BASELINE SURVEY REPORT Hanku, Jumla | December 2016 Epsha Palikhey, Sajal R Sthapit, Subash Gautam, Devendra Gauchan, Bharat Bhandari, Bal Krishna Joshi and Bhuwon Ratna Sthapit Integrating Traditional Crop Genetic Diversity into Technology: Using a Biodiversity Portfolio Approach to Buffer against Unpredictable Environmental Change in Nepal Himalayas DoA Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation SDC Epsha Palikhey, Sajal R Sthapit, Subash Gautam, Devendra Gauchan, Bharat Bhandari, Bal Krishna Joshi and Bhuwon Ratna Sthapit BASELINE SURVEY REPORT Hanku, Jumla | December 2016 Epsha Palikhey, Sajal R Sthapit, Subash Gautam, Devendra Gauchan, Bharat Bhandari, Bal Krishna Joshi and Bhuwon Ratna Sthapit BASELINE SURVEY REPORT Hanku, Jumla | December 2016 Integrating Traditional Crop Genetic Diversity into Technology: Using a Biodiversity Portfolio Approach to Buffer against Unpredictable Environmental Change in Nepal Himalayas DoA Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation SDC © LI-BIRD, NARC and Bioversity International 2016 This publication is prepared by the UNEP/GEF supported project Integrating Traditional Crop Genetic Diversity into Technology: Using a Biodiversity Portfolio Approach to Buffer against Unpredictable Environmental Change in the Nepal Himalayas. The project is coordinated by the Bioversity International in collaboration with Nepal Agricultural Research Council (NARC), Department of Agriculture (DoA) and Local Initiatives for Biodiversity, Research and Development (LI-BIRD). LI-BIRD (Pokhara, Nepal; www.libird.org) Local Initiatives for Biodiversity, Research and Development (LI-BIRD) is a non-profit, non-governmental organization established in 1995 to reduce poverty and promote social justice by empowering rural poor and marginalized smallholder farmers, especially women, who depend primarily on agriculture, biodiversity, and natural resources for their livelihoods. To achieve these goals, LI-BIRD is committed to capitalizing on local initiatives, synergy, and partnerships for sustainable management of renewable natural resources. Through development-oriented research in agriculture and natural resource management, LI-BIRD contributes to several innovative methods and approaches, aiming to achieve a positive impact on the livelihoods of rural poor and marginalized farmers through appropriate technological, social, and policy changes. LI-BIRD plays an instrumental role in institutionalizing these approaches in national systems. NARC (Singhadarbar Plaza, Kathmandu, Nepal; www.narc.gov.np) The Nepal Agricultural Research Council (NARC), established in 1991 as an autonomous organization,is an apex body for agricultural research in Nepal. It includes many commodity programmes, research stations located across the country, and disciplinary divisions as well as a national gene bank in Khumaltar. NARC carries out research on various aspects of agriculture, identifies solutions to existing problems in agriculture,and assists the government in formulating agricultural policies and strategies. Bioversity International (Rome, Italy; www.bioversityinternational.org) Bioversity International is a member of the CGIAR consortium. Its vision is that agricultural biodiversity nourishes people and sustains the planet. Bioversity International produces scientific evidence and develops management practices and policy options to safeguard agricultural and tree biodiversity and attain sustainable global food and nutrition security. Citation: Palikhey E, SR Sthapit, S Gautam, D Gauchan, B Bhandari, BK Joshi and BR Sthapit. 2016. Baseline Survey Report III. Hanku, Jumla . Integrating Traditional Crop Genetic Diversity into Technology: Using a Biodiversity Portfolio Approach to Buffer against Unpredictable Environmental Change in the Nepal Himalayas. LI-BIRD, NARC and Bioversity International, Pokhara, Nepal. ISBN : 978-9937-0-3641-2 Cover Photos: Sajal Sthapit, Epsha Palikhey, LI-BIRD Photos: LI-BIRD Photo Bank, unless stated otherwise Cover and Interior Design: Hem GC, LI-BIRD Acknowledgements The authors would like to express their heartfelt thanks to all the farmers of Local Crop Project (LCP) site Jumla for sharing information related to agriculture, mandate crops, biodiversity and socio-economic conditions with the survey team members. Without their full support and cooperation, it would have not been possible to carry out baseline survey and collect information. We would also like to acknowledge Global Environmental Facility (GEF), United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP), Bioversity International, Nepal Agricultural Research Council (NARC) and Department of Agriculture (DoA) for their financial and technical support in implementation of the project in four different districts of Nepal. We appreciate the contribution of Mr. Parshuram Biswakarma (LI-BIRD), Mr. Deepak Upadhaya (LI-BIRD) and Mr. Bishnu Dhakal (LI-BIRD) in handling and analysis of the baseline data. Not to forget, the continuous assistance and support provided by Mr. Mukunda Bhattarai from Gene Bank, Khumaltar, Ms. Richa Gurung (Bioversity Nepal), Ms. Rita Gurung, and Mr. Achyut Raj Adhikari from LI-BIRD. The authors would also like to show gratitude to Ratna Chandra Upadhayay (LI-BIRD), Srijana Paudel (LI- BIRD), Tika Rijal (LI-BIRD), Ms. Kavita Jaisi (LI-BIRD), Ms. Dalaki Sherpa (LI-BIRD), Mr. Nir Bahadur Rai (LI-BIRD) and Kavi Dutta Chaulagain (Hanku-4, Farmer), Nanda Jaisi (Social Motivator of Hanku VDC) in collection of the data. Last but not the least, we would like to thank all the helping hands who have directly and indirectly contributed with their valuable time and suggestions for preparation of this report. contents ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS 1. INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 Background Information 1 1.2 Project Context 1 1.3 Objectives of Baseline Study 3 2. METHODOLOGY 4 2.1 Primary Information Collection 4 2.2 Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) 4 2.3 Diversity Fair 4 2.4 Household Survey 4 2.4.1 Survey Design and Sampling Procedure 5 2.4.2 Questionnaire Preparation and Pre-Testing 5 2.4.3 Sampling Method and Size 6 2.4.4 Administration of Survey 7 2.4.5 Data Entry, Cleaning and Analysis 7 3. SITE CHARACTERISTICS 8 3.1 Overview of Jumla district 8 3.1.1 Climate 9 3.1.2 Demography 9 3.2 Overview of Hanku VDC 9 3.2.1 Geographic Information 9 3.2.2 Climate and Agroecology 10 3.2.3 Settlement Pattern 10 3.2.4 Livelihood and Farming System 10 3.2.5 Agricultural Land-use System and Irrigation 10 3.2.6 Status of Use of External Inputs (Fertilizers, Micronutrients and Pesticides) 11 3.2.7 Status of Access of Technologies, Information and Support Services 11 4. FINDINGS 12 4.1 Demographic Status 12 4.2 Cropping Pattern and Crop Calendar 16 4.3 Amount and Distribution of Crop Genetic Diversity in Mandate Crops 18 4.3.1 Amaranth 19 4.3.2 Barley 20 4.3.3 Naked Barley 20 4.3.4 Buckwheat 20 4.3.5 Rice 21 4.3.6 Finger Millet 22 4.3.7 Proso Millet 22 4.3.8 Foxtail Millet 23 4.3.9 Beans 23 4.4 Use of Amaranth and Buckwheat as Green Vegetable 24 4.5 Seed Sources and Management Practices of Mandate Crops 25 4.6 Harvesting and Post-harvest Techniques of Mandate Crops 29 4.7 Major Production and Post-production Constraints by Mandate Crops 32 4.8 Marketing (buying and selling) Practices and Trend in Mandate Crops 32 4.9 Training and Awareness 33 4.10 Locals’ Perception on Promotion and Conservation of Local Crops 33 4.11 Local Institutions/Organizations in Hanku 34 5. DISCUSSION 37 5.1 Socio-economic and Demographic Context 37 5.2 Cropping System and Diversity of Mandate Crops 37 5.3 Use of Mandate Crops 38 5.4 Management Practices of Mandate Crops 38 5.5 Seed System of Mandate Crops 39 5.6 Key Constraints and Possible Intervention 39 5.7 Processing Tools, Techniques and Services in Mandate Crops 40 5.8 Institutional Setting and Awareness level in Conservation of Local Crops 40 5.9 Potential Opportunities 40 6. SUMMARY and WAY FORWARD 41 6.1 Summary 41 6.2 Way Forward 41 REFERENCES 43 ANNEXES 45 lIst oF tABles Table 1. Mandate crop species, their local and scientific names, type of pollination system and genetic features 2 Table 2. Sample size for each ward 6 Table 3. Family and migration details of households in Hanku in 2014 12 Table 4. Household agricultural resources in Hanku in 2014 14 Table 5. Fruits grown in Households in Hanku in 2014 15 Table 6. Household ownership of animal resources in Hanku in 2014 16 Table 7. Food sufficiency in Hanku in 2014 16 Table 8. Major cropping pattern in Hanku 16 Table 9. Varietal richness of mandate crops in Hanku as assessed by various methods 18 Table 10. Household and Community richness and evenness of mandate crops 19 Table 11. Amaranth varieties, their area, productivity and key traits grown in Hanku VDC 19 Table 12. Varieties of barley, their area, productivity, and percent households growing in Hanku VDC 20 Table 13. Varieties of buckwheat, their area, productivity, and percent households growing in Hanku VDC 21 Table 14. Varieties of rice, their area, productivity, and percent households growing in Hanku VDC 21 Table 15. Varieties of finger millet, their area, productivity, and percent households growing in Hanku VDC 22 Table 16. Varieties of proso millet, their area, productivity and percent households growing in Hanku VDC 23 Table 17. Varieties of foxtail millet, their area, productivity and percent households growing in Hanku VDC 23 Table 18. Varieties of beans, their area, productivity and percent households growing in Hanku VDC 24 Table 19. Frequency of seed sources used by ethnicity for planting decisions in a year. 26 Table 20. Seed management practices of mandate crops in Hanku 27 Table 21. Post-harvest practices in Hanku VDC 30 Table 22. Major production and post-production constraints in mandate crops 32 Table 23. Quantity of mandate crops being purchased by respondents for consumption 33 Table 24. Organizations / Programmes in Hanku. 34 Table 25. Local groups and community based organizations in Hanku 35 lIst oF FIgURes Figure 1. Project sites of the Local Crop Project. 2 Figure 2. Steps involved in baseline survey 7 Figure 3. Map of Jumla showing project site, Hanku VDC (highlighted) 8 Figure 4. Percentage of family types in Hanku, Jumla by ethnicity in 2014. 12 Figure 5. Migrant workers from Hanku VDC are predominantly men. 13 Figure 6. Primary occupation of households in Hanku in 2014. 13 Figure 7. Gender of decision makers at the household level on farming matters in Hanku. 14 Figure 8. Seasonal cropping calendar of the project’s mandate crops in Hanku. 18 Figure 9. Use of amaranth and buckwheat as leafy green vegetables. 25 Figure 10. Seed source of mandate crops in Hanku. 26 Figure 11. Training and awareness of respondents. 33 Figure 12. Percentage of respondents showing interest in conservation of various local crops. 34 ABBRevIAtIons And AcRonyms AFSP Agriculture Food Security Programme BEE Bheri Environmental Excellence CBM Community Based Biodiversity Management CDMA Code Division Multiple Access CFUG Community Forest Users Group CSB Community Seed Bank CP Cross Pollinated DADO District Agriculture Development Office DFS Diversity Field School DoA Department of Agriculture FFS Farmers Field School FGD Focus Group Discussion GEF Global Environment Facility GOs Governmental Organizations ha Hectare HDI Human Development Index HH Household HPI Human Poverty Index INGO International Non-Governmental Organization KIS Key Informant Survey LAPA Local Adaptation Plan of Action LCP Local Crop Project LI-BIRD Local Initiatives for Biodiversity, Research and Development masl meters above sea level MoF Ministry of Finance MoSTE Ministry of Science, Technology and Environment NAGRC Nepal Agriculture Genetic Resources Centre NAPA National Adaptation Programmes of Action NARC Nepal Agricultural Research Council NFC Nepal Food Corporation NCCSP Nepal Climate Change Support Programme NGO Non-Governmental Organizations OS Often Self pollinated PACE Partnership Aid Center PAF Poverty Alleviation Fund PPB Participatory Plant Breeding PRA Participatory Rural Appraisal PSE Participatory Seed Exchange PVS Participatory Varietal Selection SE Standard Error SP Self Pollinated SPSS Statistical Package for the Social Sciences SQCC Seed Quality Control Centre UN United Nation UNEP United Nations Environment Programme VDC Village Development Committee WELI Women Empowerment & Livelihood Improvement Baseline Survey Report: III. Hanku, Jumla. Integrating Traditional Crop Genetic Diversity into Technology: Using a Biodiversity Portfolio Approach to Buffer against Unpredictable Environmental Change in the Nepal Himalayas, 2016. 1 1. IntRodUctIon 1.1 Background Information The Himalayan ecosystem in Nepal, with its steep rises in elevation, rugged terrains, and patchworks of ethnic and cultural diversity, has imposed unique selection pressures on high mountain agricultural biodiversity. Cold tolerance acts as a severe bottleneck to diversity in this environment. Despite this, farming communities have been maintaining a rich diversity of food crops for generations. For instance, Chhomrong, an indigenous variety of cold tolerant red rice from Nepal has now spread to over 85% of the high altitude rice growing areas of Bhutan (Matsushita et al., 2011; Ghaley et al., 2012; Shrestha 2004) and Madagascar (Raboin et. al., 2014). This illustrates its immense value, which is largely due to its rare combination of cold tolerance, stable blast and bacterial brown sheath rot resistance traits and wide adaptability. In addition to cold tolerant rice, farming communities in this region also rely on the diversity of under-researched but locally important crops, such as proso millet, foxtail millet, finger millet, buckwheat, naked barley, barley, amaranth and common bean. The Nepal’s Himalayas represent the primary and secondary centers of diversity for rice, amaranth, barley, buckwheat, millets and bean (Hawkes, 1998). Despite the existence of tens of thousands of edible plants, only 10 cereal grains, legumes and oilseeds dominate 80% of the world's cropland (Glover et al., 2007). Wheat, rice and maize by themselves account for two-thirds of the world's arable lands. This is starkly reflected in the diets we consume, in which 90% of our plant-based calories can be traced back to only 30 or so crops (FAO, 2009). Consequently, about 60% of the world's population is currently malnourished, either due to lack of calories or because of too much of the wrong kind of calories (Pimentel, 2011). In the context of changing climate, over-reliance on a handful of commodity crops also puts our global food security at a great risk, as it can expose people to rampant speculation of food prices and even result in food crises. It can also lead to the loss of crop biodiversity which represents a significant reservoir of potentially useful traits for coping with changing global environments. Because traditional mountain crops are under-researched, mountain farming communities have not had the benefit of better yielding varieties and advanced processing technologies. International breeding efforts in mountains crops are also limited in spite of its importance locally as nutritionally dense, climate resilient and low input agriculture system. Human Development Index (HDI) of Jumla is 0.409 (15th district of Nepal with least HDI) according to Nepal Human Development Report 2014. Jumla suffer from limited access to basic infrastructure, education, healthcare and nutrition. Poor nutrition, especially in early childhood, can have dire repercussions into adulthood, as it compromises cognitive and social development (Ruel and Hoddinott, 2008), which puts these communities at elevated risk of further marginalization. Furthermore, climate change impacts are predicted to be more acute in the Himalayas, where warming has been much greater than the global average. A changing climate in the high mountains is also likely to exacerbate the risk of crop disease damage and frequency of blast breakdown is reported by farmers. For instance, rice blast (Magnaporthe oryzae B. Couch) is a major disease in Nepal that is affecting the beloved Jumli Marshi variety of rice in Jumla and Karnali region. 1.2 Project Context Considering the global and local importance of these high mountain crops, the Global Environment Facility (GEF) has funded a project titled, "Integrating traditional crop genetic diversity into technology: using a biodiversity portfolio approach to buffer against unpredictable environmental change in the Nepal Himalayas". The objective of the project is "to mainstream the conservation and use of agro-biodiversity in the mountain agricultural production landscapes of Nepal to improve ecosystem resilience, ecosystem services and access and benefits sharing capacity in mountain ecosystems." It aims to develop and promote diverse sets of varieties, improve access to diverse sets of planting materials, create and distribute drudgery-reducing processing technologies, and promote an enabling environment for access to the benefit-sharing of seeds and other planting materials. The project focuses on supporting the use of the rich and unique intra-specific diversity of crops that are of global importance to mountain agricultural environments, in order to buffer against the increasing unpredictability in the amount and occurrence of rainfall, temperature extremes, and the frequency and severity of pest and pathogen occurrence in the mountains of Nepal and elsewhere. The project is known as the Local Crop Project (LCP) for short. Baseline Survey Report: III. Hanku, Jumla. Integrating Traditional Crop Genetic Diversity into Technology: Using a Biodiversity Portfolio Approach to Buffer against Unpredictable Environmental Change in the Nepal Himalayas, 2016. 2 The project has set mandate to work on eight neglected and underutilized mountain crops that are nutrient dense, climate resilient and indigenous to mountain region of Nepal (Table 1). These crops are: amaranth (Amaranthus hypochondriacus, A. caudatus and A. cruentus), barley and naked barley (Hordeum vulgare and H. vulgare var. nudum), common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris), buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum and F. tararicum), finger millet (Eleusine coracana), foxtail millet (Setaria italica), proso millet (Panicum miliaceum) and cold tolerant rice (Oryza sativa). Table 1. Mandate crop species, their local and scientific names, type of pollination system and genetic features S.N. Crop g]kfnL gfd÷cGo gfd Scientific name/synonym Pollination Genetics 1. Amaranth n§] Amaranthus hypochondriacus A. caudatus L. A. cruentus L. CP 2n=32 2n=34 2n=32 2. Barley hf} Hordeum vulgare L. SP 2n=2x=16 3. Naked barley pmjf Hordeum vulgare L. var. nudum Hook F. SP 2n=2x=14 4. Bean l;dL Phaseolus vulgaris L. SP 2n=22 5. Buckwheat (Tartary) ltt] kmfk/ F. tataricum Gaertn. SP 2n=2x=16 Buckwheat (Common) ld7] kmfk/ Fagopyrum esculentum Moench CP 2n=2x=16 6. Finger millet sf]bf] Eleusine coracana Gaertn. OS 2n=36 7. Foxtail millet sfu'gf] Setaria italica Beauv. SP 2n=18 8 Proso millet lrgf] Panicum miliaceum L. SP 2n=36 9 Rice Wffg Oryza sativa L. SP 2n=2x=24 The project is being implemented since 2014 by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and is executed in Nepal by Bioversity International, Nepal Agriculture Genetic Resources Centre (NAGRC) within the Nepal Agricultural Research Council (NARC), Local Initiatives for Biodiversity, Research and Development (LI-BIRD) and the Department of Agriculture (DoA). This project has been designed through extensive consultation with Nepalese agriculture scientists and extension experts with specializations in germplasm conservation, plant breeding, plant pathology and community empowerment. The project was endorsed by the Government of Nepal’s Ministry of Finance (MoF) on 24 November 2010 (Project Document Annex 1). The project is being implementing in four mountain Village Development Committees (VDCs)1 of four districts within Nepal (Figure 1). Figure 1. Project sites of the Local Crop Project, Illustration by: Epsha Palikhey/LI-BIRD 1 Village Development Committee (VDC) is an administrative unit of local government of Nepal. Several VDCs make up a district Baseline Survey Report: III. Hanku, Jumla. Integrating Traditional Crop Genetic Diversity into Technology: Using a Biodiversity Portfolio Approach to Buffer against Unpredictable Environmental Change in the Nepal Himalayas, 2016. 3 In the first year of the project, a variety of field visits, participatory rural appraisal exercises, group discussions, diversity fairs, and household surveys were conducted to establish a benchmark for the project sites. 1.3 Objectives of Baseline Study In the first year of the project, field visits, participatory rural appraisal exercises, group discussions, diversity fairs and household surveys were conducted to establish a benchmark of the project sites. The specific objectives of the baseline study are: • To understand the socio-economic and demographic context of the farming communities • To document the extent of genetic diversity in the mandate crops as well as associated traditional knowledge • To assess the problems with the sustainable use of crop diversity and factors that play important roles in maintaining diversity within crop species • To understand the traditional knowledge of the area, especially regarding the use of intra-specific diversity, seed, and processing management of these crops • To establish baseline and provide guidelines for the planning of future programs in the sites. • This site baseline report provides a summary of the various facets of the mandate crops' genetic resources, traditional knowledge and socioeconomic context of the farming systems present in the project site. This site baseline report provides a summary of the various facets of the mandate crops’ genetic resources, traditional knowledge of the farmers, and socioeconomic contexts of the farming systems present in the project site. • Baseline Survey Report: III. Hanku, Jumla. Integrating Traditional Crop Genetic Diversity into Technology: Using a Biodiversity Portfolio Approach to Buffer against Unpredictable Environmental Change in the Nepal Himalayas, 2016. 4 2. methodology 2.1 Primary Information Collection General information about the district and VDC was collected from secondary data sources of local Government such as District Profile and VDC Profile. Additionally, this information was used for sampling design and questionnaire preparation for conducting the baseline survey. It also helped in understanding the farming systems, mandate crop situations, socioeconomic details and livelihood situations of the farming communities. 2.2 Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) Participatory rural appraisal was conducted using the following tools: Focus Group Discussions (FGD), key informant survey, four cell analysis, resource mapping and seasonal calendar. With these tools, information was collected regarding crop diversity, production ecology and seasons, variety details, farmer’s knowledge, field practices, processing methods and issues associated especially with mandate crops. In addition, PRA was used to gather information on community based organizations, ongoing programs conducted by different International/Non-Governmental Organizations (I/NGOs), Governmental Organizations (GOs), other agencies and their respective working area and present status. We organized four group discussions for PRA involving all the wards2 of Hanku VDC to gain a better understanding of the local context of mandate crops diversity and knowledge, paying special attention to special traits, present status and reasoning for current trends, and consumption patterns. After consulting with the project site team, the participants in the PRA were chosen based on their traits of being progressive, knowledgeable and interested in agricultural activities. 2.3 Diversity Fair A district level diversity fair was organized in Jumla in collaboration with District Agriculture Development Office (DADO), Jumla and other relevant stakeholders during 6-7 May 2015 (after postponement from 26-27 April 2015 due to earthquake on 25 April 2015). The diversity fair was linked with District level food fair coordinated by DADO of Jumla in order to raise awareness about local crops and their use value with wider audience at district level. Food fair promoted consumption of local foods while diversity fair helped in creating public awareness of the value of local crops and access the extent of diversity of mandate crops and associated traditional knowledge in the district including project site. The fair included participation of 18 Community Seed Banks (CSBs) and 7 farmer organizations from 16 VDCs and one municipality in Jumla to showcase the diversity of mountain crops. Three members of Jalpa Devi Community Seed Bank from Hanku participated in the event. They were ranked second in the competition by the evaluation team. Two-day orientation of diversity fair, information collection, passport data and exposure visit to Bhawani CSB in Talium were provided to the participants on 22-23 April 2015 in Jumla through resource person from LI-BIRD and Bhawani CSB in Talium. Diversity fair helped to document current status of overall crop diversity and associated mandate crop information (crop name, variety name, distinguishing characters, special traits and uses, problems, population status and source). In addition, it also helped to sensitize the community on availability of the crop diversity, taught them how to use a diverse set of crops, and plan for diversity conservation. 2.4 Household Survey A household survey of Hanku, Jumla was conducted during the month of December in 2014 to collect detailed information on demographic status, crop diversity status, diversity related problems, mandate crop production, and mandate crop seed sources. Additionally, an understanding of the local perception of promotion and conservation of local crops was gained. The specific steps employed in baseline household survey are presented in Figure 2. 2 Ward is the lowest administrative unit of local government of Nepal. Nine wards make up a Village Development Committee (VDC). Baseline Survey Report: III. Hanku, Jumla. Integrating Traditional Crop Genetic Diversity into Technology: Using a Biodiversity Portfolio Approach to Buffer against Unpredictable Environmental Change in the Nepal Himalayas, 2016. 5 2.4.1 Survey Design and Sampling Procedure The questionnaire and survey methodology was developed by the project team and was refined using the inputs from various experts within the project team of Bioversity International, NAGRC, and LI-BIRD. The responsibility of coordinating and facilitating the consultation process was assigned to project leaders. A stratified sampling method, followed by a random sampling method, were adopted. 2.4.2 Questionnaire Preparation and Pre-Testing The household survey was prepared by reviewing questionnaires of other similar projects, especially the Community Biodiversity Management (Subedi et al., 2009) and In situ/On-farm Conservation of Agricultural Biodiversity in Nepal (Rana et al., 2000). The questionnaire was brief as general information had already been collected through various PRA exercises, the site selection study and the diversity fair. The drafted questionnaire was shared with a team of experts from Bioversity Nepal, NARC Gene bank, and LI-BIRD for reviewing and commenting. The final questionnaire was refined and finalized (Annex I) by incorporating suggestions from experts of Bioversity International, NAGRC, and LI-BIRD. It was pre-tested with 10 farmers in Aarba3 VDC of Kaski district before field administering. Baseline Household Survey Team with Respondent Farmer. Photo: Epsha Palikhey 3 Aarba VDC now has been merged in Pokhara Sub-metropolitan city and so it is no more a VDC. Baseline Survey Report: III. Hanku, Jumla. Integrating Traditional Crop Genetic Diversity into Technology: Using a Biodiversity Portfolio Approach to Buffer against Unpredictable Environmental Change in the Nepal Himalayas, 2016. 6 2.4.3 Sampling Method and Size Latest household list of all nine wards of Hanku VDC was collected from recent survey conducted by the VDC office for drinking water supply and sanitation program. Sample size was then determined using the following relation through an online sample calculator, Raosoft4. ………………………………………………………………………Equation 1 Where, n = size of sample; Z = value of standard variate at a given confidence level and to be worked out from table showing area under normal curve; p = largest possible proportion (0.5) or sample proportion q = 1 - p d = the sampling error (0.05) N = size of population (total household number in the VDC = 583) A sample size of 83 was calculated for 580 households in Hanku VDC, Jumla. The probability proportion to size sampling technique was adopted because of the differing population size throughout the scattered wards. The proportional sample size from each ward was calculated using equation 2. ………………………………………………………………… Equation 2 Where, nw = sample size for the ward Nw = total number of households in the ward N = total number of households in the VDC n = total VDC sample size from Equation 1 (i.e. 83) A ward-wise sampling frame was constructed and data were collected from a sample household in each ward. Sample households from each ward were selected using simple random methods. The total household number, and the sample number of each ward are given in Table 2. 4 Raosoft, an online sample calculator was used to calculate the sample size using Equation 1. Table 2. Sample size for each ward Ward No. Total No. of HHs No. of sampled HHs 1 47 7 2 52 7 3 70 10 4 68 10 5 67 10 6 66 9 7 58 8 8 57 8 9 95 14 Total 580 83 Baseline Survey Report: III. Hanku, Jumla. Integrating Traditional Crop Genetic Diversity into Technology: Using a Biodiversity Portfolio Approach to Buffer against Unpredictable Environmental Change in the Nepal Himalayas, 2016. 7 2.4.4 Administration of Survey A team of eight members (two project’s staff, two LI-BIRD’s staffs working in other projects in Jumla, and four hired enumerators) conducted and completed the survey. An orientation was organized for staffs and enumerators on 9 December 2014 mainly focusing on clarification on content, sampling, and interviewing process. Interviewing of farmers started on 12 December 2014. Every day, after interviews were completed, the interviewers’ team and site officer jointly crosschecked data in the field to minimize response errors. Due to the remoteness of the interview site, data entry into computer spreadsheets was not immediately possible in Hanku. 2.4.5 Data Entry, Cleaning and Analysis Data compilation and entry was done using the standard format developed by previous projects and the technical support from data management specialists of LI-BIRD. Data entry in Microsoft Excel was completed by the end of March 2015 in LI-BIRD, Pokhara office. Entered data was reviewed and cleaned by the site team with the regular technical inputs and support from project team members. Before analysis, cleaned data was converted to standard units through cross-site sharing and experiences of the team members. Data was analyzed using Microsoft Excel 2013 and Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) version 16. Both qualitative and quantitative data were analyzed primarily with the use of descriptive statistics, such as mean, frequency and standard error of mean. Figure 2. Steps involved in baseline survey Project Team Discussion  Objectives of the project and baseline survey discussed  Baseline Methodology designed  Roles and responsibility assigned Questionnaire Preparation and Finalization Inputs from Bioversity, LI- BIRD and National Gene Bank Questionnaire Pretesting and Refining Inputs from Project Team Pre-tested in Arba, Kaski Sampling of HHs in Project site n=83 (Probability proportion to sampling size in each ward) Orientation to enumerators and administration of questionnaire Data compilation, cleaning, analysis and report preparation Baseline Survey Report: III. Hanku, Jumla. Integrating Traditional Crop Genetic Diversity into Technology: Using a Biodiversity Portfolio Approach to Buffer against Unpredictable Environmental Change in the Nepal Himalayas, 2016. 8 3. sIte chARActeRIstIcs 3.1 Overview of Jumla district Jumla is one of the five districts of the Karnali Zone. The district shares its borders with Dolpa to the east, Kalikot to the west, Mugu to the north and Jajarkot to the south. Jumla is located between 28° 58’ to 29°30’ latitudes and 82° 57’ to 82° 18’ longitudes. Elevation in Jumla ranges from 2000 masl (Nagma village) to 6424 masl (Patarasi Himal). There are twenty-six VDCs and one municipality -- Chandannath Municipality5 – which is also the district headquarter. The total area of the district is 2,531 sq km. Jumla’s topography is characterized by three parts: high hill and rocky mountain partially covered by snow; lower hill, with grazing meadows; and low lands where agricultural land is available. A significant portion of its territory is grassland and highland meadow, often used for grazing Himalayan goats, sheep, and yaks, and abundant in medicinal herbs with great potential for sustainable economic development. The district is covered with pasture land, rivers and bushy rocky area of 213,614 ha. Most human settlements are at elevation below 2700 masl on the slopes of mountains along the Tila and Sinja River basins, and cultivated lands make up only about 12% of the district’s total land use. The total arable area of the district is 39,486 ha, out of which 26,435 ha is cultivated (DADO, 2014). Of the total cultivated land, irrigated land constitutes 3269 ha and rain fed 23,166 ha. The major rivers in the district are Tila, Jaba and Hema, and the valleys bordered by Tila and Hema are relatively better off in terms of development. Figure 3. Map of Jumla showing Hanku VDC highlighted in green 5 In 2014, four VDCs of Jumla naming Chandannath, Talium, Kartikswyami, and Mahat were merged to form Chandannath Municipality. Baseline Survey Report: III. Hanku, Jumla. Integrating Traditional Crop Genetic Diversity into Technology: Using a Biodiversity Portfolio Approach to Buffer against Unpredictable Environmental Change in the Nepal Himalayas, 2016. 9 3.1.1 Climate The district has a sub-alpine and alpine climate. Snow fall starts from November and ends in April in all VDCs, particularly heavily in Dillichaur, Guthichaur, and Brumadichaur, making it difficult to access those areas. Pre- and post-monsoon winds also impact livelihoods, as the air is very dry. The average temperature in Jumla varies between 30°C in the summer and 12°C in the winter. In the winter (November to January) the minimum temperature can reach -11°C. Jumla gets relatively less precipitation with annual rainfall ranging between 667 mm and 852 mm (DDC, 2009). 3.1.2 Demography The total population of the district is 108,921 with an even 1:1 sex ratio. The population is distributed across 19,291 households with an average household size of 5.65 people (CBS, 2011). Major ethnic group of Jumla is Brahmin, Chettri and Dalit. Human Development Index (HDI) of Jumla is 0.409 (15th from the bottom) according to Nepal Human Development Report 2014, which is lower than national average of 0.49. Similarly, Human Poverty Index (HPI) value of Jumla is 42.09 which is only less with a value of 7.17 from district with highest HPI of Nepal, i.e. Humla (49.26). Literacy rate of Jumla is 56% (CBS, 2011). Around 42% of the population own their own land and adopted their main occupation as agriculture. Jumla is considered the original home of the Khas ethnic group. Sinja Valley, in the western part of the district is known as the origin of Khas Bhasa, from where Nepali language evolved. Therefore, the Nepali dialect, Khas Bhasa is still spoken among the people in this region. Jumla is major administrative centre and also considered as commercial centre of Karnali Zone. However, high-hill location of Jumla, irregular air and road accessibility dependent on weather, difficulty in communication, lack of modernization, and remoteness has led it to be categorized as one of the nine backward or remote districts6 by the Government of Nepal. Regardless, all twenty-six VDCs of Jumla can be reached from district headquarter within a day. Recent construction of Karnali Highway, connecting district headquarter and various VDCs in Jumla to Surkhet, a regional hub, has brought significant changes in socio- economic development (Happychuck et al., 2014) and lifestyles of Jumli people. 3.2 Overview of Hanku VDC 3.2.1 Geographic Information Hanku VDC is about 8 km away from the district headquarter, Chandannath Municipality. It lies between 29˚04' to 29˚15' North and 80˚05' to 82˚41' East covering an area7 of 199.47 sq km. Hanku is surrounded by Kartikswaymi VDC in the East, Tamti in the West, Lamra and Tatopani in the North and Jajarkot district in the South. The altitude ranges from 2000 to 4600 masl. Although being right across the Karnali Highway, there are no motorways to link Hanku. Foot trails connect Hanku with the highway at two points: narrow wooden bridge at Hanku village (ward 3 and 4), and metal suspension bridge at Gautamwada village (ward 1). However, within the VDC, about 20 km agricultural road is under construction. According to Local Adaptation Plan of Action (LAPA)8, the total household number of Hanku is 494 with a population of 6,203 out of which around 56% are male and 44% female. In Hanku, 23% of the total households belong to Chettri and Thakuri Community, 29% belong to Dalit Community and the rest 48% belong to Brahman Community (MOSTE, 2014). Community still follow various social norms such as chuwachut, chaupadi, dhami. About 30% of the community in Hanku are under poverty. With four primary schools and one secondary school, the literacy rate in Hanku is 53% out of which female literacy 6 Article 10.A.1.f in the Scholarship Rules (2003) lists Accham, Bajhang, Bajura, Dolpa, Humla, Jajarkot, Jumla, Kalikot, and Mugu as the districts that are “backward or remote area.” 7 The demarcation of Hanku VDC had been revised with the declaration of Chandannath Municipality. Certain areas of adjoining VDC, Kartikswaymi was merged with Hanku increasing its total area. 8 Local Adaptation Plan of Action (LAPA) is a community plan prepared under National Adaptation Programmes of Action (NAPA) at local level by multi- stakeholder team including the communities vulnerable to climate change. The aim of LAPA is to integrate climate change adaptation activities into local and national development planning processes to ensure climate resilient development. LAPA of Hanku VDC was prepared by LI-BIRD in close collaboration with Nepal Climate Change Support Programme (NCCSP) in 2013. Baseline Survey Report: III. Hanku, Jumla. Integrating Traditional Crop Genetic Diversity into Technology: Using a Biodiversity Portfolio Approach to Buffer against Unpredictable Environmental Change in the Nepal Himalayas, 2016. 10 is 57%. However, literacy is usually defined as people being able to write their names. There is a public heath post in ward number 3 for health services. 3.2.2 Climate and Agroecology Hanku experiences cool temperate to alpine climate. Most of the areas of Hanku is covered by forest and grasslands. There is also large pasture land in eastern corner of the VDC. The VDC has at least 13 small high altitude lakes. The major lakes in the area are: Gidi daha, Sanka daha, Hudke daha, THankur Jyu, and Bista Jyu. These lakes are also among the holy places in Hanku and have high cultural and religious importance to the community. There is a village named Gidikhola due to river flowing from Gidi daha. Tila Nadi, Giri khola and Bhal Khola are the other major rivers in Hanku. Through November to February it is very cold with snowfall and remaining months are medium to warm. A chilling breeze is usually blowing in the area due to which, some areas of the VDC are very hard to stay out in for long periods of time. Hailstones are one of the major climatic hazards that have been affecting major crops in the VDC. Farmers have reported experiencing hailstones regularly for past 3-4 years during the month of October (which affects rice and other crops in maturity season) and during April (does not affect crops). There is also severe problem of drought. Some has also stated problem of flood and landslide during months with heavy rainfall. Based on climate change vulnerability assessment for Nepal Jumla falls under high vulnerable district in drought (Durbar and Kathmandu, 2010). The study used data on the spatial distribution of various climate-related risks/exposure in 75 districts. Most of the people living in the mid and far western region are amongst the most vulnerable mainly due to high poverty rates in those areas and heavy reliance on small scale agriculture which is increasingly at risk from more erratic rainfall patterns and the lack of basic services and alternative livelihood options. LAPA for Hanku was prepared during the second phase of LAPA making process as Hanku is among the vulnerable VDC of Jumla. 3.2.3 Settlement Pattern Settlement in Hanku is usually clustered in villages although a few households were found to be scattered on the periphery. Major seven villages/settlement clusters are Gautamwada, Jaitpur, Hanku, Partheni, Gidi khola, Kutel gaun and Niyapani, and some small clusters of villages are named as Samal gaun, Sejuwal, Pandey wada and Rokaya wada. Although Hanku extends up to 4600 masl, settlement is found only between 2000 to 2500 masl. All the villages are within a walking distance of one to two hours from Karnali highway. 3.2.4 Livelihood and Farming System Staples, horticulture (apple, walnuts, peach), and livestock are the important components of the integrated farming system and basis of livelihood in Hanku. Majority of the households rely on agriculture and subsistence farming. Crop based farming systems are mainly rice/barley based in khet land and millet/wheat based in the upland. The widely cultivated crops are rice, millets and beans during summer season. Barley is the major winter crop. Only a handful of farmers grows proso millet and foxtail millet. Cow and ox are the major livestock reared. Goats, sheep and horses are reared by only few households but in larger numbers mostly for business . Off-farm wage labor is another important livelihood option. Herb collection is not as prominent in other parts of Jumla. Although being so close to the highway, Hanku is still far from commercial surrounding which is increasing rapidly along the highway. Almost all households in Hanku are using firewood to cook food. 3.2.5 Agricultural Land-use System and Irrigation Forest and pasture land are the major land use system in Hanku. There are four community forests, namely, Mahadev Gaira Community Forest, Chaupat Community Forest, Jalpa Devi Community Forest, and Thala Chaur Community Forest in Hanku that are managed by respective community forest user groups. Agriculture is the next major land use system in Hanku. Hanku is considered to have fertile and larger agricultural lands compared to other VDCs in Jumla which is irrigated by major rivers Giri Khola and Tila Nadi. Baseline Survey Report: III. Hanku, Jumla. Integrating Traditional Crop Genetic Diversity into Technology: Using a Biodiversity Portfolio Approach to Buffer against Unpredictable Environmental Change in the Nepal Himalayas, 2016. 11 Altitudinal variation, topography, and irrigation availability are the major basis of classification of agricultural land. Broad distinction of land is made between khet9, bari10 and lek11 areas. Khet land is further classified into sim, gadkulo (river canal), and kholapani (stream water) was made on the basis of availability of moisture/sources of irrigation. Sim is waterlogged marshy land with poor drainage. Only rice is cultivated here, otherwise it is left barren. Gadkulo supplies water throughout the year whereas kholapani mainly during the monsoon season. Kholapani was the major source of irrigation water with almost 60% of the total irrigated area covered by it. Likewise bari can be classified into ghar bari and pakho bari according to use and proximity from the settlement. Bari lands are more intensively cultivated compared to khet lands. Only major cereal crops such as rice, barley and finger millet are grown in khet whereas all other crops are grown in bari. 3.2.6 Status of Use of External Inputs (Fertilizers, Micronutrients and Pesticides) Accessing chemical fertilizers, herbicides and pesticides has never been practical in Jumla. Hence, to find national market for foods produced in Jumla, District Agriculture Development Office (DADO) through District Development Council declared Jumla as an organic district in 2007 (Happychuck et al., 2014). However, availability of alternative options to use for organic productions are very limited in the district. Farmyard manure and compost manure prepared at home is the major source of nutrients for the soil. Generally, farmer apply manure to the fields in the beginning of the season during the planting of rice and sometimes during the planting of finger millet. On average, farmers broadcast around 400-500 kg of manure per ropani. There are few agrovets in Jumla bazaar (Neupane agrovet, Malika agrovet, Mahat agrovet) that provide services to farmers whereas in Hanku VDC there are no agrovets. Farmers do not use micronutrients and pesticides as they are rarely available. 3.2.7 Status of Access of Technologies, Information and Support Services Hanku is located three hours walk from district headquarter, Khalanga Bazaar/ Chandannath Municipality. Aireni is another nearby market (10-15 minutes walk), which is right across the Tila river. Since there is only a small wooden bridge to reach Hanku, all the goods and any technology must be carried on foot. Since there is no motorable bridge, people feel that it is hard to get to Hanku even though it is physically close to the district headquarter. Hanku does not have good facilities for information exchange and communication. Mobile network of Sky is available but has poor reception. Only CDMA based technologies get reception while other mobile networks do not get any reception. Three FM radio stations in Jumla serve information and news for the people of Hanku VDC. The national newspaper takes a few days to reach Hanku and is only available in government offices. Television is rare in Hanku. It is easy to see that Hanku is far behind in terms of modern sources of information. Farmers of Hanku have limited access to new technologies, information and support services in mandate crops such as amaranths, buckwheat, naked barley, beans, finger millet, proso millet, foxtail millet and cold tolerant rice. Improved varieties of cold tolerant rice such as Chandannath-1 and Chandannath-3 are promoted and distributed by the DADO widely. However, people still prefer to cultivate Jumli Marshi for its taste. The nearest Agricultural Service Centre (ASC) is in Tatopani VDC and the nearest Livestock Service Centre (LSC) is in Chandannath Municipality (Talium). Support and services from these institutions is limited as they have to provide services to 4-5 VDCs. 9 Irrigated/Rainfed land where mainly puddled rice is grown. 10 Unbunded and unirrigated upland. 11 Agricultural land situated at high altitude far from village. Baseline Survey Report: III. Hanku, Jumla. Integrating Traditional Crop Genetic Diversity into Technology: Using a Biodiversity Portfolio Approach to Buffer against Unpredictable Environmental Change in the Nepal Himalayas, 2016. 12 4. FIndIngs 4.1 Demographic Status Of the 83 survey respondents, 55% were female and 45% were male. The majority of households were Dalit (41%), followed by Brahmin (36%) and Chettri/Thakuri (23%). Hanku had prevalence of both joint and nuclear families. Family of Chettri and Thakuri ethnicity had highest percentage of nuclear family (74%) followed by Brahmin and Dalit (Figure 4). Figure 4. Percentage of family types in Hanku, Jumla by ethnicity in 2014. The average family household size of Hanku was five people. As expected, joint families had larger families with an average of seven members compared to an average of four in nuclear families. Dalit families, both nuclear and joint, were larger than other ethnicities (Table 3). Migration is less common for families in Hanku compared to the project sites in Dolakha and Lamjung. Over a quarter of households had family members migrating outside the village (Table 3). Most of the migrants were men and around half of the migrants were away for more than 6 months at a time (Figure 5). Migration in Dalit families was found to be more common with over half of the surveyed households reporting migration. Surkhet in Nepal and India are the common destination for migration. Table 3. Family and migration details of households in Hanku in 2014 Family size* Brahmin Chettri / Thakuri Dalit Total Nuclear 3.94 ± 0.32 3.78 ± 0.29 4.5 ± 0.19 4.11 ± 0.16 Joint 7.00 ± 0.71 6.60 ± 0.39 7.66 ± 0.87 7.25 ± 0.48 Total 5.20 ± 0.44 4.52 ± 0.37 5.85 ± 0.46 5.32 ± 0.27 Migrants** Male 6 5 9 20 (24) Female 1 0 1 2 (2) Total 7 5 10 22 (27) Note: Figure in parenthesis are percentages of the total surveyed households. *Family size in average family size ± SE (Standard error of mean) **Migrants in number of households with migrating family members 59 74 57 61 41 26 43 39 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% Brahmin Chettri/Thakuri Dalit Total Nuclear Joint Baseline Survey Report: III. Hanku, Jumla. Integrating Traditional Crop Genetic Diversity into Technology: Using a Biodiversity Portfolio Approach to Buffer against Unpredictable Environmental Change in the Nepal Himalayas, 2016. 13 Figure 5. Migrant workers from Hanku VDC are predominantly men. Agriculture remains the primary occupation of most families (83%) in Hanku with the rest identifying business, job/service and agricultural labour as their primary occupation (Figure 6). None of the respondents mentioned medicinal herb collection as their main occupation. Despite over a quarter of households having migrant family members (Table 3), none of them considered remittance as the primary income. Figure 6. Primary occupation of households in Hanku in 2014. 83 74 89 83 15 9 7 17 11 9 3 1 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% Brahmin Chettri/Thakuri Dalit Total Agriculture/Livestock Business Job/Service Agriculture Labour Non-agriculture Labour Remittance Herbs Collection Baseline Survey Report: III. Hanku, Jumla. Integrating Traditional Crop Genetic Diversity into Technology: Using a Biodiversity Portfolio Approach to Buffer against Unpredictable Environmental Change in the Nepal Himalayas, 2016. 14 Joint household level decision making in terms of agriculture is the most common practice for all ethnicities in Hanku. Interestingly, none of the surveyed Chettri/Thakuri households had women as decision makers, while Dalit households had twice as many women decision makers as men (Figure 7). Nearly 50% of Dalit households had migrant men, perhaps leading to women taking decision making roles. Figure 7. Gender of decision makers at the household level on farming matters in Hanku. In terms of agricultural resources, Brahmin, Chettri and Thakuri families had above average khet land and bari land in their family ownership while the Dalit families had less than average khet and bari land of their own. However, in terms of farm labour, both Dalit and Brahmin households had similar number of working farmer members, while the Chettri/Thakuri families, who tend to have smaller families in Hanku, had less than the average (Table 4). Table 4. Household agricultural resources in Hanku in 2014 Farm labour* Brahmin Chettri / Thakuri Dalit Total Male 1.46 ± 0.22 (97) 1.07 ± 0.07 (100) 1.47 ± 0.13 (100) 1.39 ± 0.10 (99) Female 1.57 ± 0.2 (90) 1.21 ± 0.09 (68) 1.48 ± 0.15 (97) 1.45 ± 0.09 (88) Khet land** Family ownership 3.59 ± 0.48 (100) 2.89 ± 0.35 (100) 1.68 ± 0.18 (97) 2.64 ± 0.22 (100) Shared-in 1.2 ± 0.12 (24) 2.40 ± 0 (11) 1.4 ± 0.13 (34) 1.42 ± 0.11 (26) Share-out 5.2 ± 0 (3) 5.2 ± 0 (1) Leased-in 1.2 ± 0.23 (10) 1 ± 0.2 (11) 1.2 ± 0.23 (9) 1.15 ± 0.11 (10) Leased-out Fallow 0.9 ± 0.3 (14) 2.1 ± 0.9 (11) 0.63 ± 0.1 (11) 1.03 ± 0.25 (12) Bari land** Family ownership 3.28 ± 0.3 (100) 3.72 ± 0.74 (95) 2.96 ± 0.31 (100) 3.24 ± 0.23 (99) Shared-in 1.5 ± 0 (7) 1.50 ± 0 (2) 24 21 14 19 24 0 31 22 52 79 54 59 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% Brahmin Chettri/Thakuri Dalit Total Male Female Both Baseline Survey Report: III. Hanku, Jumla. Integrating Traditional Crop Genetic Diversity into Technology: Using a Biodiversity Portfolio Approach to Buffer against Unpredictable Environmental Change in the Nepal Himalayas, 2016. 15 Shared-out Rented-in 0.75 ± 0 (3) 0.75 ± 0 (1) Rented-out Fallow 1.12 ± 0.37 (7) 1.50 ± 0 (11) 1.7 ± 0.33 (14) 1.52 ± 0.2 (11) Orchard** 1.58 ± 0.25 (69) 1.5 ± 0.22 (84) 1.17 ± 0.13 (54) 1.41 ± 0.12 (66) Kharbari** Family ownership 1.32 ± 0.17 (14) 1.28 ± 0.42 (42) 1.41 ± 0.22 (31) 1.35 ± 0.17 (28) Fallow Kharbari 2.62 ± 0.37 (6) 2.62 ± 0.37 (2) Av. Family owned 8.35±0.77 8.23±1.14 5.68±0.52 7.13 ± 0.45 Av. Family cultivated 7.95±0.76 7.85±1.06 5.39±0.50 6.77 ± 0.43 Note: Figure in parenthesis are percentages of the total surveyed households. * Average HH ± SE (Standard error of mean) **Average HH Area ± SE (Standard error of mean) Orchard area is becoming increasingly common among people in Hanku due to interventions of local government and non- government organizations. Apple is cultivated by 69% of the surveyed households and is the major commercial fruit grown in Hanku. Walnuts and peach are the other major fruits. Since the canopy cover of walnut is larger than apple, farmers prefer to have a few more apple trees in the orchard than walnut. Apricot, chuli, mol, plum, pear and grapes are grown by very few households in Hanku (Table 5). Table 5. Fruits grown in Households in Hanku in 2014 Fruit Brahmin Chettri / Thakuri Dalit Total Apple 47 ± 9 66 ± 17 50 ± 8 53 ± 6 (69) Walnut 7 ± 2 7 ± 3 5 ± 2 6 ± 1 (43) Peach 7 ± 2 5 ± 1 2 ± 1 5 ± 1 (37) Pear 4 ± 1 3 ± 2 2 ± 0 3 ± 1 (8) Plum 4 ± 2 2 ± 1 3 ± 0 3 ± 1 (12) Apricot 2 ± 1 0 ± 0 2 ± 1 2 ± 1 (8) Chuli (Prunus armeniaca L.) 0 ± 0 1 ± 0 2 ± 0 2 ± 0 (2) Grape 1 ± 0 1 ± 0 0 ± 0 1 ± 0 (4) Mol (Pyrus pashia L.) 0 ± 0 0 ± 0 1 ± 0 1 ± 0 (1) Note: All values in average number of plants ± SE Figure in parentheses are percentage of HHs growing the fruit out of total HHs surveyed. Cow and ox are the major livestock raised by 61% and 57% of the households respectively while buffaloes are not common (Table 6). Cows are mostly used for milk and manure whereas ox are used for draught power and manure. Goats are raised by about a quarter of the households and more commonly by Dalits. Horses are mostly raised for business by Chettri/Thakuri and Brahmans. Sheep are also raised in large number by very few people in Hanku mostly by Chettri /Thakuri for business and wool. During festival or event sheep are also sold for meat purpose in market which is the economical business for them. Only one of the surveyed households had a bee hive, which shows that bees are not very common in Hanku. However, based on discussions with the communities, bees used to be much more common in the past and has now decreased as people did not find any immediate benefit of keeping them. Baseline Survey Report: III. Hanku, Jumla. Integrating Traditional Crop Genetic Diversity into Technology: Using a Biodiversity Portfolio Approach to Buffer against Unpredictable Environmental Change in the Nepal Himalayas, 2016. 16 Table 6. Household ownership of animal resources in Hanku in 2014 Animal resources* Brahmin Chettri / Thakuri Dalit Total Bee boxes 2 ± 0 (3) - - 2 ± 0 (1) Buffalo 1.25 ± 0.25 (14) 1.5 ± 0.5 (11) 1.16 ± 0.16 (17) 1.25 ± 0.13 (14) Cow 3.26 ± 0.33 (66) 3.09 ± 0.57 (58) 2.85 ± 0.39 (60) 3.05 ± 0.23 (61) Goat 4.8 ± 2.57 (17) 2 ± 0 (5) 4.83 ± 1.39 (34) 4.66 ± 1.13 (22) Horse 2.2 ± 0.58 (17) 2 ± 0.44 (26) 3 ± 0 (3) 2.18 ± 0.32 (13) Ox 2 ± 0.15 (55) 2.1 ± 0.31 (53) 1.76 ± 0.18 (60) 1.91 ± 0.11 (57) Poultry 5.5 ± 0.5 (7) 5.16 ± 1.51 (32) 2.66 ± 0.66 (9) 4.54 ± 0.88 (13) Rabbit 5 ± 0 (3) 4 ± 0 (5) 2 ± 0 (3) 3.66 ± 0.88 (4) Sheep 50 ± 0 (3) 27.50 ± 2.50 (11) 9 ± 1 (6) 24.6 ± 7.62 (6) Note: Figures in parenthesis are percentages of the total surveyed households *Average number of animals per HH Rice, barley and finger millet are the major cereal crops grown in Hanku. Beans is also a major crop grown in Hanku and mostly consumed as dry pulse crop rather than green vegetable. Average food sufficiency for cereal crops and pulses is less than six months for households in Hanku, which also points to the widely known high food insufficiency in the region (Table 7). Similar to ownership of agricultural area, Dalit households have lower food sufficiency than other ethnicities for all food groups. Leafy and other vegetables are sufficient only for less than or equal to three months except for Chettri/Thakuri ethnic groups. Limited seasonal vegetables used to be grown in Hanku but these days, off-season vegetables are also grown by some families with support from various government and non-government organizations. Table 7. Food sufficiency in Hanku in 2014 Food self-sufficiency* Brahmin Chettri / Thakuri Dalit Total Cereal 6.31 ± 0.56 7.73 ± 0.72 3.67 ± 0.29 5.52 ± 0.33 Leafy vegetables 3.80 ± 0.46 4 ± 0.63 3.21 ± 0.43 3.59 ± 0.28 Other vegetables 3.42 ± 0.35 5.27 ± 1.04 3.04 ± 0.34 3.61 ± 0.30 Pulses 6.55 ± 0.76 8.55 ± 0.92 4.16 ± 0.57 5.99 ± 0.45 * Average month within a year ± SE 4.2 Cropping Pattern and Crop Calendar The farming systems of Hanku include integration of crops, livestock and forestry. Rice, maize, wheat, barley, finger millet and beans are the major crops in Hanku. Buckwheat, potato, amaranth, foxtail millet, proso millet, soybean, blackgram and horsegram are minor crops. Rice in summer/rainy season and barley in winter is a major cropping pattern adapted in khet land (paddy land). In bari (upland), finger millet or beans followed by barley is commonly practiced (Table 8). Table 8. Major cropping pattern in Hanku Type of agricultural land Major cropping pattern Lowland (sim) Rice – Barren Lowland (khet) Rice (+ Soybean along border) – Barley Rice (+ Soybean along border) – Potato Baseline Survey Report: III. Hanku, Jumla. Integrating Traditional Crop Genetic Diversity into Technology: Using a Biodiversity Portfolio Approach to Buffer against Unpredictable Environmental Change in the Nepal Himalayas, 2016. 17 Finger millet (+ Foxtail millet intercropped + amaranths in border) – Barley Finger millet – Barren Upland (bari) Beans – Barley Beans – Wheat Finger millet – Barren Finger millet – Barley Maize – Barren Potato – Barley Proso millet – Barley Crop such as rice, naked barley and barley have longest cropping period at around seven months whereas crop such as bean and buckwheat have short cropping period at around four months (Figure 8).   Cropping system: Finger millet and foxtail millet intercropping with amaranth in the border. Photo: Subash Gautam, LI-BIRD Cropping system: Rice + Soybean in the border. Photo: Photo: Subash Gautam, LI-BIRD Baseline Survey Report: III. Hanku, Jumla. Integrating Traditional Crop Genetic Diversity into Technology: Using a Biodiversity Portfolio Approach to Buffer against Unpredictable Environmental Change in the Nepal Himalayas, 2016. 18 Figure 8. Seasonal cropping calendar of the project’s mandate crops in Hanku. 4.3 Amount and Distribution of Crop Genetic Diversity in Mandate Crops Information on varietal diversity of mandate crops in the project site has been collected using a variety of methods. A comparison of these methods in Jumla shows that diversity fair captured the greatest richness of varieties, while household survey and site selection exercise brought up the least number of varieties (Table 9). Since diversity fair in Jumla was organized at district level, 13 CSBs in Jumla participated in the fair and as a result more names of local varieties were mentioned and displayed. Also, in preparation for a diversity fair, farmers seek out and collect even the rarest of varieties, which may not be sampled in the sampling process of a household survey. Greatest discrepancy appeared in beans, while comparing information collected from district level diversity fair and other methods. Local names of beans identified by farmers differed a lot from person to person, which partially explains the inflation of variety names in diversity fair. Moreover, farmers cultivate and harvest beans in mixture traditionally, which means they hardly differentiate between beans varieties and their names. This leads to farmers naming the beans in their individual way. Table 9. Varietal richness of mandate crops in Hanku as assessed by various methods Crop Site selection exercise in 2014 Diversity fair in 2015 Diversity fair (Hanku only) FGDs in 2014/15 Baseline Survey in 2014 Cumulative Total Amaranth 2 (2) 5 (5)* 2 (2) 3 (3) 4 (4) 5 (5) Barley 1 (1) 4 (4)* 1 (1) 2 (2) 1 (1) 4 (4) Bean 5 (5) 28 (25)* 13 (13) 13 (13) 11 (10) 32 (29) Buckwheat 3 (3) 6 (6)* 4 (4) 5 (5) 3 (3) 7 (7) Finger millet 2 (2) 5 (5)* 3 (3) 4 (4) 3 (3) 6 (6) Foxtail millet 2 (2) 5 (5)* 3 (3) 4 (4) 4 (4) 6 (6) Naked barley - 3 (2)* - - - 3 (2) Proso millet 2 (2) 3 (3)* 1 (1) 2 (2) 2 (2) 3 (3) Rice 4 (2) 9 (5)* 4 (2) 7 (5) 6 (4) 10 (6) Total Richness 21 (19) 68 (60) 31 (29) 40 (38) 34 (31) 76 (68) * Indicates the highest richness among the methods used. Figure in parenthesis is the richness of local varieties. Baseline Survey Report: III. Hanku, Jumla. Integrating Traditional Crop Genetic Diversity into Technology: Using a Biodiversity Portfolio Approach to Buffer against Unpredictable Environmental Change in the Nepal Himalayas, 2016. 19 Among the mandate crops, rice is the most widely cultivated crop (100% of the surveyed households) in largest average area of 2.57 ropani per household (Table 10). Barley (2.2 ropani per HH) is another major crop grown in larger average area followed by beans (1.88 ropani per HH) and finger millet (1.03 ropani per HH). Amaranth and foxtail millet had the least average area under cultivation as many households grow amaranth as a border crop and foxtail millet is intercropped very sparsely with finger millet. Buckwheat and proso millet are cultivated in larger land parcels but by fewer households. Amaranth had highest productivity (345.18 kg/ropani) but this is likely affected the crude estimation of area planted. Among the more commonly grown crops, rice had the highest productivity (187.01 kg/ropani), followed by barley (101.87 kg/ropani) and finger millet (90.18 kg/ropani) . Table 10. Household and Community richness and evenness of mandate crops Crop Area ± SE (Ropani) Productivity** (kg/Ropani) # HHs (%) Avg. HH richness ± SE Community richness Avg. HH Evenness Amaranth 0.027 ± 0.004 345.18± 113.05 25 (30) 1.08 ± 0.06 4 0.040 Barley 2.20 ± 0.15 101.87 ± 5.35 81 (98) 1.00 ± 0.00 1 0.000 Bean 1.88 ± 0.14 49.84 ± 3.86 82 (99) 2.10 ± 0.14 11 0.336 Buckwheat 0.69 ± 0.09 43.99 ± 11.35 17 (20) 1.12 ± 0.08 3 0.059 Finger Millet 1.03 ± 0.09 90.18 ± 7.11 74 (89) 1.00 ± 0.00 3 0.000 Foxtail Millet 0.07 ± 0.02 2.24E2 ± 88.39 8 (10) 1.00 ± 0.00 4 0.000 Naked Barley* - - - - - - Proso Millet 0.95 ± 0.18 33.96 ± 11.07 4 (5) 1.25 ± 0.25 2 0.125 Rice 2.57 ± 0.18 187.01 ± 6.29 83 (100) 1.49 ± 0.07 6 0.187 Note: Figures in parenthesis are HH percentages of their respective columns. *Cultivation of naked barley (uwa) is not reported from the site. ** Average productivity in Kg per ropani ± SE 4.3.1 Amaranth Amaranth (Amaranthus spp.) is known as marshe in Jumla. Amaranth is cultivated by 30% of the surveyed households in Hanku in 2014 (Table 11). Grain color and inflorescence attitude tend to be used by farmers to distinguish between varieties. It is grown by farmers as border/edge crops especially around finger millet. There are several reasons mentioned by farmers for growing amaranth in border. It demarcates one farmer’s land from another farmer’s. It is an attractive plant and does well as a border/edge crop. The average area per household is low compared to other crops. Based on existing cultivation practice perimeter would be a better measure of amaranth population than area. For the survey, respondents were asked to approximate how much area the crop would cover if it was grown in a plot. Hence, the area and therefore productivity of amaranth is an approximation, at best. Table 11. Amaranth varieties, their area, productivity and key traits grown in Hanku VDC Variety Area per HH (Ropani) Productivity* (kg/Ropani) %HH Four cell analysis Key distinguishing traits Functional traits Ladi 0.033 ± 0.000 135.60 ± 75.33 2 Few HHs in small area Drooping inflorescence; white seeds High yield and late maturing Lal (Rato) 0.022 ± 0.005 343.32 ± 212.75 13 Many HHs in small area Erect inflorescence, red grain High yielding, early maturity Seto 0.027 ± 0.007 229.14 ± 87.85 12 Many HHs in small area Erect inflorescence; red plant and white seeds High yield Note: Data for area per HH, productivity, and % HH are from the baseline survey conducted with 83 households in Hanku. Information on key distinguishing traits and functional traits was gathered from the site selection report, four cell analysis, and diversity fair. *Amaranth Productivity: While amaranth is grown as a border crop the respondents were asked to estimate the area the seed would cover if grown in a plot. Hence, the area and productivity of amaranth is a crude approximation. Since variety Lal and Rato was found to be same vaiety during the FGD made for validation of the data their average data is taken. Baseline Survey Report: III. Hanku, Jumla. Integrating Traditional Crop Genetic Diversity into Technology: Using a Biodiversity Portfolio Approach to Buffer against Unpredictable Environmental Change in the Nepal Himalayas, 2016. 20 4.3.2 Barley Hulled barley (Hordeum vulgare L.; local name: jau) is a commonly grown winter crop in most parts of Jumla including Hanku (Table 12). Although four local landraces of barley (Chawali, Lekali, Bhuwali and Pawai) have been documented by previous studies in Jumla (Bajracharaya et al. 2012) only Chawali was found in Hanku. Chawali is mainly grown in irrigated rice field during winter season and some time in upland too. It has small spike and short maturity period. Harvested barley is typically stored on the top of the roof as a heap (Photo 3). Table 12. Varieties of barley, their area, productivity, and percent households growing in Hanku VDC Variety Area per HH (Ropani) Productivity (kg/Ropani) %HH Four cell analysis Key distinguishing traits Functional traits Chawali 2.20 ± 0.15 101.87 ± 5.35 98 Many HHs in large area Round white grains Soft and good eating quality, early maturity Note: Data for area per HH, productivity, and % HH are from the baseline survey conducted with 83 households in Hanku. Information on key distinguishing traits and functional traits was gathered from the site selection report, four cell analysis, and diversity fair. 4.3.3 Naked Barley Hulless or naked barley (H. vulgare L. var. nudum Hook. f.; local name: uwa) is a type of barley that has a covering or hull so loose that it usually falls off during harvesting. It is rare throughout Jumla and was not observed in Hanku VDC by this study. Although naked barley is easy to thresh, it matures later than barley and thus delays the rice and bean cropping season. The small Mugal community are the ones who grow naked barley in Jumla. Farmers from the Mugal community have mentioned that naked barley is a very easy crop to process and nutritious because the bran and germ are retained. The Mugal are the people from Mugu that migrated to Jumla. They reside in about six VDCs of Jumla, namely, Patarasi, Dillichaur, Chumchaur, Garjyankot, Guthichaur, and Chandannath Municipality. Naked barley used to be cultivated in larger area in Chaudabis area (close to Patarasi himal). Nowadays in Jumla, it is hard to find naked barley even in Chaudabis area. Brahmin and Chettri farmers do not cultivate naked barley in Jumla, although some recall their parents used to cultivate naked barley in small areas. Consumption of sattu, a drink made from the flour of roasted barley and other grains such as soybeans, is not common among Brahmins and Chettri. They instead mostly cultivate hulled barley to be used for preparing roti and feed for livestock. In Talium, only two or three households cultivate naked barley, and they had to bring seeds from Dolpa. They started cultivating naked barley as they became more aware about cultivation and conservation of local crops. It appears that farmers have difficulty accessing naked barley seed even if they were interested in growing it. 4.3.4 Buckwheat Buckwheat, commonly known as phapar is grown in upland areas (bari). Two species of buckwheat are grown in Hanku, one is Mithe (Fagopyrum esculentum L.) and the other is Tite (Fagopyrum tataricum L.). Although seven landraces of buckwheat were documented from different methods, only three landraces of two types of buckwheat were found to be grown in Hanku (Table 13). Tite phapar is more popular in Hanku because it has better yield than Mithe phapar. Compared to the other major upland crop finger millet, productivity of buckwheat is low and post-harvest processing is more difficult. Buckwheat is grown by 20% of the surveyed households on Hanku VDC. Buckwheat used to be grown in larger areas, but these days its cultivation has shrunk. New roads have improved people’s access to cheap white rice and the consumption of buckwheat flatbread has declined. In some farms buckwheat is still grown to be consumed leafy greens. Baseline Survey Report: III. Hanku, Jumla. Integrating Traditional Crop Genetic Diversity into Technology: Using a Biodiversity Portfolio Approach to Buffer against Unpredictable Environmental Change in the Nepal Himalayas, 2016. 21 Table 13. Varieties of buckwheat, their area, productivity, and percent households growing in Hanku VDC Variety Area per HH (Ropani) Productivity (kg/Ropani) %HH Four cell analysis Key distinguishing traits Functional traits Chuche 0.58 ± 0.18 42.17 ± 32.83 2 Common Pointed triangular grans Bitterness Mithe 0.48 ± 0.12 38.50 ± 24.62 5 Few HHs in small area Triangular smooth and big grain Good taste, medicinal value, low production, prestigious Tite 0.69 ± 0.09 42.72 ± 13.02 12 Common Taller plant, elongated triangular grains Bitterness, early maturity, medicinal value, low production, low flour recovery Note: Data for area per HH, productivity, and % HH are from the baseline survey conducted with 83 households in Hanku. Information on key distinguishing traits and functional traits was gathered from the site selection report, four cell analysis, and diversity fair. 4.3.5 Rice Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is grown in low land areas (khet) in Hanku mainly along the banks of the Tila and Gidi rivers. Growing rice is attached with high traditional and cultural values of farmers in Jumla. Rice cultivation practices in Jumla follows fixed date and procedures. For instance, rice seeds need to be soaked on Chaitra 12 (late March). Seeds of rice are kept in a plastic sack and left to soak for four days either in the river or at home. Seeds are soaked to increase moisture content and aid in germination. In past, soaking in the river was more common. Soaking in the river is also intended to provide cold adaptation but these days some farmers choose to soak at home as they think that cold river water delays the germination. After soaking, excess water is drained and the seeds are dried in the sun for few hours. After drying, seeds are kept in warm area of their home for four days, sometimes wrapped in the papery bark of Betula utilis (bhoj patra)12. During this period of four days, they frequently spray some water to maintain the moisture and turn the seeds over. This involved practice is believed to improve the germination of seeds. The nursery bed is prepared by applying ashes of dried cow dung disks (guitha) one to two times. The soaked and sprouted seeds are broadcast on wet nursery bed. After approximately 60 days these seedling is transplanted in the field. Similar practice has been described by Paudel (2013). The productivity of rice is on higher side than average of Jumla. It is because, rice fields are the fertile land of banks of Giri khola, has higher productivity than other areas in Jumla. Farmers have also mentioned that productivity has increased with increase in cultivation of improved varieties. However, these improved varieties are difficult to thresh and poor taste. Locals in Jumla prefer Jumli Marshi, a cold tolerant variety of rice with characteristic red grain colour, for its taste and require it for rituals and social events. Jumli Marshi is known for growing at the highest elevations in the world in Chhumchaur VDC (3000 meters above sea level). In Hanku, 87% of households grow Jumli Marshi. However, due to its blast susceptibility, alternative varieties mostly improved such as Chandannath-1 and 3 are grown by 23-24% households (Table 14). Table 14. Varieties of rice, their area, productivity, and percent households growing in Hanku VDC Variety Area per HH (Ropani) Productivity (kg/Ropani) %HH Four cell analysis Key distinguishing traits Functional traits Chandannath-1 0.94 ± 0.17 168.30 ± 14.17 24 Many HHs in small area Black grain color, shorter plant height Higher yield, harder to thresh, good eating quality Chandannath-3 1.11 ± 0.16 208.30 ± 18.94 23 Many HHs in small area White grain color, longer leaves Higher yield, rise in quantity while cooking, not good to taste, harder to thresh, disease and pest tolerant, resists hailstones 12 Bhoj-Patra (Betula utilis L.) is a birch tree widely found in the Himalayas, well-known for the use of its bark and leaves for writing in ancient Hindu books. Baseline Survey Report: III. Hanku, Jumla. Integrating Traditional Crop Genetic Diversity into Technology: Using a Biodiversity Portfolio Approach to Buffer against Unpredictable Environmental Change in the Nepal Himalayas, 2016. 22 Darime 2.00 ± 0.69 254.17 ± 60.52 3 Few HHs in large area Shorter plant, bold red grains Resistant to hailstones, good eating quality Jumli Marshi 2.16 ± 0.16 185.10 ± 7.05 87 Many HHs in Large area Red (some mixed with white) and bold grain Best eating quality, adilo (longer stay in stomach, delay in appetite), susceptible to disease, easy to thresh Melte 2.00 ± 0.00 150.0 ± 0.00 1 Few HHs in small area Red and bold grain Best eating quality, adilo (longer stay in stomach, delay in appetite), susceptible to disease, easy to thresh Tinmase 2.00 ± 0.00 150.0 ± 0.00 1 Few HHs in large area Red and bold grain, small plant height Early maturity Note: Data for area per HH, productivity, and % HH are from the baseline survey conducted with 83 households in Hanku. Information on key distinguishing traits and functional traits was gathered from the site selection report, four cell analysis, and diversity fair. 4.3.6 Finger Millet Finger millet (Elusine coracana L.), commonly known as kodo in Nepali is also one of the major crops grown in Hanku. A landrace Rato kodo is cultivated by more farmers compared to other varieties and has good yield (Table 15). Finger millet in Hanku is cultivated by two different methods; direct seeding and transplanting. In some fields, finger millet is seeded and left for germination. This type requires the land to be empty earlier than the other type. Transplanting of finger millet is also done in areas where the land is empty in smaller area. Table 15. Varieties of finger millet, their area, productivity, and percent households growing in Hanku VDC Variety Area per HH (Ropani) Productivity (kg/Ropani) %HH Four cell analysis Key distinguishing traits Functional traits Kalo 0.83 ± 0.22 80.97 ± 34.91 6 More HHs in small area Reddish hint on stem and leaves, black grain Early maturity, good eating quality, medicinal value Murali 1.05 ± 0.22 98.40 ± 24.09 9 Few HHs in small area Shorter plant height, white grains Good eating quality Rato 1.05 ± 0.10 89.86 ± 7.52 59 More HHs in large area Green plants Stem preferred by livestock, red bread and good taste Note: Data for area per HH, productivity, and % HH are from the baseline survey conducted with 83 households in Hanku. Information on key distinguishing traits and functional traits was gathered from the site selection report, four cell analysis, and diversity fair. 4.3.7 Proso Millet Proso millet (Panicum milliaceum L.) is called chino in local language and it is grown for its grains which is used to prepare bhaat (grains cooked as rice is cooked), roti, chiura (flattened grains) and selroti. Only 5% of surveyed households grow porso millet (Table 16) in Hanku. Dudhe proso millet was found to be more common than Haade because it is tastier and easy for dehusking. Cultivation of proso millet is decreasing as farmers do not consider it to be a valuable crop. In the past, women would eat bhaat of proso millet so that men would have enough rice. With better access to rice and wheat, the whole family can now eat flatbread or rice. There is currently little demand in the local market and limited consumption at home. Proso millet can grow well in drought condition but post-harvest grain processing is difficult and time consuming for women. Baseline Survey Report: III. Hanku, Jumla. Integrating Traditional Crop Genetic Diversity into Technology: Using a Biodiversity Portfolio Approach to Buffer against Unpredictable Environmental Change in the Nepal Himalayas, 2016. 23 Table 16. Varieties of proso millet, their area, productivity and percent households growing in Hanku VDC Variety Area per HH (Ropani) Productivity (kg/Ropani) %HH Four cell analysis Key distinguishing traits Functional traits Dudhe 0.85 ± 0.23 33.96 ± 11.07 4 Few HHs in small area Smaller panicle, shorter plant, white grain color Better in taste and cooking quality Haade 0.40 ± 0.00 62.50 ± 0.00 1 Few HHs in small area Larger panicle and grain size, yellowish orange grain color Better for roasting and high yield Note: Data for area per HH, productivity, and % HH are from the baseline survey conducted with 83 households in Hanku. Information on key distinguishing traits and functional traits was gathered from the site selection report, four cell analysis, and diversity fair. 4.3.8 Foxtail Millet Foxtail millet (Setaria italic L.) or kaguno is grown for its nutritious grains which are used to prepare as bhaat. Only 10% of surveyed households grow foxtail millet in Hanku (Table 17). Usually, foxtail millet is seeded during the time of seeding of finger millet and is often grown intercropped with finger millet. Therefore, in fields where finger millet is transplanted, foxtail millet is not grown. Farmers mentioned that when foxtail millet is intercropped with finger millet, it does not lodge and performs well. Foxtail millet grown in high density does not yield very well. Rato foxtail millet is grown by five households in Hanku. Only one household was found to cultivate varieties like Aulel, Lude, and Seto. Cultivation of foxtail millet is declining as majority of local people do not consume it as much as they used to do in the past. Table 17. Varieties of foxtail millet, their area, productivity and percent households growing in Hanku VDC Variety Area per HH (Ropani) Productivity (kg/Ropani) %HH Four cell analysis Key distinguishing traits Functional traits Aulel 0.038 ± 0.00 1.33 ± 0.00 1 Few HHs in small area Pale yellow grains Early maturity Lude 0.23 ± 0.00 2.22 ± 0.00 1 Few HHs in small area Yellowish grains Small panicle Rato 0.04 ± 0.06 1.68 ± 45.23 5 Few HHs in small area Red grains Medicinal value (dadura) Seto 0.08 ± 0.00 8.00 ± 0.00 1 Few HHs in small area White grains Late maturing Note: Data for area per HH, productivity, and % HH are from the baseline survey conducted with 83 households in Hanku. Information on key distinguishing traits and functional traits was gathered from the site selection report, four cell analysis, and diversity fair. 4.3.9 Beans Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) is a major grain legume (pulses) of this region and is grown for both consumption and commercial purpose. Although 28 varieties of beans were documented during district wide diversity fair, the baseline survey responses recorded community richness of only eleven varieties (Table 10). Beans are traditionally grown as a mixture of different varieties, harvested together and sold or consumed in mixture. However, there are also some of the varieties that are grown separately as they differ in maturity time compared to other varieties. Rato and Kalo beans are most common in Hanku as these are the local varieties and have better eating quality (Table 18). Population of Rato bean has been purified by NARC Jumla Station as PB0002. There may be more varieties of beans in Hanku than farmers can actually name. As beans are grown in mixture, farmers do not separate them and give separate names for different varieties, and this is also one of the reasons why usually they come up with only names of two most common varieties by grain colour (rato and kalo) even though their mixture may contain more varieties Baseline Survey Report: III. Hanku, Jumla. Integrating Traditional Crop Genetic Diversity into Technology: Using a Biodiversity Portfolio Approach to Buffer against Unpredictable Environmental Change in the Nepal Himalayas, 2016. 24 in terms of shape, size and weight. In comparison, when preparing for diversity fair, farmers look for diversity and it is possible to farmers from different villages to come up with different names even for the same components of their mixture. Since beans are also cultivated for commercial purpose, a lot of upland areas where proso millet and buckwheat used to be grown are now replaced by bean cultivation and apple orchards. Table 18. Varieties of beans, their area, productivity and percent households growing in Hanku VDC Variety Area per HH (Ropani) Productivity (kg/Ropani) %HH Four cell analysis Key distinguishing traits Functional traits Bhote 1.00 ± 0.00 26.50 ± 6.50 2 Few HHs in small area White and light pink seed, round shape Drought tolerant Kalo 0.96 ± 0.11 49.59 ± 4.90 37 Few HHs in large area Black grain Low yielding, tasty Kalo Kirbire 1.10 ± 0.60 50.20 ± 3.14 2 Few HHs in large area Black seed with white spots Good eating quality, drought tolerant Kirbire 1.24 ± 0.34 62.17 ± 21.15 5 More HHs in large area Spotted bean High yielding, good eating quality Lamre 0.75 ± 0.00 44.00 ± 0.00 1 Few HHs in small area Flat shaped pod and seed, Black Vegetable purpose Maale 0.69 ± 0.12 34.25 ± 5.27 4 More HHs in large area Spotted High yielding, good eating quality PB0002 1.50 ± 0.00 40.00 ± 0.00 1 More HHs in small area Big red grain High yielding, consumable green pods Rajma 0.62 ± 0.06 54.29 ± 20.00 3 Few HHs in small area Red and white spotted seed, kidney shaped Low yielding Rato 1.12 ± 0.09 52.75 ± 4.36 72 More HHs in large area Red colored flower pod and seed Preferred for making soup Rato Kirbire 0.43 ± 0.04 90.36 ± 19.42 3 More HHs in small area Red colored seed with white spot High yield Seto 0.76 ± 0.16 37.44 ± 9.07 7 Few HHs in small area White seed Low yielding Ralibali/ Chyasmisse (Mix) 2.04 ± 0.73 36.55 ± 5.09 7 More HHs in more area Mixed population of variable seed colour, shape, size and weight Good taste, drought tolerant Note: Data for area per HH, productivity, and % HH are from the baseline survey conducted with 83 households in Hanku. Information on key distinguishing traits and functional traits was gathered from the site selection report, four cell analysis, and diversity fair. 4.4 Use of Amaranth and Buckwheat as Green Vegetable Amaranth and buckwheat are crops that are also cultivated for leafy greens in many parts of Nepal. In Hanku however, amaranth is cultivated mainly for grain. Green leaves of wild amaranth is consumed by 30% of the households and there is no selling or buying of leafy vegetable of amaranth (Figure 9). Farmers do not consume greens of cultivated amaranth and they are also not aware of this use. In case of buckwheat, 86% of the respondents mentioned consumption of buckwheat as leafy green vegetable although the number of farmers growing buckwheat is less. Most of the respondents might have answered consumption of buckwheat as they have consumed buckwheat greens at some point of their life although they do not cultivate it themselves. Very few farmers buy buckwheat from market. Usually people get buckwheat leafy greens from their neighbors or relatives who grow buckwheat. Baseline Survey Report: III. Hanku, Jumla. Integrating Traditional Crop Genetic Diversity into Technology: Using a Biodiversity Portfolio Approach to Buffer against Unpredictable Environmental Change in the Nepal Himalayas, 2016. 25 Figure 9. Use of amaranth and buckwheat as leafy green vegetables. 4.5 Seed Sources and Management practices of Mandate Crops Farmers access seed through formal and the informal systems. A system is formal if seed in the system can be traced to who produced it and where. This is typically the case for certified seeds of notified varieties as they are sold with a label that allows for tracing to the source. On the other hand, a system is considered informal if the seeds are difficult to trace to the origin using a paper trail because they are not sold with a label. Seed can get to farmers through a variety of avenues. Agro-vets and public breeding programmes are more typical for formal seed system while farm saved seeds and farmer to farmer seed exchanges are more typical of informal seed systems. Local markets such as Haat Bazaar can be seed sources for both formal and informal sector depending on whether the seed is sold with or without label. The seed system of mandate crops in Hanku is mainly on informal. While eight different seed sources were recorded, 77% of the seeds planted were farm-saved seed (Table 19). This is comparable to seed source diversity of Jungu in Dolakha and more diverse than Ghanpokhara in Lamjung and Chippra in Humla. In Hanku, reliance on outside seed sources (not farm-saved) were similar between Brahmin, Chettri and Dalit households (Table 19). In other project sites, Dalit households relied more on outside source than the average. For amaranth, barley, buckwheat, finger millet, foxtail millet, and proso millet, all the seeds are informally sourced, almost exclusively as farm-saved or from the neighbours (Figure 10). Only rice and beans have greater diversity in terms of seed sources with agro-vet, government line agencies, local market (haat bazar) accounting for sourcing of 14% of beans and 23% of rice seeds. DADO in Jumla has been promoting improved varieties of rice and beans. 30 1 0 86 0 5 70 99 100 14 100 95 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 Consume Sell Buy Consume Sell Buy Amaranth Buckwheat % o f R es po nd en ts Respondents using Buckwheat and Amaranth as green leafy vegetables Yes No Baseline Survey Report: III. Hanku, Jumla. Integrating Traditional Crop Genetic Diversity into Technology: Using a Biodiversity Portfolio Approach to Buffer against Unpredictable Environmental Change in the Nepal Himalayas, 2016. 26 Figure 10. Seed source of mandate crops in Hanku. Table 19. Frequency of seed sources used by ethnicity for planting decisions in a year. Seed Source Brahmin Chettri/Thakuri Dalit Total Own saved 128 (79%) 72 (78%) 137 (76%) 337 (77%) Neighbours 16 (10%) 7 (8%) 22 (12%) 45 (10%) Government 11 (7%) 7 (8%) 10 (6%) 28 (6%) NGOs 5 (3%) 1 (1%) 6 (3%) 12 (3%) Relatives 1 (<1%) 5 (6%) 1 (<1%) 7 (2%) Haat bazaar 0 0 2 (1%) 2 (<1%) Agrovet 1 (<1%) 0 1 (<1%) 2 (<1%) Outside VDC 1 (<1%) 0 1 (<1%) 2 (<1%) Figure in parenthesis is the percentage of the ethnicity’s seed need met by the seed source. Seed management practices by farmers was studied based on practice of variety selection, seed access, seed selection, harvesting, cleaning, storing and germination testing of seeds. Traditional methods in seed management of mandate crops is prevalent in Hanku (Table 20). Usually seed selection is not given much priority mainly due to lack of awareness about the difference between seed and grain. Seeds are usually not separated from grains from selection to storage for most of the mandate crops except finger millet. The study shows that farmers have limited choice of varieties in mandate crops. Diversity in most of the mandate crops except beans is low and usually the choice is between few local landraces. The findings showed that farmers select variety for rice and finger millet, as these are major crops, though the selection/choice is limited within available diversity/landraces within community through exchange between neighbors and relatives. Harvesting is done manually with simple local tools like sickle. Threshing is also done manually using sticks or by rubbing by hand and/ or foot. Seed is dried under sun and is stored in traditional storage practices like dahara13, wooden bhakari (bamboo reeds) and copper vessels. Some crops are stored in sacks and plastic bags while others are hanged on ceiling and wall using ropes14 (Table 20). 13 Dahara is a earthen seed storage pot which is used traditionally to store seeds and grains of different crops through out Karnali region 14 Suppa is a bamboo made traditional open type basket which is often used by Jumli female for winnowing of the crop after harvest. They lift small heap of amaranth in suppa and drop down to the ground while air is blowing from one side so that the inert material get separated. 88 71 63 91 75 75 98 68 2 1 1 19 5 4 7 12 29 8 8 25 13 2 17 3 1 13 12 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% Amaranths Buckwheat Rice Finger Millet Foxtail Millet Proso Millet Barley Beans Own Source Haat Bazar Agrovet Government line Agency NGO Neighbor Relatives CSB Cooperatives Others (other village) Baseline Survey Report: III. Hanku, Jumla. Integrating Traditional Crop Genetic Diversity into Technology: Using a Biodiversity Portfolio Approach to Buffer against Unpredictable Environmental Change in the Nepal Himalayas, 2016. 27 Ta bl e 20 . S ee d m an ag em en t p ra cti ce s o f m an da te cro ps in H an ku Cr op s Va rie ty Ch oic e Se ed Ch oic e Se ed Se lec tio n Dr yin g Pr oc es sin g Re fin ing Sto ra ge Se ed M on ito rin g Ge rm ina tio n Te sti ng Se ed Ac ce ss/ Ex ch an ge Am ar an th M ain ly ra to ma rse is cu ltiv ate d Fa rm er s’ ow n- sa ve d s ee ds . No se pa ra te se lec tio n, wh ole pla nt/ yie ld is ha rve ste d Su n d rie d for 4- 5 da ys. Be ati ng by sti ck s ( als o ru bb ed by ha nd s). W inn ow ing by su pp a14 bh ak ar i, d he ha ri o r dh err a, sa ck - - - Ba rle y/ Na ke d Ba rle y On ly on e v ar iet y (C ha wa li) Fa rm er s’ ow n- sa ve d s ee ds . No se pa ra te se lec tio n, wh ole pla nt/ yie ld is ha rve ste d Su n d rie d for 4- 5 da ys. Be ati ng by sti ck s W inn ow ing by su pp a bh ak ar i, d he ha ri or dh err a, sa ck - - - Be an All va rie tie s t he y ha ve ar e c ult iva ted in mi xtu re . Fa rm er s’ ow n- sa ve d s ee ds . A nd so me tim es se ed s pr ov ide d b y G ov t. an d N GO s. No se pa ra te se lec tio n, wh ole pla nt/ yie ld is ha rve ste d Su n d rie d for 4- 5 da ys. Be ati ng by st ick s (so me tim es se pa ra ted by ha nd as w ell ). W inn ow ing by su pp a bh ak ar i, d he ha ri o r dh err a, sa ck ) - - Se ed s a re ex ch an ge d b etw ee n ne igh bo rs/ re lat ive s to ge t g oo d s ee ds . Bu ck wh ea t Am on g t wo lo ca l va rie tie s ( Tit e a nd M ith e) . M an y pr efe r T ite ov er oth er va rie tie s f or hig he r y iel d. Fa rm er s’ ow n- sa ve d s ee ds . No se pa ra te se lec tio n, wh ole pla nt/ yie ld is ha rve ste d Su n d rie d for 4- 5 da ys. Be ati ng by sti ck s W inn ow ing by su pp a bh ak ar i, d he ha ri o r dh err a, sa ck - - - Fin ge r M ille t Am on g t wo lo ca l va rie tie s ( Ka lo an d Ra to) . S om e p re fer Ra to Ko do ov er oth er va rie tie s f or hig he r y iel d. Fa rm er s’ ow n- sa ve d s ee ds . Be st pa nic les ar e s ele cte d an d h ar ve ste d se pa ra tel y o n fie ld. Su n d rie d for 4- 5 da ys. Be ati ng by sti ck s ( mu ng ro) W inn ow ing by su pp a bh ak ar i, d he ha ri o r dh err a, sa ck - - Se ed s a re ex ch an ge d b etw ee n ne igh bo rs/ re lat ive s to ge t g oo d s ee ds . Fo xta il mi lle t Jus t o ne va rie ty (cu ltiv ate w ha tev er va rie ty the y h av e) . Fa rm er s’ ow n- sa ve d s ee ds . No se pa ra te se lec tio n, wh ole pla nt/ yie ld is ha rve ste d Su n d rie d for 4- 5 da ys. Be ati ng by sti ck s ( als o ru bb ed by ha nd s). W inn ow ing by su pp a (b ha ka ri, dh eh ar i or dh err a, sa ck ). - - - Baseline Survey Report: III. Hanku, Jumla. Integrating Traditional Crop Genetic Diversity into Technology: Using a Biodiversity Portfolio Approach to Buffer against Unpredictable Environmental Change in the Nepal Himalayas, 2016. 28 Cr op s Va rie ty Ch oic e Se ed Ch oic e Se ed Se lec tio n Dr yin g Pr oc es sin g Re fin ing Sto ra ge Se ed M on ito rin g Ge rm ina tio n Te sti ng Se ed Ac ce ss/ Ex ch an ge Pr os o mi lle t Am on g t wo lo ca l va rie tie s ( ha ad e an d d ud he ). M an y pr efe r h aa de ov er oth er va rie tie s f or hig he r y iel d a nd les s s ha tte rin g. Fa rm er s’ ow n- sa ve d s ee ds . No se pa ra te se lec tio n, wh ole pla nt/ yie ld is ha rve ste d Su n d rie d for 4- 5 da ys. Ru bb ed by ha nd s/ leg s. W inn ow ing by su pp a (b ha ka ri, dh eh ar i or dh err a, sa ck ). - - - Ric e Th re e v ar iet ies ar e c om mo n: Jum li M ar sh i, Ch an da nn ath -1 an d Ch an da nn ath -3 . Fa rm er s u su all y pr efe r l oc al va rie ty (Ju ml i M ar sh i) ov er im pr ov ed on es as it tas tes be tte r a nd is ea sie r t o t hr es h. M os tly fa rm er 's us e t he ir ow n sa ve d s ee ds ; if t he y d ec ide to pla nt oth er va rie ty, th ey us ua lly ge t it fro m ne igh bo ur , re lat ive s a nd G O & N GO s. Se lec tio n i s us ua lly no t d on e (o nly w he n t he ir fie ld is de str oy ed by bl as t o r s om e oth er di se as e, the y s ea rch for se ed s f ro m ne igh bo rs) . All ha rve st is su n- dr ied 2- 3 d ay s be for e thr es hin g. By be ati ng bu nc he s o f tie d r ice st alk s on gr ou nd fo r Jum li M ar sh i or on ro ck s for im pr ov ed va rie tie s Cle an ed by wi nn ow ing by su pp a bh ak ar i, d he ha ri or dh err a, sa ck . Dh eh ar i a re us ua lly se ale d s o t ha t th e gra ins ar e s afe fro m mo us e a nd dh an pu tal i ( ric e mo th) . Us ua lly se ed s ar e n ot mo nit or ed ; ho we ve r du rin g sto ra ge so me ke ep po wd er of tite pa ti to pr ev en t ins ec ts/ pe sts Fo r r ice , ge rm ina tio n tes tin g i s do ne an d se ed s a re ke pt in nu rse ry be ds on ly aft er pr op er ge rm ina tio n. Se ed s a re ex ch an ge d b etw ee n ne igh bo rs/ re lat ive s to ge t g oo d s ee ds (e sp . w he n t he ir ric e t his ye ar ha s dis ea se ). Ne wl y es tab lis he d C SB bu t ha s n ot do ne m or e wo rk on ac ce ss. N o ag ro ve ts in the VD C. So urc e: Wa rd le vel co mm un ity gr ou p d isc us sio ns an d k ey inf orm an t in ter vie w 20 14 . Baseline Survey Report: III. Hanku, Jumla. Integrating Traditional Crop Genetic Diversity into Technology: Using a Biodiversity Portfolio Approach to Buffer against Unpredictable Environmental Change in the Nepal Himalayas, 2016. 29 4.6 Harvesting and Post-harvest Techniques of Mandate Crops Harvest and post-harvest handling of crops is traditional and vulnerable to pest infestation in Hanku. Indigenous knowledge on post-harvest handling and processing are summarized in Table 21. Most of the crops are harvested during September-October expect winter crops such as barley and naked barley (harvested in May-June). Farmers are very busy during the harvest season with involvement of all family members (men, women and even children) for major crops (rice and barley) in activities like harvesting and threshing while children help them in arranging rice stalks and carrying the harvest back home.