185 Research Report Institutional Gender Mainstreaming in Small-Scale Irrigation: Lessons from Ethiopia Likimyelesh Nigussie, Thai Thi Minh and Petra Schmitter Research Reports The publications in this series cover a wide range of subjects—from computer modeling to experience with water user associations—and vary in content from directly applicable research to more basic studies, on which applied work ultimately depends. Some research reports are narrowly focused, analytical and detailed empirical studies; others are wide-ranging and synthetic overviews of generic problems. Although most of the reports are published by IWMI staff and their collaborators, we welcome contributions from others. Each report is reviewed internally by IWMI staff, and by external reviewers. The reports are published and distributed both in hard copy and electronically (www.iwmi.org) and where possible all data and analyses will be available as separate downloadable files. Reports may be copied freely and cited with due acknowledgment. About IWMI The International Water Management Institute (IWMI) is an international, research-for-development organization that works with governments, civil society and the private sector to solve water problems in developing countries and scale up solutions. Through partnership, IWMI combines research on the sustainable use of water and land resources, knowledge services and products with capacity strengthening, dialogue and policy analysis to support implementation of water management solutions for agriculture, ecosystems, climate change and inclusive economic growth. Headquartered in Colombo, Sri Lanka, IWMI is a CGIAR Research Center with offices in 15 countries and a global network of scientists operating in more than 55 countries. www.iwmi.org IWMI Research Report 185 Institutional Gender Mainstreaming in Small-Scale Irrigation: Lessons from Ethiopia Likimyelesh Nigussie, Thai Thi Minh and Petra Schmitter International Water Management Institute (IWMI) P. O. Box 2075, Colombo, Sri Lanka The authors: Likimyelesh Nigussie, Research Officer – Governance and Inclusion, International Water Management Institute (IWMI), Addis Ababa, Ethiopia Thai Thi Minh, Senior Researcher – Innovation Scaling, IWMI, Accra, Ghana Petra Schmitter, Principal Researcher – Climate Change Adaptation, IWMI, Colombo, Sri Lanka Nigussie, L.; Minh, T. T.; Schmitter, P. 2023. Institutional gender mainstreaming in small-scale irrigation: lessons from Ethiopia. Colombo, Sri Lanka: International Water Management Institute (IWMI). 29p. (IWMI Research Report 185). doi: https://doi.org/10.5337/2023.218 / gender mainstreaming / small-scale irrigation / institutional development / irrigation development / development projects / gender-transformative approaches / strategies / women farmers / gender equality / equal rights / participatory approaches / decision making / smallholders / farmer-led irrigation / irrigation technology / microirrigation / climate resilience / income generation / markets / capacity development / water user associations / extension approaches / stakeholders / private sector / government agencies / partnerships / governance / policies / frameworks / social norms / communities / households / Ethiopia / ISSN 1026-0862 ISBN 978-92-9090-955-2 Copyright © 2023, by IWMI. All rights reserved. IWMI encourages the use of its material provided that the organization is acknowledged and kept informed in all such instances. The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on maps do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by IWMI, CGIAR and partners. Please send inquiries and comments to IWMI-Publications@cgiar.org A free copy of this publication can be downloaded at www.iwmi.org/publications/iwmi-research-reports/ Acknowledgements The authors are grateful to all staff from small, scheme-based irrigation and micro irrigation projects, and key informants from the Ministry of Agriculture, Ethiopia and small-scale irrigation promotion projects who participated in this study. The valuable comments provided on earlier drafts of this report by Charity Osei-Amponsah (Senior Regional Researcher – Governance, Institution and Inclusion, International Water Management Institute [IWMI], Accra, Ghana), Barbara van Koppen (Emeritus Scientist, IWMI, Pretoria, South Africa) and Pay Drechsel (Senior Fellow-Advisor – Research Quality Assurance, IWMI, Colombo, Sri Lanka) are greatly appreciated. The authors would also like to thank Anne Downes (consultant editor) for her diligence in editing this research report. Project This research is made possible by the support of the American People provided to The Feed the Future Innovation Lab for Small-Scale Irrigation (ILSSI) and The Feed the Future Innovation Lab for Livestock Systems (LSIL) through the United States Agency for International Development (USAID). The contents are the sole responsibility of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of USAID or the United States Government. Program activities are funded by the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) under Cooperative Agreement No. AID-OAA-A-13-0005 and contract No. AID-OAA-L-15-00003. This study was also co-funded by the Water Productivity through Open Access of Remotely Sensed Derived Data (WaPOR) Phase 2 project (GCP/ INT/729/NET), which is supported by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). The findings of this study will inform the gender strategy that IWMI is developing for the WaPOR project (https://www.fao.org/in-action/remote-sensing-for-water-productivity/en). Donors United States Agency for International Development (USAID) This research was carried out as part of the CGIAR Research Program on Water, Land and Ecosystems (WLE) and supported by Funders contributing to the CGIAR Trust Fund (https://www.cgiar.org/funders/). Research Report 185 - Institutional Gender Mainstreaming in Small-Scale Irrigation: Lessons from Ethiopia IWMI - iii Contents Acronyms and Abbreviations vi Summary vii Introduction 1 Analytical Framework 2 Gender Mainstreaming 2 Different Approaches for Integrating Gender into Irrigation Development 2 A Multi-Level Institutional Framework to Analyze Approaches for Mainstreaming Gender 3 Methodology 4 An Overview of Irrigation Projects Analyzed in this Study 4 Data Collection 6 Data Analysis 6 Results 8 Overall Multi-Level Institutional Factors in Irrigation Projects in Ethiopia 8 Gender Mainstreaming Strategies in Irrigation Projects in Ethiopia 13 Discussion 16 Conclusions and Recommendations 17 References 19 Research Report 185 - Institutional Gender Mainstreaming in Small-Scale Irrigation: Lessons from Ethiopia IWMI - v Acronyms and Abbreviations AGP Agricultural Growth Program ATA Ethiopian Agricultural Transformation Agency CGPSSIT Considering Gender when Promoting Small-Scale Irrigation Technologies FGD Focus group discussion GILIT Gender in Irrigation Learning and Improvement Tool GIS Gender Integration Strategy GoE Government of Ethiopia GPII Gender Performance Indicator for Irrigation GTN Growth through Nutrition IFAD International Fund for Agricultural Development IGA Income-generating activity ISGID Integrated Shallow Groundwater Irrigation Development IWUA Irrigation water user association KII Key informant interview M&E Monitoring and evaluation MFI Microfinance institutions MoA Ministry of Agriculture MSD Multi-stakeholder dialogue NGO Nongovernmental organization NSAP Nutrition-Sensitive Agriculture Project (GIZ) PASIDP Participatory Small-Scale Irrigation Development Program SAA Social analysis and action SEDA Sustainable Environment and Development Action SMIS Small and Micro Irrigation Support Project SNNPR Southern Nations, Nationalities, and People’s Region SWEEP Water for Food Security, Women’s Empowerment, and Environmental Protection TGM Transformative gender mainstreaming VSLA Village Savings and Loan Association WASH Water, sanitation, and hygiene IWMI - vi Research Report 185 - Institutional Gender Mainstreaming in Small-Scale Irrigation: Lessons from Ethiopia Summary Achieving gender equality in irrigation can result in strategies adopted by projects promoting small-scale greater production, income, and job opportunities for and micro irrigation technologies focus on challenging both men and women smallholder farmers from diverse social norms to address the imbalance of power and social groups, while building climate resilience in sub- workloads by developing the capacity of all stakeholders. Saharan Africa. In Ethiopia, national irrigation agencies, Both strategies focus on women and use participatory donors, and researchers have been assisting project approaches to ensure gender equality. Negative implementers to mainstream gender issues into the stereotypes about women from families, communities, planning and implementation of irrigation programs. and the private sector often make it difficult for gender However, although efforts to close gender gaps in mainstreaming to succeed. Furthermore, institutional irrigation have been increasing, little is known about biases and limited capacities reproduce gender how interactions among institutions at different scales inequality by reinforcing stereotypical gender norms. may determine the success of gender-mainstreaming Transformative gender mainstreaming strategies are strategies. This study presents a qualitative analysis of critical to holistic approaches that facilitate change how the interaction of institutions at multiple levels can at different scales through broad-based partnerships shape the success of gender-mainstreaming strategies. between actors. It calls for 1) enacting policy, creating Specifically, the study analyzed how institutions' rules, an institutional environment, and developing governance roles, and capacities at state, market, community, and mechanisms for mainstreaming gender; 2) enhancing household levels shaped strategies in Ethiopia's nine the accountability system and adoption of gender- small-scale and micro irrigation development projects. transformative approaches to involve more women The findings show that ‘rule-based’ strategies adopted farmers in designing, planning, and management; by small, scheme-based irrigation projects emphasize 3) creating a supportive institutional environment at policies and rules for equal rights and opportunities market, community and household level that helps for equal participation in individuals' and institutions' women farmers invest in irrigation; and 4) applying an decision-making and capacity development. ‘Role-based’ intersectional lens in gender analysis and mainstreaming. Research Report 185 - Institutional Gender Mainstreaming in Small-Scale Irrigation: Lessons from Ethiopia IWMI - vii Institutional Gender Mainstreaming in Small-Scale Irrigation: Lessons from Ethiopia Likimyelesh Nigussie, Thai Thi Minh and Petra Schmitter Introduction In sub-Saharan Africa, irrigation development has Gender in Irrigation Learning and Improvement Tool improved food security and reduced rural poverty by (GILIT) (Lefore et al. 2017) and Considering Gender increasing production, income, and job opportunities, when Promoting Small-Scale Irrigation Technologies in addition to building climate resilience (Gebrehiwot (CGPSSIT) (Theis et al. 2018b). Although these tools help et al. 2015; Namara et al. 2010). Yet, gender inequality stakeholders improve the gender performance of irrigation remains an issue in the sector (Imburgia 2019; Lefore development projects, they rarely aid in holistically et al. 2019). Designing and implementing an irrigation understanding multi-level, gender-based opportunities development project with little or no understanding of and barriers. Furthermore, despite increased attempts to gender relations can unintentionally exacerbate gender close gender gaps in irrigation, little is known about how disparities and even create gender inequalities and institutional interactions at different scales can influence new barriers for women (The World Bank, FAO and IFAD the success of gender-mainstreaming strategies. 2009; van Koppen 2002). Therefore, understanding gender dynamics in small-scale irrigation is crucial to Therefore, this study focused on understanding how designing sound technical and policy interventions multi-level institutions and their interactions influenced (Domènech 2015; Theis et al. 2018a). Recognizing gender mainstreaming in irrigation development projects this, national irrigation agencies and donors have in Ethiopia. The following questions are addressed in this been helping project implementers formulate gender- paper: mainstreaming strategies to support the integration of gender issues in the planning and implementation of 1. What gender mainstreaming strategies did the irrigation projects. irrigation development projects adopt? Gender mainstreaming is about removing disparities 2. How did interactions between multi-level institutions between men and women regarding their access to determine such strategies? resources, inclusion and participation in the public sphere, representation in government, and empowerment 3. How can transformative gender mainstreaming be (Jamil et al. 2020). However, there is considerable achieved? skepticism about the success of this approach in achieving gender equality (Joseph et al. 2011) and whether the This paper discusses the gender-mainstreaming approach visions of transformative gender mainstreaming can ever and synthesizes other approaches for gender integration be realized (Sweetman 2015). The approach is criticized into irrigation development. It then presents a multi- for being technocratic and integrationist (Joseph et al. level institutional framework and provides case studies 2011; Shortall 2015; Sweetman 2015) and for focusing and a methodological approach. The results show how on the development institution rather than the project interactions among different institutional levels can shape beneficiaries (Moser and Moser 2005). the outcomes of two gender-mainstreaming strategies: rule-driven and role-based. Lastly, we provide a To incorporate gender into irrigation development, conclusion and practical recommendations for developing scholars have provided tools like the Gender Integration a holistic and multi-level view of transformative gender Strategy (GIS) (Jordans 1998), Gender Performance mainstreaming (TGM) to achieve better outcomes on Indicator for Irrigation (GPII) (van Koppen 2002), equality in the irrigation sector of Ethiopia. Research Report 185 - Institutional Gender Mainstreaming in Small-Scale Irrigation: Lessons from Ethiopia IWMI - 1 Analytical Framework Gender Mainstreaming affect how gender mainstreaming is implemented. However, gender-mainstreaming approaches focus on Gender mainstreaming was designed by feminist gender units and experts rather than creating a space for development practitioners in the 1970s and mandated by women. the 1995 Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action at the United Nations (UN) Fourth World Conference on Women Despite these drawbacks, many development (UN Women 1995). It is considered key to advancing organizations increasingly adopt a gender-mainstreaming women’s rights and gender issues in development by strategy (Arora-Jonsson and Sijapati 2018). For governments and development institutions of all sizes, this reason, responding to backlashes in gender- shapes, and scales (de Waal 2006; Joseph et al. 2011; mainstreaming practices calls for strategies that focus Sweetman 2015) and at different stages of a project cycle on social transformation and change (Jamil et al. 2020; (Sweetman 2015). It has been used as a public policy Sandler and Rao 2012) and transformational institutions concept to assess the implications for women and men and processes at different levels (van Eerdewijk and of any planned policy action, law, or program (de Waal Davids 2014). Also, it requires a holistic approach that 2006). forms and facilitates a broad-based partnership strategy between different actors at different scales (Cole et al. In principle, gender mainstreaming is transformative, 2014), including policy, legal arenas (Stern et al. 2018), challenging the status quo (Cole et al. 2014; Daly market, communities and family. 2005; Woodward 2008). Many feminists are skeptical about whether it is an effective strategy for gender Different Approaches for Integrating Gender equality (Baruah 2005; Chant 2016; Cornwall 2000) into Irrigation Development and argue that the approach is far from its lauded vision of transformation (Sweetman 2015). They argue In the debate on gender equality in irrigation development that the approach is technocratic and does not focus (Lefore et al. 2019; Nigussie et al. 2017; Senanayake et on transformation in terms of gender equality (Joseph al. 2015; Theis et al. 2018b), several tools have been et al. 2011; Shortall 2015; Sweetman 2015). It relies on developed for integrating gender into irrigation, including training, tools, frameworks, experts, and ticking boxes Gender Integration Strategy (GIS), Gender Performance and checklists to ensure gender concerns have been Indicator for Irrigation (GPII), Gender in Irrigation addressed in policies (Joseph et al. 2011; Shortall 2015; Learning and Improvement Tool (GILIT), and Considering Sweetman 2015). It requires long-term commitment, Gender when Promoting Small-Scale Irrigation an adequate budget, regular monitoring, management Technologies (CGPSSIT). The GIS provides strategies for support, staff engagement, and appropriate strategies integrating gender into irrigation planning at three levels (Lee-Gosselin et al. 2013). simultaneously – policy, institution, and implementation – for more equitable, effective, and efficient management Many development initiatives use an integrationist of irrigation systems. At a policy level, it addresses the approach, adding women’s concerns to existing policies need for international, national, and regional planning and projects (Sweetman 2015). This means that existing and governing institutions to recognize gender issues as gender hierarchies within society and in policies that legitimate political concerns and to address gender issues perpetuate gender inequality and their impact on policy as a goal. At an institutional level, this tool emphasizes actors, policymaking, and implementation remain the need for institutions and service entities to implement unchallenged (Daly 2005; Joseph et al. 2011; Shortall gender-sensitive programs, enhance their management 2015; Sweetman 2015; van Eerdewijk and Davids 2014). capacities, and improve communication between Blindness to existing structural power relations and farmers and policymakers. At an implementation level, dynamics often obscures how gender-mainstreaming it highlights the need to involve households, farmers, policies can help promote gender equality in society and communities in the planning and coordinating of (van Eerdewijk and Davids 2014) and makes their impact irrigation activities to ensure that gender-specific needs difficult to measure (Walby 2005). are satisfied. The impacts of gender mainstreaming on gender equality The GPII is a generic analytical tool for gender analysis are often evident in development organizations. However, that enables change agents to answer how gender can they are usually not felt by project participants or are be considered in scheme-based irrigation and design not reported (Moser and Moser 2005). Social institutions action for more gender equity. It helps with the empirical – including the market, state, and nongovernmental analysis of two factors in any scheme: (1) whether the organizations (NGOs) that reflect the norms and values of farm decision-makers are predominantly male, female, or the surrounding society – play a key role in perpetuating mixed; and (2) the inclusion and exclusion processes of or challenging gender inequality (Sweetman 2015). female farmer decision-makers. As such, the tools help Masculine values and practices, cultural and religious assess gender performance by investigating gender-based principles, and patriarchal culture at different scales differences in how people access water at the farm level IWMI - 2 Research Report 185 - Institutional Gender Mainstreaming in Small-Scale Irrigation: Lessons from Ethiopia and participate in forums or networks in collective water household dynamics, cultural norms, informal networks, management arrangements. and other underlying drivers for gendered differences (Akter et al. 2017). In the case of CGPSSIT, the tool provides The GILIT tool helps assess whether an irrigation a checklist of questions and a set of action points and scheme’s current conditions allow both men and women indicators to integrate gender into irrigation interventions. to participate equally. It identifies areas of policy and Although these tools guide irrigation development practice in formal irrigation projects that have been project implementers in mainstreaming gender, they are successful or need adjustment to promote gender equity. rarely useful for driving policy and generating a deep The tool provides the basis for discussion, reflection, understanding of the natural consequences of inequality and evaluation across actors and stakeholders to fix such as gender-based barriers at multiple levels. weaknesses, share lessons, and realign a project toward gender goals. It outlines questions to help managers A Multi-Level Institutional Framework to design governance and services that meet women’s needs Analyze Approaches for Mainstreaming by evaluating the following four areas. Gender 1. The broader national and subnational regulatory In this analysis, a gender-mainstreaming strategy is context in which each project operates is essential defined as a process to ensure that men and women and a major area of focus. have equitable opportunities and capabilities to participate in and benefit from irrigation interventions. 2. Bylaws and other regulations that govern access to This includes the general approaches, operational scheme resources, i.e., information, land, water, and mechanisms, and specific activities adopted to achieve other inputs, should be examined to determine if they gender equality. The general approach specifies irrigation equally provide for men and women. projects’ and programs' strategies to guide planning and implementation. It refers to a particular way of 3. The conditions influencing effective participation thinking about or dealing with gender mainstreaming in scheme membership, leadership, and decision- in the project. The governance structure is a set of key making may determine whether women can operational mechanisms that specific implementers participate. develop using relevant external and internal rules from various institutions at state, market, community, and 4. Certain conditions that may provide access to household levels and different forms of coordination the scheme benefits, such as access to market translated from these rules (Baland et al. 2010). It is a information, packaging, and payments from sales or process established and followed by the project and its processing, should also be examined. implementing organizations. The activities are simply the tasks carried out by any actors at state, market, The CGPSSIT is a tool that helps actors identify key community, and household levels to ensure that the gender-related issues that should be considered at the gender-specific needs of men and women are met. Figure awareness, tryout, and continued adoption of technology 1 illustrates an analytical framework for analyzing gender stages to effectively integrate gender into project mainstreaming from an institutional perspective. implementation (Lambrecht et al. 2014; Lindner et al. 1982; Theis et al. 2018b). The tool provides questions The unit of our analysis is an irrigation development to guide gender inclusion during small-scale irrigation intervention or project. Therefore, each level informs technology promotion. It helps to avoid unintentionally the way(s) that the intervention or project responds excluding women during implementation, identify the to gender issues embedded in different levels of resources required for, and the benefits of, adopting new institutions. Institutions are essentially the endogenously technology, and understand the intra-household relations emerging equilibrium outcome of roles and rules and the and broader social norms that enable or constrain interaction between them (Gagliardi 2008). The role- women’s ability to benefit from the technology. based aspect refers to institutions that create order by allocating defined roles and tasks to specified actors at The GILIT, GPII, and GIS are all tools that help small-scale each institutional level. The rule-based aspect refers to irrigation scheme development actors understand the formal and informal regulatory arrangements, such as areas that may need adjustment to address gender issues customs or sets of formalized rules like law and policy, for developing equitable and sustainable irrigation. They that lead to repetition and the emergence of stable, specifically help us to tailor services to women’s needs and predictive patterns of response and action. The role-rule provide equal opportunities to both men and women so interaction reflects an actor’s ability to play their role that women have better access to and control over scheme under the guidance of the embedded rules. We analyzed resources and can participate fully in formal and informal what and how role, rule, and the interaction between forums as members and leaders. The GIS tool helps the two within and across the different levels shape identify gaps in developing gender-sensitive strategies for gender-mainstreaming strategies to incorporate gender irrigation planning. However, the GILIT, GPII, and GIS tools approaches, governance, and activities in an irrigation rarely address sociocultural landscapes such as intra- project. Research Report 185 - Institutional Gender Mainstreaming in Small-Scale Irrigation: Lessons from Ethiopia IWMI - 3 Legal framework (state) Community - Rule-based: women’s policies, gender equality, - Rule-based: community rules and norms and mainstreaming in agriculture - Role-based: community-based organizations and - Role-based: state agencies and their roles local government and their roles - Rule-role-based: capacity of state agencies - Rule-role-based: capacity of community actors Gender mainstreaming strategy Approach, governance structure, and activity Market Household - Rule-based: market rules and norms - Rule-based: gender norms - Role-based: market actors and their services - Role-based: women and their roles - Rule-role-based: capacity of market actors to - Rule-role-based: capacity of women to provide services participate in the intervention Figure 1. Institutional framework for analysis of the impacts of gender mainstreaming strategies. Inequalities are embedded within institutions at women’s rights, status, participation, and inclusion. multiple levels and are influenced by historical, social, March et al. (1999) reported that interconnected and organizational, and individual factors. The complex, overlapping state, market, community, and household interrelated, multi-level, institutional factors determine institutions all work to shape the outcomes of gender gender-mainstreaming strategies’ outcomes on mainstreaming. Methodology An Overview of Irrigation Projects Initially, the study aimed to understand the processes Analyzed in this Study and approaches that were used to integrate gender into projects that promote farmer-led irrigation development. In Ethiopia, irrigation and drainage are the primary drivers However, national and regional data are scant because of agricultural growth and transformation (MoANR, MoWIE projects supporting small-scale irrigation under the and ATA 2016). They stimulate other activities in the value Ministry of Agriculture (MoA) are mainly for scheme- chain and contribute more to the economy in terms of based irrigation and do not focus on farmer-led irrigation increased production, income, and job opportunities than development. As a result, we used a snowball technique rain-fed agriculture. The Government of Ethiopia (GoE) to identify nine projects for the analysis (Table 1). and its development partners have made substantial investments to support small-scale irrigation and have Small, scheme-based irrigation projects aim to develop attempted to mainstream gender to ensure gender small-scale irrigation infrastructure on less than 100 equality. However, a study by Tsige et al. (2020) indicated ha of land to improve smallholder farmers' income, that it is impractical to do so in agricultural development productivity, commercialization, and food security. The in Ethiopia. Among others, some of the drivers involved in MoA implements these projects in selected woredas1 gender mainstreaming included a lack of local strategies of targeted regions, which have been chosen for their and guidelines, the adoption of a technocratic approach, potential to expand irrigation based primarily on and limited human resources to implement gender agroecological conditions and market access. The project mainstreaming (Tsige et al. 2020). participants are smallholder farmers living in these areas 1 Woreda is the third-level administrative division of Ethiopia. IWMI - 4 Research Report 185 - Institutional Gender Mainstreaming in Small-Scale Irrigation: Lessons from Ethiopia who own land in the command area. Woreda experts, households to use or to share in small groups. The particularly development agents and extension workers, projects are supported by international donors and are locally responsible for implementing project activities. implemented by development agents and extension workers from woreda agriculture offices. The activities Projects promoting small and micro irrigation raise technology awareness by training or providing development aim to improve food and nutrition security technologies to women and resource-poor farmers and empower women and resource-poor farmers or by training landless youth in manufacturing these by promoting irrigation technologies for individual technologies. Table 1. An overview of irrigation projects reviewed. Project and objective Key activities Location, funding sources Small scheme-based irrigation projects The Participatory Small-Scale Irrigation - Develop capacity for sustainable Supported by the International Development Program (PASIDP II)) program development, and monitoring Fund for Agricultural Development (2016–2024) to reduce the impact of and evaluation (M&E) (IFAD) implemented in Amhara, climate change, enhance economic - Invest in small-scale irrigation Oromia, Tigray, and the Southern growth and reduce rural poverty infrastructure Nations, Nationalities, and People's Region (SNNPR) The Agricultural Growth Program (AGP II) - Promote public agricultural support Implemented in 157 woredas to increase the productivity of targeted services, agricultural research, (districts) selected from seven commercial smallholder farmers to smallholder irrigation development, national regional states: Oromia, improve their dietary diversity and agriculture marketing and value Amhara, SNNPR and Tigray, household consumption chains Gambella, Benishangul Gumuz, - Strengthen capacity and M&E Hareri and Dire Dawa. The Small and Micro Irrigation Support - Develop and promote micro and Funded by the Government of Project (SMIS) (2014–2019) to support small-scale irrigation capacity Canada and the Government of the the GoE through the MoA with the - Develop the capacity of agricultural Netherlands, implemented in implementation of the adopted technical vocational education and Tigray, Amhara, Oromia, and SNNPR Small-Scale Irrigation Capacity Building training colleges Strategy Small-scale irrigation technology promotion projects The Growth through Nutrition (GTN) - Deliver nutrition-sensitive livelihoods Five-year flagship multi-sectoral (2016–2021) project by Save the Children and agricultural activities, and social nutrition and WASH project was to improve the nutritional status of and behavior-changing implemented in the Amhara, women and young children communications Oromia, SNNPR, and Tigray regions - Promote quality nutrition services and water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) - Strengthen capacity and multi-sectoral coordination The Nutrition-Sensitive Agriculture - Improve nutrition-sensitive agriculture, Commissioned by the German Project (NSAP) (2015–2023) aims to nutrition practices, and healthcare Federal Ministry for Economic improve mothers' and infants' food - Strengthen multi-sectoral coordination Cooperation and Development, and nutrition security for nutrition security implemented in Amhara and Tigray regions Continued > Research Report 185 - Institutional Gender Mainstreaming in Small-Scale Irrigation: Lessons from Ethiopia IWMI - 5 Table 1. An overview of irrigation projects reviewed. (continued) Project and objective Key activities Location, funding sources The Water for Food Security, Women's - Promote social analysis and action, Commissioned by the Australian Empowerment, and Environmental village savings and loan associations, Development Cooperation and Protection (SWEEP) project by CARE demand-driven, women-focused, and implemented in East and West Ethiopia to improve the food security community-managed approach Belesa woredas of the central and resiliency of chronically food- - Promote community-managed Gondar zone insecure households, especially rural | technologies, participatory planning, women M&E, cost sharing, partnerships, and adaptation Sustainable Environment and - Enhance environmental education, Funded by multiple funding Development Action (SEDA) designs and conservation, and rehabilitation agencies and operates in the implements life-changing programs and - Enhance food and livelihood security Ethiopian Central Rift Valley of livelihood schemes that alleviate - Build capacity and social development Oromia National Regional State: environmental degradation, climate of communities, mainly women i) Adamitullu Jido-Kombolcha, change risks, and deepening poverty to - Support rural community economic Dugda, and Bora districts of East ensure holistic sustainable development and enterprise development Shoa Zone; and ii) Ziway Dugda district of Arsi Zone Component 1 of the Integrated Shallow - Map shallow groundwater Implemented by ATA in Oromia, Groundwater Irrigation Development - Promote business groups around Amhara, SNNPR, and Tigray regions (ISGID) project, implemented by the shallow groundwater development, Ethiopian Agricultural Transformation irrigation equipment supply chains Agency (ATA), to enhance smallholder and retailing, and high-value and farmers’ access to groundwater-based nutrient-dense crop production and irrigation to increase the production marketing and productivity of vegetables, field crops and fodder Component 2 of the ISGID project, - Provide end-to-end services to Commissioned by ATA, and implemented by iDE, to increase farmers to capacitate well drilling implemented in, Oromia, Amhara, smallholder farmers’ income using a groups with drilling techniques and SNNPR, and Tigray regions market-based approach to promote enable them to run well drilling as a manual well drilling and irrigation profitable business technologies Data Collection gender mainstreaming, eight national gender policies and strategies in Ethiopia focusing on agriculture, five gender Primary and secondary data were collected to identify the project guidelines/documents, and 11 key informant institutional rules, roles, and capacities at four levels that interviews. influenced gendered outcomes of irrigation interventions, and the approaches, governance mechanisms, and activities adopted by projects to mainstream gender Data Analysis in these interventions (Table 2). Secondary data were Data were analyzed through the coding and thematic collected from relevant documents on policy and projects analysis of primary and secondary qualitative data and from analysis, strategy, and mainstreaming guidelines collected. A coding scheme was developed to capture on gender. the four-level institution’s roles, rules, and capacities in gender-mainstreaming work. During the analysis, Primary data were collected from key informant interviews we evaluated the adoption of gender mainstreaming (KIIs). For scheme- and micro-scale-based irrigation in three parts: approach, governance, and activities. projects, informants were selected from irrigation Guided by the analytical framework presented, we projects or institutions supporting such development analyzed how approaches, governance mechanisms, based on their knowledge of the gender-relevant project and project activities may interact with multi-level implementation processes and approaches. However, the institutions and shape gendered outcomes of irrigation method is limited to citing international literature about projects. IWMI - 6 Research Report 185 - Institutional Gender Mainstreaming in Small-Scale Irrigation: Lessons from Ethiopia Table 2. An overview of the data. Description Key Informant Interviews (KIIs) with organizations supporting irrigation farmers in Meki Town - Dugda Woreda Agriculture and Natural Resource Office - Meki Batu Fruit and Vegetable Grower’s Cooperative Union Small scheme-based irrigation projects Small and Micro Irrigation Support Project (SMIS) in Addis Ababa - KII with a gender expert - Gender-responsive strategy and action plan - SMIS gender situation analysis Agricultural Growth Program (AGP II) in Addis Ababa - KII with a gender expert - AGP II gender mainstreaming guideline Participatory Small-Scale Irrigation Development Program (PASIDP) in Addis Ababa - KII with a gender and nutrition specialist - Gender-mainstreaming guideline Small-scale irrigation technology promotion projects in Addis Ababa Component 1 of the Integrated Shallow Groundwater Irrigation Development (ISGID) project, - KII with a gender expert Component 2 of the ISGID project, - KII with a gender expert Water for Food Security, Women’s Empowerment, and Environmental Protection (SWEEP) project - KII with a learning, design and measurement specialist Growth through Nutrition (GTN) program in Addis Ababa - KII with a gender specialist Sustainable Environment and Development Action (SEDA) in Meki town - KII with the project coordinator Nutrition-Sensitive Agriculture Project (NSAP) in Addis Ababa - KII with a food and nutrition security officer - Project document Policy documents from the government - National Policy on Ethiopian Women (TGoE 1993) - Ethiopian Federal Civil Servants Proclamation (Revised), Proclamation No. 1064/2017 (FDRE 2017) - National Gender Mainstreaming Guideline in Agriculture Sector of Ethiopia (MoA 2020) - National Smallholder Irrigation and Drainage Strategy (MoANR, MoWIE and ATA 2016) - Proclamation of the Constitution of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (FDRE 1995) - Ethiopia Rural Land Administration and Land Use Proclamation No. 456/2005 (FDRE 2005) - Gender Equality Strategy for Ethiopia’s Agriculture Sector (MoANR 2017) - Realizing the Potential of Household Irrigation in Ethiopia (MoA and ATA 2015) - Agricultural Extension Strategy of Ethiopia (MoANR and ATA 2017) - Definition of Powers and Duties of the Executive Organs of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, Proclamation No. 916/2015 (FDRE 2015) Research Report 185 - Institutional Gender Mainstreaming in Small-Scale Irrigation: Lessons from Ethiopia IWMI - 7 Results Overall Multi-Level Institutional institutional settings in irrigation projects in Factors in Irrigation Projects in Ethiopia Ethiopia. Nine institutional setting groups based on the interplay between multi-level institutions are In this section, we share the findings on overall presented in Table 3. Table 3. An overview of multi-level institutions in irrigation development projects in Ethiopia. Rule Role Capacity Institutional structures and approaches to gender - Embed equality issues in policies, - The Women’s and Social Affairs - Limited budget for raising strategies, and institutional structures, Directorate of the Ministry of awareness about gender policies M&E (state) Agriculture develops and implements and strategies (state) a gender-mainstreaming guideline and - Inadequate accountability and strategy and provides gender-related information management support to projects (state) systems (state) Access to and control over land and water - Grant equal land rights and create a - MoA implements policies on land and - Limited M&E system to monitor joint land certificate program (state) water for small-scale irrigation (state) the effective implementation of - Design simple, user-friendly schemes to the land use and control rules enhance access to water for women (state) (state) Participation in and benefit from development and the public sphere - Grant equal rights to participate in all - GoE formulates and implements gender - Limited budget to raise spheres of development, public function, -sensitive policies and programs that awareness about policies, train and decision-making, as well as equal recognize and provide legal and gender non-gender experts and recruitment opportunities and benefits equality initiatives (state) implement gender activities (state) - Consulting firms design and construct (state) - Assume that men and women have schemes and hire daily labor for - Limited understanding of equal status and benefit from any managing schemes (market) gendered differences in intervention and irrigation preferences, needs, and access infrastructure (market) to irrigation technology and infrastructure (market) Participation in Irrigation water user associations (IWUAs) - IWUA and cooperative membership is - IWUAs provide irrigation water, - Limited budget to raise contingent on land ownership related scheme resources, services, awareness about policies (community) and benefits to their members (state and community) - Prescribes at least 30% of women (community) - Limited capacities to participate taking leadership roles in IWUAs (state) - IWUAs act as an entry point to reach as members and leaders - Women exposed to the public sphere farmers (community) (household) are perceived as uncultured (community) Continued > IWMI - 8 Research Report 185 - Institutional Gender Mainstreaming in Small-Scale Irrigation: Lessons from Ethiopia Table 3. An overview of multi-level institutions in irrigation development projects in Ethiopia. (continued) Rule Role Capacity Intra-household gender dynamics - Irrigation, farming, mechanical work, - Women are responsible for all - Limited women’s participation decision-making, control of valuable domestic activities, backyard in household- and IWUA-related assets, and engaging in rewarding and cultivation, and farm activities decision-making and control over collective activities are perceived as (household) harvests and bargaining power primary activities for men (community) - Men dominate farming, marketing, (household and community) - Bias against the education value for and decision-making around high- - Subordinate position for women women (community and household) value market assets such as (household and community) - Women's primary roles are implicitly inputs and technologies - Risk-averse nature, illiteracy, assumed to be as mothers and wives (household) restricted mobility, low self- (household) esteem, and limited access to resources (household) Access to irrigation technologies - Private-sector actors assume that a - MoA formulates and implements - Limited gender-disaggregated one-size-fits-all model of irrigation policies on irrigation technologies data on technology needs (state) serves men and women equally (state) - Limited number of available (market) - Private-sector institutions participate in technologies that meet women’s manufacturing, operating, maintaining, needs (market) and disseminating technologies (market) - Limited understanding of gender inclusion and mainstreaming to develop women-friendly services and technologies (community) Access to extension services - Grant equal access to extension - Development agents and extension - Lack of a system to hold non- services (state) agents are responsible for gender experts accountable for - Development agents assume everyone implementing gender-related project gender work (state and has equal access to and benefit from activities (community) community) extension services (community) - Gender activities are add-on - Extension workers (who are - Implementing gender-related activity responsibilities for development mostly men) prefer to work with is the responsibility of gender-focal agents and extension agents men farmers (community) people (community) (community) - It is considered inappropriate for women to network with boys and men outside the home (household) Access to finance - Bureaucratic processes make it - Financial institutions and NGOs provide - Limited availability of women- challenging to obtain informal credit loans to smallholder farmers (market) friendly loans (market) services (market) - Village Savings and Loan Associations - Small loans, short loan periods, - Men and women need to show up and (VSLAs) provide opportunities for and lack of loans at required sign a loan contract (market) networking and leadership (market) times (market) Access to input and output markets - The brokers set the market prices - Markets provide platforms for men and - Absence of market links to access (market) women farmers to buy inputs and sell output markets equally (market) - Private sector actors assume that products (market) - Limited access to inputs from the uniform input delivery systems serve - Private providers, cooperatives, unions, private sector in big or zonal men and women equally (market) and agricultural offices supply inputs capital towns due to restricted and services (market) mobility (household) Research Report 185 - Institutional Gender Mainstreaming in Small-Scale Irrigation: Lessons from Ethiopia IWMI - 9 Institutional structures and approaches to gender “Since I am from a farming family, I know how mainstreaming. Synthesized insights from the policy decisions are made regarding land. Men used to do documents review indicate that to achieve gender anything with the land without their wives’ knowledge. equality, GoE must enforce state-level rules that promote They used to rent, or crop share their lands without capacity development, gender-sensitive approaches their wives' knowledge or agreement. However, no and quota systems, and water and land rights. To one will rent it after the joint certification program, if ensure equitable development for all men and women, wives do not sign the land renting agreement with their the National Policy on Ethiopian Women (TGoE 1993) husbands. This made them participate in decisions prescribes creating an appropriate institutional structure made over the land to some extent.” to institutionalize women's political, economic, and social rights. The Gender Equality Strategy for Ethiopia’s Agriculture, natural resource and horticulture Agriculture Sector (MoANR 2017) addresses key systemic expert from the Woreda Agriculture Office barriers by promoting gender-transformative, rights- based, and capacity development for individuals The purpose is to raise awareness about women’s rights, and systems. It also recognizes the importance of avoid discriminatory laws, and ensure that women indigenous knowledge for understanding the causes can participate as members of land administration and consequences of inequalities and for challenging committees. MoA is responsible for implementing policies and transforming power relationships. The National on land administration and use. However, competing Gender Mainstreaming Guideline in Agriculture Sector of customary land tenure systems among households and Ethiopia (MoA 2020) focuses on developing the capacity communities have limited the Ministry’s effectiveness in of systems and individuals, including implementing a implementing these policies. The result is that girls and gender-responsive M&E system and providing gender women are less likely to inherit land from their parents mainstreaming in capacity development for staff to than boys and men. Furthermore, women landowners increase accountability. with limited access to labor and finances are less likely to benefit from the land they rent, as they contract out MoA has established the Women’s and Social Affairs for sharecropping, or use it to grow low-value crops. To Directorate to enforce these rules. The directorate give women better access to water, state rules require provides general guidance, advice, and technical support schemes to be simple and user-friendly. to gender and non-gender experts at other directorates, regional bureaus, and woreda offices responsible for Participation in and benefit from development and the mainstreaming gender. It coordinates and integrates public sphere. To ensure that women participate in and the Gender Equality Strategy for Ethiopia’s Agriculture benefit from the development and public spheres, GoE Sector (MoANR 2017) at different levels. Accordingly, the has implemented gender-sensitive policies and programs Women’s and Social Affairs Directorate of MoA developed that recognize and provide legal and gender equality gender-mainstreaming guidelines and gender-equality initiatives. The Constitution of the Federal Democratic strategies for Ethiopia’s agriculture sector to embed Republic of Ethiopia (FDRE 1995) grants women equal equality issues into policies, strategies, institutional rights with men to participate in any development sphere structures, and M&E systems at the state level. However, and decision-making process. The revised Ethiopian several challenges have made implementing these Federal Civil Servants Proclamation (FDRE 2017) grants policies ineffective. For instance, the budget is limited, women rights to equal pay, equal work, and equal access the accountability system is inadequate, and a gender to recruitment and training in the public sector. Ethiopia’s information management system is not yet in place. The Agricultural Extension Strategy (MoANR and ATA 2017) was lack of financial resources is particularly problematic developed to give women and youth equal access to such because, without sufficient funds to provide training on services. Article 10.3 of Proclamation No. 916/2015 (FDRE gender, project leaders will have a limited understanding 2015) reinforces the strategy by including a statement of gender policies and strategies. requiring GoE ministries to address women's and youth affairs when preparing all policies, laws, and development Access to and control over land and water. The programs and projects. Constitution of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (FDRE 1995) and the Rural Land Administration At the market level, private sector actors assume that and Land Use Proclamation No. 456/2005 (FDRE 2005) men and women benefit equally from any intervention. grant women and men equal rights to use, transfer, However, they fail to recognize the many differences administrate, and control land. The constitution also that influence the participation of women—differences prescribes equal treatment in the inheritance of property. in status, privilege, access to resources, participation To emphasize equity and joint ownership, GoE introduced in decision-making, need for irrigation technology, and a joint land certificate program where landholding infrastructure. The actors also assume that women certificates are issued in the name of all stakeholders, contribute less to designing and constructing irrigation including spouses. A key informant at the woreda level schemes, so they conclude that women should be paid described this in his own words: less. IWMI - 10 Research Report 185 - Institutional Gender Mainstreaming in Small-Scale Irrigation: Lessons from Ethiopia Among households, views such as the public sphere is communication skills. Participation of young women the men’s domain, a woman should seek permission is lower due to restricted mobility and is driven by lack from her husband to go out in public, or a girl should of confidence to travel alone long distances in fear of marry rather than further her education are commonly gender-based violence and workload.” and strongly held beliefs. These beliefs restrict women's ability to participate in any project. Yet, another problem A gender expert key informant from projects is women's lack of time because local norms often limit that promote small-scale and micro irrigation them to productive and reproductive roles at home. A female participant in the focus group discussion (FGD) Participation in irrigation water user associations expressed her views about women's participation in the (IWUAs). IWUAs and cooperatives in communities are public sphere: entry points for projects to reach farmers. They provide members with irrigation water, related scheme resources, “The main challenge is [that] husbands, even the services, and benefits. Currently, membership is based on literate ones, are unwilling to send their wives to be household headship and land ownership and is restricted a member of cooperatives/associations and attend to one person per land certificate. A key informant meetings/training. They said, ‘I am a member, and you described this as follows: don’t need to be,’ ‘I attended the meeting, why you?’, ‘What I have is yours’. These views are dominant. A “The bylaws of the cooperatives prescribe that only norm also considers public gatherings as men’s role.” one person from a household, usually the head of the house, can become a cooperative member. A female participant of the FGD However, spouses are normally invited for training and demonstrations. Despite that participation, only the Capacity between states, communities, and households, member has the right to vote.” including rules at the household level, usually discourages women from participating in project activities and A gender expert in a small, scheme-based enjoying any benefits equally with men. There are limited irrigation project budgets at the state and community levels to raise awareness about policies, train experts, and implement However, the criteria for getting a land certificate tend to gender activities. The result is that actors implementing favor men, as only 25% of household heads in Ethiopia are irrigation project activities have a limited understanding women. Coupled with the norm of patrilineal inheritance, of how to work with women. A key informant offered the both rules and capacities among households also limit the following opinion about this issue: ability of women to participate fully as members and in leadership positions of IWUAs and cooperatives. “There is limited human capacity at a lower level to effectively implement gender activities. In Both authority and responsibility are distributed unfairly, most local-level offices, no gender-focal person is which leaves women with little time for participation. assigned for gender activity. Gender is an add-on Women and girls are regarded as unfit to network with responsibility that receives little attention. Even if a men and boys, which limits their ability to move around focal person is assigned, the person may not have in public. Women also have a much higher illiteracy the right knowledge, concepts and skills to effectively rate, and many suffer from low self-esteem. Moreover, implement gender programs. Sometimes, the position women have limited knowledge of their roles, rights, is considered a gap filler, where demoted employees and responsibilities as members and leaders. All these will be assigned. Further, lack of interest in the subject factors limit or prevent women from participating in these and limited availability of budget poses a challenge to institutions. The result is that women have limited access cascade gender programs and practically implement to inputs, information, and services, such as training and them.” extension services from these institutions, and limited participation in decision-making processes. A gender expert in a small scheme-based irrigation project Intra-household gender dynamics. Sociocultural norms are the most proximate determinants of men’s and At the household level, several issues limit or prevent women’s place and status. In many parts of Ethiopia, women from participating in project activities. They men and women assume that men perform the real and include the lack of time available because of women’s more challenging jobs and oversee every privilege in the large workload, restrictions on mobility, and the household. This includes being household heads, being widespread bias against women getting educated. regarded as socially legitimate community figures, and According to one key informant: dominating decisions concerning land and high-value resources. “Market agents for marketing irrigation technologies are young men and women between the ages of 15 In contrast, women in many rural societies are assumed and 29 who completed at least Grade 8 and have good to be primarily mothers and housewives. In line with these Research Report 185 - Institutional Gender Mainstreaming in Small-Scale Irrigation: Lessons from Ethiopia IWMI - 11 assumptions, women are overburdened, which means of women participating in the manufacturing and their contribution to agriculture is less valued, and their marketing of rope and washer pumps is relatively low participation in decision-making is limited. Women tend because of the assumption that mechanical work is for to dominate activities based at home, for which they get men and the restrictions on where women can work. little support from their spouses. A female participant of the FGD described: However, the private sector actors’ ability and intrahousehold gender dynamics are primarily what “Women are responsible for almost all domestic determine whether men and women farmers take up and activities and support men in farming. Men never use irrigation technologies equitably. Women farmers support women in domestic work. Sometimes, men cannot do so because the private sector’s one-size-fits- fetch water and firewood. Boys often think like their all model ignores the different needs, priorities, and fathers that domestic work is for women and girls. The concerns of men and women. girl child always supports her mother. It is the role that God assigns to us. We do not see a change in our life. There is limited gender-differentiated data and We are always the same and remain the same.” information on irrigation technology preferences, needs, and practices, so technology suppliers often use a uniform A female participant of the FGD design. For example, women prefer technologies that can save time and labor and provide alternative water However, because any productive work women do is sources for homestead farming/backyard gardening. A key considered an extension of their primary function, their informant described it as follows: contribution usually goes unnoticed. As a result, it is taken for granted that farmers are always men. Women also “One of the challenges for women to use motor pumps have limited participation in making decisions for many for irrigation is that the pumps are located near water reasons: their subordinate status, their heavy workload, sources far from residential areas. Further, the timing the lower value given to women’s work, the biased view for watering is either in the morning or late afternoon, against women’s education, and their inexperience in peak hours for domestic work and not convenient for practicing and developing leadership skills. Among most women.” women, household heads have more liberty to make decisions. But for those in male-headed households, at A key informant from a project that promotes best, they are considered joint decision-makers. At the small-scale irrigation technologies same time, men tend to dominate decisions around high- value market assets, such as inputs and technologies. However, the number and type of technologies that meet women’s needs in the market, at farmer training centers, Access to irrigation technologies. At the household or in the plots managed by model farmers are inadequate. level, men and women have different needs for Furthermore, poverty, women’s position within the irrigation technologies, so they have different household and the community, and their limited access to preferences in crop types and access to land and natural and financial resources make it difficult for women water resources and markets. Acknowledging this, to access and adopt irrigation technologies equitably. policies on irrigation development and management have highlighted the importance of prioritizing However, even though it is relatively small, backyard gender considerations and reaching women to make cultivation allows women to make decisions, try new sure they are participating in and benefiting from technologies, manage their plots, and control the income irrigation projects equitably. This is precisely what the generated from low-value garden products. Backyard National Smallholder Irrigation and Drainage Strategy cultivation is considered a woman’s domain because it is (MoANR, MoWIE and ATA 2016) and the Realizing done at home, and it is easier for them to care for small the Potential of Household Irrigation in Ethiopia gardens near their homesteads. Most women learn how Strategy (MoA and ATA 2015) prescribe. Policies also to manage their vegetable plots from their mothers and require evidence-based and data-driven research grandmothers. on gender and irrigation to collate data on women's challenges. Yet, such data and research are scant. For Access to extension services. Ethiopia’s Agricultural example, the Gender Equality Strategy for Ethiopia’s Extension Strategy (MoANR and ATA 2017) recognizes Agriculture Sector (MoANR 2017) and the National gender mainstreaming as a critical approach to gender Gender Mainstreaming Guideline in Agriculture Sector equality. At the community level, development agents of Ethiopia (MoA 2020) have sections on small-scale and extension workers implement project activities on the irrigation and micro irrigation. However, gender issues ground. They are responsible for developing the capacity are discussed mainly in the guidelines for rainfed of farmers by, for example, introducing new technologies farming. Irrigated farming is similar, except in a few and organizing field days, demonstration trials, and other cases, such as the irrigation technologies that include agricultural events. However, these experts are limited in gender equality in scheme-based and irrigation what they can do to develop, promote, and disseminate technology promotion projects. Also, the number women-friendly services and technologies. With no access IWMI - 12 Research Report 185 - Institutional Gender Mainstreaming in Small-Scale Irrigation: Lessons from Ethiopia to training that focuses on gender, gender analysis, or spouses to sign a loan contract for buying irrigation gender mainstreaming, they do not know how to provide technologies. However, rules and capacities in markets inclusive extension services. They lack an understanding and households often make it difficult for women to do of the different powers, needs, and interests of men and so. At the market level, the rules of MFIs, which require women farmers and are unable to conduct a gender collateral such as land certificates, command high interest analysis while developing services and technologies. As rates, demand short return periods, and have a very such, they use uniform content, access, and methodology, bureaucratic process, hinder women’s access to finance. which results in an extension service offering that is less There are also limited or no women-friendly loan services. sensitive to the daily reality for most women. Among households, women find it hard to access loans because they are anxious about not being able to meet the A weak accountability system and the limited number of criteria and/or pay back the loan. They also have limited female extension workers only exacerbate the problem. access to trusted credit information sources and have Gender mainstreaming activities are not valued; it is smaller plots of land to take out loans against. an 'add-on' responsibility for development agents and extension workers, and there is no system to hold them Access to input and output markets. Women usually accountable for gender work. Most extension workers buy fertilizers and certified seeds from cooperatives are men, so they tend to favor working with male farmers and unions. They also buy seeds for some vegetables because of the community perception that females and pesticides from agriculture offices. Input suppliers should remain in the household and not socialize with assume a uniform input supply system that serves men boys or men. However, there are attempts to change this and women equally. However, the rules and capacities perception. Given that there are few female extension among households often restrict or prevent women workers, cultural restrictions on contact between men from accessing input and output markets. Women with and women negatively affect women’s access to extension restrictions on where to go have limited access to input services. The country’s Agricultural Extension Strategy suppliers in big towns. Furthermore, economic poverty, (MoANR and ATA 2017) also shows that sociocultural limited capacity to participate in sales decisions, a lack constraints, poor capacity for planning and implementing of bargaining power, and restricted access to information gender programs, and lack of gender-disaggregated data on market prices and input quality all lead to low rates of have created a bottleneck for mainstreaming gender. women participating in markets. Access to finance. Financial institutions granting loans for irrigation technologies and farm inputs include farmers’ Gender Mainstreaming Strategies in cooperative unions (located in kebeles2), microfinance Irrigation Projects in Ethiopia institutions (MFIs), savings and credit cooperatives, VSLAs and NGOs. Each institution has its procedure for granting Rule-driven Participation Strategy in Small loans. Savings and credit cooperatives provide affordable Scheme-based Irrigation Projects credit for low-income farmers. VSLAs provide a safe space for women to access loans for farming because they are a Small, scheme-based irrigation projects use a rule- self-selected, informal, small group that helps them pool driven participation strategy for mainstreaming gender. their money into a fund from which members can borrow. This strategy emphasizes policies and rules for equal They also offer women the opportunity to network and rights and opportunities to participate in development develop leadership skills. According to a key informant and decision-making and to develop the capacity of from Ziway Dugda woreda: both individuals and institutions. In this study, the three projects adopting a rule-driven participation “In villages, there are self-help groups to encourage strategy included the Participatory Small-Scale Irrigation women to save money and ease access to credit to Development Program II (PASIDP II) (2016–2024), the support engagement in income-generating activities Agricultural Growth Program (AGP II), and the Small and (IGAs). This has a dual benefit as it enhances IGA Micro Irrigation Support Project (SMIS) (2014–2019). These opportunities and serves as a platform where women projects used three governance structures to mainstream come together and discuss their social issues.” gender: internalization, participation, and capacity development. A key informant from the woreda office Internalization institutionalizes the state’s gender policies However, the problems with VSLAs are inadequate loans, and guidelines to show political commitment, guide short loan periods, and a lack of loans at critical times. mainstreaming, and create sensitivity among individuals Some groups prefer specific financial sources over others, and organizations to shift gender-related attitudes, depending on the rules and procedures for granting values, and cultures. Across the three projects, specific loans. To promote equitable access to loans and ensure activities were carried out to ensure internalization. repayment, MFIs have adopted approaches requiring The activities entail conducting a gender analysis to 2 Kebele is the smallest administrative unit of Ethiopia. Research Report 185 - Institutional Gender Mainstreaming in Small-Scale Irrigation: Lessons from Ethiopia IWMI - 13 understand the causes of gender inequality, develop establishing special interest groups (or women sub- guidelines, and allocate human and financial resources committees) within the IWUAs to share their needs to gender mainstreaming. To recognize and address and concerns in small groups and practice effective gender concerns in all operations and to support non- leadership. All three projects also trained development gender experts at all levels, at least one gender expert agents and extension workers to sensitize them on should be recruited nationally. Capacity development for gender and equip them with the knowledge and skills to non-gender experts provides technical support, such as work with women farmers. developing gender-inclusive irrigation water management and extension advisory services, gender-sensitive data These governance structures show the predominant collection and analysis, and gender-responsive planning, influence of three institutional groups on the controversial monitoring, and evaluation. outcomes of the strategy of gender mainstreaming, i.e., new institutional structures that apply gender analysis, Participation reflects the approaches projects use to the necessary guidelines, tools, and frameworks, and engage women in small irrigation schemes. Participatory hiring of at least one gender expert to coordinate activities approaches incorporate the concerns and experiences that internalize gender into irrigation projects. However, of women and men. The three projects use different the limited commitment and knowledge of gender mechanisms to ensure the participation of women and experts, a weak accountability system, the high turnover men. Project implementers use participatory approaches of extension workers and development agents, and the to incorporate the concerns and experiences of women lack of funds for a gender component all pose major and men during site identification, studies, and design challenges to effectively implementing the guideline. of small-scale irrigation schemes. They held separate discussions with men and women farmers and gave When institutions adopt various methods, such as a wage employment priority for landless and unemployed quota system and participatory, gender-responsive, and women and youth in the construction of the schemes. transformative approaches at different levels, women can Furthermore, they used a quota system so that each group actively participate in projects and the public sphere and had an optimal ratio of females to males. They tried to benefit from development. However, without the human ensure that the venue and timing of meetings, training, or and financial capital needed to do so, most projects end other capacity development events suited female farmers. up focusing on providing equal opportunities for men and To enhance the participation of women and youth in male- women to participate without addressing the underlying headed households in training sessions, demonstrations, social norms that cause unequal division of labor and and demonstration sites, AGP II and PASIDEP II projects power in households and the gender stereotypes that do adopted gender-responsive approaches such as ‘couple’s not allow women to effectively participate in the first place. training’ or ‘family training’. Finally, women get better leadership training through Providing women opportunities to participate in capacity improved access to extension services and participation development events without addressing the power in IWUAs. However, providing women with opportunities imbalance and heavy workload at household levels will to participate in such events without addressing the not bring change. In recognition, the SMIS project adopted underlying challenges they face every day, such as a ‘gender family model’ – a gender-transformative imbalances in power and workloads in their households, approach to reshape gender relations in households and is unlikely to bring about change. Furthermore, insufficient communities that hinder women from participating. The budgets prevent project implementers from following up ‘gender family model’ engages all family members to on changes in gender relations at the household level and positively influence gender relations by reducing women’s addressing the root causes of inequality by encouraging workload, enhancing their participation in the public households to share workloads and power equitably. sphere or development, and enhancing their control over assets to improve gender relations. In this approach, Role-based Strategy in Small-Scale Irrigation men and boys become champions and allies of women Technology Promotion Projects to empower them and ensure equitable gender relations between their organizations, partner organizations, and Small-scale irrigation promotion projects use a role- the communities they serve. based strategy to help women participate and receive benefits. This strategy emphasizes gender equality by Capacity development is the investment that projects challenging household norms and encourages men and make to bring about shifts in attitudes, values, and women to distribute power and work more evenly; it cultures, to create a gender-responsive organizational also develops the capacity of extension workers, project culture, and to implement and respond to gender gaps partners, and individual farmers. Such projects use three in communities. To enhance the participation of women governance structures for gender equality: internalization, in IWUAs, the three projects trained female IWUA transformation, and capacity development. The six members to build their confidence and raise awareness projects that adopt this strategy include Component about the roles and responsibilities of being a member 1 of the Integrated Shallow Groundwater Irrigation or leader. The SMIS project supported women in Development (ISGID) project implemented by ATA, IWMI - 14 Research Report 185 - Institutional Gender Mainstreaming in Small-Scale Irrigation: Lessons from Ethiopia Component 2 of ISGID implemented by iDE, Water for Food justify and promote women’s mobility, participation, Security, Women’s Empowerment, and Environmental access to information, and leadership. In addition, the Protection (SWEEP), Growth through Nutrition (GTN), project trains female farmers, focusing on two areas. Sustainable Environment and Development Action (SEDA), The first focuses on raising awareness about their rights and Nutrition-Sensitive Agriculture Project (NSAP). in critical laws, such as family law and legislation about gender equality, property rights, and the rights of persons Internalization institutionalizes gender by conducting with disabilities. The second focuses on leadership to gender analysis, developing a strategy for integrating build self-confidence and women’s ability to speak in gender, hiring a gender expert, documenting changes public. in gender relations, taking mitigation measures, and promoting and scaling positive outcomes. Of the six This trio of governance structures shows how various projects, SWEEP and GTN institutionalize gender by institutional groups influence the controversial outcomes conducting a gender analysis and developing a gender of the role-based strategy of gender mainstreaming. First, integration strategy. In addition, for the GTN project, a participating in and benefiting from development and gender expert is hired. The gender expert is responsible the public sphere shapes the internalizing of innovative for documenting changes in gender relations at all approaches to address household barriers, such as levels to identify adverse outcomes, carry out mitigation imbalances in power and workload. Few projects have measures, and promote and scale positive outcomes. the resources to institutionalize gender by conducting gender analysis, developing a strategy for integrating Transformation refers to gender-transformative gender, hiring a gender expert, and documenting changes approaches that address power asymmetries and ensure in gender relations at all levels. In most projects, gender equitable participation. Specifically, the WSF project is not institutionalized, so such activities are given less applied the social analysis and action (SAA) methodology, value and priority. Although GoE encourages efforts to where informal channels, such as a coffee ceremony, generate knowledge on gender and irrigation, the impacts are used for discussions and exchanging ideas about of adopting a specific transformative approach to gender power and labor imbalances. Furthermore, NSAP, GTN, relations are limited. and SWEEP engaged men and boys to improve gender relations. NSAP developed a comprehensive social and Second, intrahousehold gender dynamics influence behavior change communication (SBCC) strategy. The the ability of projects to adopt various approaches to GTN project also built networks and solidarity among transform gender relations within households and achieve women to improve their leadership and participation equity in all spheres, including taking up and using skills and access to information and to encourage them to technology. These approaches include training women on effectively articulate their social and economic needs. leadership, public speaking, and building networks, which will help them boost their solidarity with other women and Capacity development refers to investing in developing their self-confidence. Finally, the investments in equipping the ability of men and women farmers and experts extension workers with the knowledge to effectively work to implement gender interventions on the ground. with women beyond mere representation will shape For example, the WSF and GTN projects invest in the access to technologies for women and thus improve capacity development of agricultural extension workers their access to extension services. Some projects train and development agents so that they can promote the extension workers and experts from partner organizations agricultural work of women farmers or 'female model to engage more women. Others provide technologies for farmers'. Promoting these model farmers aims to resource-poor women or use a quota system to ensure recognize women's contribution to agriculture, increase more women can participate in training. However, projects their representation in various platforms, and improve usually do not have enough funding for such investments their access to technologies. Also, the WSF project trains in extension workers to improve the quality of their work government partner organizations on SAA tools that help with women stakeholders. Research Report 185 - Institutional Gender Mainstreaming in Small-Scale Irrigation: Lessons from Ethiopia IWMI - 15 Discussion Reflecting upon the two strategies shows that when favor technologies based on their potential to generate implemented correctly, gender mainstreaming can be income. In contrast, women prefer multivalent ones, transformative. Transformative gender mainstreaming installed at or near the home, that are useful for domestic (TGM) can be achieved when the process of transforming and productive purposes and are labor-saving (Nigussie et social and gender norms (rules) and practices (roles) al. 2017; Theis et al. 2018a). takes place and yields the outcomes of abilities to continue the changes (capacities). Such gender The role also facilitates changing IWUA membership mainstreaming helps households to share labor and criteria, regardless of the contingent on land ownership power equitably, raise women’s (and men's) awareness and household headship and unfavorable borrowing of their rights and their ability to exercise their rights, conditions that make it difficult for women to access and increase their participation in the public sphere and credit. It is also essential to developing institutional their voices in decisions. It also changes the common structures for coordinating and monitoring gender perception of men as farmers by valuing the contribution mainstreaming, implementing responsive budgeting for of women in agriculture, discontinuing discriminatory gender experts to coordinate gender-related activities, cooperative bylaws (that favored household heads' and investing in training staff to raise awareness of the participation in the public and development sphere, concepts of gender, the environment/agriculture (climate including IWUAs), and ensuring women farmers have change) and gender mainstreaming in development plans, equal access to extension and financial services, and to as well as gender analysis and gender-mainstreaming input and output markets. guidelines. TGM must address the discriminatory fundamental Finally, TGM must address the institutional and rules and negative stereotypes that limit women’s role in individual capacity gaps to continue the transformation the domestic sphere, which restricts their participation process. At the institutional level, these include adopting in and benefits from irrigation projects. These include, participatory and gender-responsive approaches to for example, discriminatory rules that inhibit women understanding the needs, concerns, and issues women from participating in IWUAs and benefitting from equal face before designing schemes and transforming the access to water on farms and to irrigation schemes’ gender power imbalance and gender relationships that benefits (Lefore et al. 2017, 2019; van Koppen 2002). It hinder women from participating. These also involve also includes the community perception that women accountabilities of the grassroots system to design sound networking with boys and men from outside of their technical, social, and policy interventions, enhance household is not a culturally acceptable practice. In gender information management, monitoring and households and communities, men are usually considered evaluation, and manage gender-disaggregated data to farmers and socially legitimate figures, while women are track progress and inform policymakers and practitioners. implicitly assumed to be primarily mothers and wives. The patrilineal customary land tenure system, the bias against At the individual level, these capacities include the ability women’s education, and their limited social networks are to jointly make decisions in the household for acquiring challenges to increasing their participation in collective new technologies and to have control over land (which actions as equal members and leaders. constrains their access to irrigation technologies). Project leaders must be gender sensitive and use appropriate TGM must redefine the critical roles essential to driving gender-related tools and approaches to reach and work the transformation process at the grassroots level. with women farmers while addressing the challenges These roles include but are not limited to breaking the that inhibit them from participating. They need to engage one-size-fits-all assumption to customize the irrigation men and boys to positively influence gender relations, interventions to gendered differences and preferences raise awareness among women about their rights, build regarding needs and concerns, access to resources, and networks and solidarity, and train women in leadership decision-making power. Male farmers report that they and public speaking. IWMI - 16 Research Report 185 - Institutional Gender Mainstreaming in Small-Scale Irrigation: Lessons from Ethiopia Conclusions and Recommendations Using a multi-level institutional framework, this study the potential impacts of policies and interventions. identified rule-driven participation and role-based This requires developing and implementing gender- strategies for mainstreaming gender in irrigation projects transformative strategies, guidance, and mechanisms in Ethiopia. The rule-driven strategy is used by small to meaningfully engage diverse women’s groups in scheme-based irrigation projects to achieve equal rights irrigation and agricultural value chains, supply chains, and and access to individual and institutional development governance. and decision-making. This strategy internalizes the state’s gender policies and guidelines to show political Programs focusing on transforming gender relations with commitment and create gender sensitivity among precise monitoring and evaluation (M&E) and accountability individuals and organizations. It also adopts various systems are needed. This also requires engaging and approaches to get more women farmers involved in facilitating the existing multi-stakeholder dialogues designing, planning, and managing small scheme- (MSDs) at multiple levels to bring together private-sector based irrigation. It invests in training for individuals and actors, government, community-based organizations, and institutions to bring about changes in attitudes, values, cooperatives to discuss the factors influencing the barriers and cultures to build a better response to addressing to and opportunities for women from diverse social groups. gender gaps in communities. MSDs help all actors to better understand formal and informal rules around irrigation so intervention plans can The role-based strategy is employed by projects that be improved to begin redressing unequal power dynamics. promote small-scale irrigation technology to achieve Partnerships among these actors also help create direct gender equality through increasing women's participation demand and supply links to ensure women from various in projects and enhancing the benefits they may receive. social groups benefit from markets. In this type of strategy, a gender analysis is carried out to understand the causes of gender inequality in irrigation Second, TGM should enhance the accountability system technology access and use. Projects adopting this strategy and adoption of gender-transformative approaches to use a gender-responsive and gender-transformative involve more women farmers in designing, planning, approach to balance power and workloads among and management processes. The focus is on making households to enhance women's access to the benefits of institutions more effective by training individuals, irrigation technologies. In this strategy, investment in the improving accountability, and creating gender-responsive capacity development of agricultural extension workers, M&E systems. Ensuring gender equality in irrigation development agents, and staff from government partner is critical to establishing organizational structures organizations is often used to tackle issues related to in government agencies and investing in capacity women's mobility, participation, access to information, development for authorities, non-gender experts, and leadership. IWUAs’ and farmer associations’ members and leaders, and private sector actors. Irrigation projects should Transformative gender mainstreaming (TGM) is enable these actors to use bottom-up, demand-driven, embedded in institutions, and its effectiveness is participatory, service-delivery approaches to identify influenced by historical, social, organizational, and topics, pilots, demonstrations, research-extension links, individual factors. Institutions at multiple levels govern locations, and times to provide tailor-made services. the gender division of labor and the gender distribution This can only be achieved when sufficient resources and of resources, responsibilities, agencies, and power. cross-sectoral training opportunities are available to the Given these factors' complex and interrelated influences, actors. Documenting the gender needs and priorities, we argue that using an institutional perspective geared gender inequality causes, and mechanisms addressing toward TGM is critical. Analyzing rules, roles, and such inequality of diverse women groups will help capacities at all levels allows institutions to develop policymakers, private sector actors, development agents, a holistic and multi-level view of gender equality and and extension workers make the most effective, informed mainstreaming. Such perspectives provide practitioners decisions and practices. with insights about opportunities and barriers to gender equality at each level, the interconnections Third, TGM should create a supportive institutional among barriers and opportunities, and areas where environment at the market, community, and household transformation may be needed. levels to encourage women farmers to invest in irrigation. There must be sufficient resources to implement The analysis provides several implications for TGM in gender-transformative mainstreaming to challenge irrigation development in Ethiopia. First, TGM should the male-dominated hegemonic social structure and enact policy, create an institutional environment, and train self-selected households, as well as to follow up develop governance mechanisms for mainstreaming on the progress of the implementation and document gender. This means establishing and maintaining the processes and changes. Facilitating changes in a gender-information management system, which communities and households requires strengthening allows policymakers and practitioners to understand female leadership by training in assertiveness, public Research Report 185 - Institutional Gender Mainstreaming in Small-Scale Irrigation: Lessons from Ethiopia IWMI - 17 speaking, conflict management and resolution, and of farmers in participation, technology, and the benefits building awareness of women's rights, roles, and they earn from irrigation projects to customize and bundle responsibilities in IWUAs. It is necessary to mobilize and different interventions, innovations, and services that prioritize female extension workers and women farmers best serve diverse women's groups and enhance gender who could act as a ‘frontline’ technical resource. They equality in access to resources and services. Gender- would provide policy, technical, institutional, financial responsive subsidy programs can improve access for and market information, farmer collectives on irrigation, women to climate-resilient irrigation equipment, inputs, irrigated agricultural value chains, local service providers, information, and financial and market services, and and government policies. Addressing financial challenges improve their understanding of financial management can only be done by developing tailored and inclusive and the capacity and investment potential of women from financial products and services, raising awareness about diverse social groups. the various services, and helping women to become financially literate. Innovative financial modalities such Although this research report focuses on Ethiopia, as rent-to-own,3 layaway plans,4 forward financing with gender mainstreaming is a global issue, and applying a future production,5 and processing can all help improve multi-level institutional lens to understand it in irrigation access to finance. development is broad. This report calls for further analysis of women's desire to be involved in irrigation. Follow- Finally, TGM should apply an intersectional lens to up research to assess what worked and did not work in develop impactful, tailored programs and interventions. irrigation-related interventions elsewhere in the world This means applying an intersectional lens to understand would be useful to generate an overview of the main how multiple layers of identities shape the preferences components of TGM approaches across scales. 3 A rent-to-own agreement - a deal in which you commit to renting a property for a specific period, with the option of buying it before the lease runs out. 4 Layaway plans - a purchasing method by which a consumer places a deposit on an item to “lay it away” for later pickup when they return and pay the balance. 5 Forward financing with future production - a contract between two parties to buy or sell an asset at a specified price or enter a loan transaction at a future date. 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Journal of European Social Policy 18(3): 289–302. https://doi.org/10.1177/0958928708091061 Research Report 185 - Institutional Gender Mainstreaming in Small-Scale Irrigation: Lessons from Ethiopia IWMI - 21 IWMI Research Report Series 185 Institutional Gender 184 Land Cover Changes in the Upper 183 Living Customary Water Mainstreaming in Small-Scale Great Ruaha (Tanzania) and the Tenure in Rights-based Water Irrigation: Lessons from Ethiopia Upper Awash (Ethiopia) River Basins Management in Sub-Saharan Africa https://doi.org/10.5337/2023.218 and their Potential Implications for https://doi.org/10.5337/2022.214 Groundwater Resources https://doi.org/10.5337/2023.212 182 Legal Recognition of Customary 181 Analysis of Water Reuse 180 Scaling Up Index-based Flood Water Tenure in Sub-Saharan Africa: Potential for Irrigation in Lebanon Insurance (IBFI) for Agricultural Unpacking the Land-Water Nexus https://doi.org/10.5337/2022.211 Resilience and Flood-proofing https://doi.org/10.5337/2022.215 Livelihoods in Developing Countries https://doi.org/10.5337/2021.213 For access to all IWMI publications, visit www.iwmi.org/publications/ Headquarters 127 Sunil Mawatha Pelawatta Battaramulla Sri Lanka Mailing address P. 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