
vesting cycle, processing methods or other indigenous searchers. In the longer term, shifting the range of current agri-
knowledge reported to the investigator. cultural systems such as enset-chat, enset-cereal-vegetable, and 
• Raw data should be made readily available and accessi- enset-tuber, or development of novel crop combinations, rather 
ble, for example in theses, academic paper appendices, than enset-coffee, may be important for adaptation to changing 
supplementary materials or online repositories. Open climate. This, combined with genetic surveys, modern crop breed-
data and research is critical to accelerate the food secu- ing, improved processing and selection of appropriate landraces 
rity potential of enset. is likely to position enset as an important climate–smart starch 
staple for Ethiopia and beyond.
14  |     BORRELL Et aL.
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JB developed the outline, carried out a major part of the literature re- Ashenafi, M. (2008). Review article: A review on the microbiology of 
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