FOREWORD
The CGIAR Research Program on DRYLAND CEREALS (CRP 3.6) presented in this document is designed to achieve sustainable, farm-level productivity increases of the major dryland cereal crops now grown in some of the world’s harshest environments. More than a billion of the Earth’s poorest inhabitants live in these areas, and they have very few livelihood alternatives to growing dryland crops (often in dynamic crop-livestock systems). While considerable progress has been made over the past four decades to meet smallholder farmer needs for more robust dryland crop varieties, much more can and must be done to reduce rural poverty, ensure food security and enhance environmental sustainability in dryland areas. DRYLAND CEREALS comprises a unique international effort to combine the experience and resources of two CGIAR Centers with those of France, India, Iran, the USA and many other partners to better coordinate and expedite the research-fordevelopment (R4D) efforts related to four key dryland cereal crops – barley, finger millet, pearl millet and sorghum – which are now grown on well over 100 million hectares across Africa, Asia and the Americas. Our overriding goal is to achieve farm-level impacts, primarily through higher and more stable dryland crop productivity on smallholder farms in Africa and Asia that will increase incomes and reduce rural poverty, increase food security, improve nutrition, and help reduce adverse environmental impacts (especially in dryland crop-livestock systems). Our R4D efforts and outputs will be demand driven, synergistic, and will feature two-way linkages to the work being done in other key CRPs – especially: CRP 1.1 (Integrated agricultural production systems for dry areas); CRP 2 (Policies, institutions, and markets to strengthen assets and agricultural incomes for the poor); CRP 3.1 (WHEAT: Global alliance for improving food security and the livelihoods of resource poor in the developing world); CRP 3.2 (MAIZE: Global alliance for improving food security and the livelihoods of resource-poor in the developing world); CRP 3.3 (GRiSP: A global rice science partnership); CRP 3.5 (Grain Legumes); CRP 3.7 (Sustainable staple food productivity increase for global food security: livestock and fish); CRP 4 (Agriculture for improved nutrition and health); CRP 5 (Durable solutions for water scarcity and land and ecosystem degradation); and CRP 7 (Climate change, agriculture and food security), as well as other major donor-funded initiatives. The comparative advantages of the partners involved in DRYLAND CEREALS will be a driving force for their inclusion in this initiative, as will a demonstrated commitment to a shared vision of success, achievement of the Program’s strategic objectives, and a willingness to work in new, more progressive and ground-breaking ways. In particular, we know that this initiative will require not only greater innovation and investment, but also new approaches that foster improved cooperation and coordination regardless of institutional affiliation. We see the CRP framework as a means to that end, and as a way to capitalize on potential synergies and realize new efficiencies in research and development on behalf of the poor. We believe that the success of DRYLAND CEREALS will dramatically improve the livelihoods, food security, nutrition, and health status of millions of our fellow citizens. For us, failure is not an option. We hereby commit ourselves, and our institutions, to the collective actions and investments required to achieve a better, more prosperous and food-secure future for millions of people living in dryland areas – people who struggle daily simply to survive under unforgiving agricultural conditions. William Dar, Director General, ICRISAT Mahmoud Solh, Director General, ICARDA

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The development of the CGIAR Research Program on DRYLAND CEREALS (CRP 3.6) and this document is due to the hard work, commitment and dedication of the many scientists from national programs and the international centers that contributed to its development. Throughout, they shared openly and freely in a spirit of common cause. The development of the initial submission in September 2010 evolved into a concrete research-for-development (R4D) program aimed at resolving longstanding problems and providing new pathways to improved livelihoods, better health, and greater sustainability for farmers and consumers in the dryland areas of developing countries in Africa and Asia. The willingness of those involved in developing the September 2010 submission to conduct business in new ways and with greater cohesiveness was an early indication of a collective desire to break new ground. Many of those involved in developing our first submission have been involved in the continuing effort to further refine and develop the CRP. Helpful reviews of the September 2010 and May 2011 submissions guided fresh thinking and the further development of DRYLAND CEREALS, and those inputs are reflected in this submission of the proposal, submitted to the CGIAR Consortium Board on August 15, 2011, who submitted the proposal to the Fund Council at the end of August 2011. Following the presentation of the CRP 3.6 DRYLAND CEREALS to the Fund Council in November 2011, the CRP was approved in Category II. The ISPC and Fund Council ‘must-haves’ were received from the Fund Council in December 2011. The current proposal reflects the substantive inputs from the proponents to address the ‘must-haves’. These additions and improvements were contributed electronically as well as via face-to-face workshops to discuss the required changes. This revised proposal has been submitted to the Fund Council on 3 February 2012.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
FOREWORD .................................................................................................................................... I ACKNOWLEDGMENTS .................................................................................................................... II TABLE OF CONTENTS ..................................................................................................................... III ACRONYMS .................................................................................................................................... V EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ................................................................................................................... 1 VISION OF SUCCESS........................................................................................................................ 7 PROGRAM JUSTIFICATION ........................................................................................................... 11 DRYLAND CEREALS IMPACT PATHWAY......................................................................................... 25 DRYLAND CEREALS STRATEGIC OBJECTIVES .................................................................................. 29 STRATEGIC OBJECTIVE 1: BETTER TARGETING OF OPPORTUNITIES FOR TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT AND DELIVERY OF DRYLAND CEREALS TO SMALLHOLDER FARMERS IN AFRICA AND ASIA ............................................ 38 STRATEGIC OBJECTIVE 2: ENHANCING THE AVAILABILITY AND USE OF GENETIC DIVERSITY, GENOMICS AND INFORMATICS TO ENHANCE THE EFFICIENCY OF DRYLAND CEREAL IMPROVEMENT ............................................. 43 STRATEGIC OBJECTIVE 3: DEVELOPING IMPROVED DRYLAND CEREAL VARIETIES AND HYBRIDS FOR INCREASED YIELD, QUALITY AND ADAPTATION IN SMALLHOLDER FARMERS’ FIELDS ............................................................ 50 STRATEGIC OBJECTIVE 4: DEVELOPING SUSTAINABLE CROP, PEST AND DISEASE MANAGEMENT OPTIONS TO CAPTURE GENETIC GAINS FROM IMPROVED DRYLAND CEREAL VARIETIES AND HYBRIDS ....................................... 64 STRATEGIC OBJECTIVE 5: ENHANCING EFFECTIVE SEED AND INFORMATION SYSTEMS FOR BETTER DELIVERY OF IMPROVED TECHNOLOGY PACKAGES TO SMALLHOLDER FARMERS ................................................................... 76 STRATEGIC OBJECTIVE 6: ADDING POST-HARVEST VALUE AND IMPROVING MARKET ACCESS OF DRYLAND CEREALS TO PROVIDE SMALLHOLDER FARMERS MORE BENEFITS FROM DRYLAND CEREALS .................................. 84 PARTNERS (INTERNATIONAL, NATIONAL AND REGIONAL) ............................................................ 91 GENDER STRATEGY .....................................................................................................................104 PROGRAM INNOVATIONS ...........................................................................................................109 INTERACTIONS WITH OTHER CRPs...............................................................................................112 GOVERNANCE AND MANAGEMENT ............................................................................................116 TIMEFRAME ................................................................................................................................121 MITIGATING RISKS ......................................................................................................................122 MONITORING AND EVALUATION ................................................................................................123 BUDGET NARRATIVE AND TABLES ...............................................................................................127 REFERENCES................................................................................................................................132 APPENDICES................................................................................................................................143 APPENDIX 1: OVERVIEW OF THE DRYLAND CEREALS TARGET CROPS........................................................ 143 APPENDIX 2: TARGETING RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT INTERVENTIONS..................................................... 149 APPENDIX 3: DEMAND PROJECTIONS AND VALUE PROPOSITION ................................................................. 199 APPENDIX 4: STRATEGIC OBJECTIVE OUTPUTS, METHODOLOGY, MILESTONES AND PARTNER ROLES ................208 APPENDIX 5: PROFILES OF INITIAL R4D PARTNERS .................................................................................... 265 APPENDIX 6: DRYLAND CEREAL CURRENT BILATERAL-FUNDED R4D PROJECTS .......................................... 270

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TABLES TABLE 1. PRODUCTION (IN MILLION TONS) AND VALUE OF PRODUCTION (VOP IN US$ BILLIONS) FOR DRYLAND CEREALS (BARLEY, MILLETS, SORGHUM) WORLDWIDE AND IN LOW-INCOME FOOD DEFICIT COUNTRIES (LIFDC) ....................................................................................................11 TABLE 2. DEMAND PROJECTION FOR DRYLAND CEREALS IN 2020 ('000 MT) FROM IMPACT MODEL .....................13 TABLE 3. POPULATION, POVERTY AND MALNUTRITION INDICATORS, BY REGION ...................................................14 TABLE 4. REGIONS AND PRIMARY COUNTRIES WHERE DRYLAND CEREALS ARE GROWN ...........................................16 TABLE 5. ESTIMATED TARGET AREA AND NUMBER OF POTENTIAL BENEFICIARIES BY CROP AND REGION (MILLIONS)............................................................................................................................28 TABLE 6. MAJOR CROP-SPECIFIC WORKPLANS, BY STRATEGIC OBJECTIVE AND KEY OUTPUTS ...................................32 TABLE 7. PRIORITY OF TRAITS ACROSS DRYLAND CEREALS TARGETED FOR SELECTION, IN ORDER OF IMPORTANCE (BY CATEGORY AND WITHIN CATEGORY) ..................................................................52 TABLE 8. PRIORITY FOR TRAITS FOR BREEDING RESEARCH FOR DRYLAND CEREALS ESSENTIAL FOR ACHIEVING IMPACT IN PRIORITY PRODUCTION SYSTEMS ................................................................................53 TABLE 9. CROP MANAGEMENT TECHNOLOGIES FOR DRYLAND CEREALS ...............................................................68 TABLE 10. ROLE OF PARTNERS IN DRYLAND CEREALS ..................................................................................93 TABLE 11. SPECIFIC INITIAL DRYLAND CEREALS PARTNERS, BY REGION AND TARGET COUNTRY ............................98 TABLE 12. ENVISIONED LINKAGES AND COLLABORATION BETWEEN DRYLAND CEREALS AND OTHER CRPS ..........113 TABLE 13. MONITORING AND EVALUATION (M&E) FRAMEWORK (PROCESS AND PERFORMANCE INDICATORS) .......................................................................................................................124 TABLE 14. DRYLAND CEREALS FUNDING BUDGET (USD '000) ...................................................................127 TABLE 15. BUDGET BY STRATEGIC OBJECTIVE (USD '000) .............................................................................128 TABLE 16. TOTAL THREE-YEAR BUDGET BY REGION AND CROP (USD '000) .....................................................129 TABLE 17. BUDGET BY PARTNER (USD '000)...............................................................................................130 TABLE 18. BUDGET BY CATEGORY (USD '000).............................................................................................130 TABLE 19. DRYLAND CEREALS GENDER RESEARCH AND ANALYSIS BUDGET (USD '000) .................................130 TABLE 20. DRYLAND CEREALS MANAGEMENT BUDGET (USD '000) ...........................................................131

FIGURES FIGURE 1. DRYLAND CEREALS TARGET COUNTRIES .....................................................................................15 FIGURE 2. STRATEGIC OBJECTIVES, RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT OUTCOMES AND IMPACTS .................................25 FIGURE 3. THE DRYLAND CEREALS IMPACT PATHWAY..................................................................................27 FIGURE 4. FOCUS OF DRYLAND CEREALS IN OVERALL RESEARCH STRUCTURE OF THE CGIAR (FIGURE FROM CGIAR STRATEGY AND RESULTS FRAMEWORK) ..........................................................................29 FIGURE 5. LINKAGES AMONG DRYLAND CEREALS STRATEGIC OBJECTIVES .......................................................36 FIGURE 6. STRATEGIC OBJECTIVE 1 IMPACT PATHWAY .....................................................................................41 FIGURE 7. STRATEGIC OBJECTIVE 2 IMPACT PATHWAY .....................................................................................46 FIGURE 8. STRATEGIC OBJECTIVE 3 IMPACT PATHWAY .....................................................................................55 FIGURE 9. STRATEGIC OBJECTIVE 4 IMPACT PATHWAY .....................................................................................71 FIGURE 10. STRATEGIC OBJECTIVE 5 IMPACT PATHWAY ...................................................................................79 FIGURE 11. MOVEMENT OF IMPROVED SEED FROM NATIONAL RESEARCH CENTERS THROUGH FORMAL AND INFORMAL CHANNELS TO REACH SMALLHOLDER FARMING COMMUNITIES ........................................80 FIGURE 12. STRATEGIC OBJECTIVE 6 IMPACT PATHWAY ...................................................................................86 FIGURE 13. CURRENT DRYLAND CEREALS PARTNERSHIPS .............................................................................91 FIGURE 14. DRYLAND CEREALS GOVERNANCE AND MANAGEMENT STRUCTURE ............................................116

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ACRONYMS
AAFEX AAFRD AARD AARINENA Association Afrique Agro Export, Senegal Alberta Agriculture, Food and Rural Development Alberta Agriculture and Rural Development, Canada Association of Agricultural Research Institutions in the Near East and North Africa Agricultural Biotechnology Research Institute of Iran Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research, Australia Association de Coordination Technique pour l’Industrie Agro-alimentaire, France Adult equivalents Agence Francaise de Developpement France African Food Tradition Revisited by Research Alliance for a Green Revolution in Africa Agribusiness and Innovation Platform, ICRISAT Agence inter-établissements de recherche pour le développement, France Adequate Intakes Association Malienne d’Eveil au Développement Durable, Mali Sorghum Producers Association, Nicaragua Association Minim Song Panga, Burkina Faso Agricultural and Natural Resources Research Organization Association des Organisations Professionnelles Paysannes, Mali Asia-Pacific Association of Agricultural Research Institutions The United Nations Asian and Pacific Centre for Agricultural Engineering and Machinery Agricultural Research Center, Libya Agropolis Resource Center for Crop Conservation Adapatation and Diversity Agricultural Research and Extension Authority, Yemen Iranian Agricultural Research, Education and Extension Organization, Iran Advanced Research Institutes Association for Strengthening Agricultural Research in Eastern and Central Africa Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council, UK Benefit Cost BCNAM BDM BMR BMZ Backcross nested association mapping Becker, DeGroot and Marschak Brown mid rib Bundesministerium für Wirtschaftliche Zusammenarbeit Und Entwicklung, Germany Barley stem gall midge Barley yellow dwarf virus Centre for Agricultural Bioscience International Central Asia and the Caucasus computer assisted processing instruments Community Based Agriculture and Rural Development Programme Centre de Biotechnologie de BorjCédria Cluster-based farmer field schools Community-based Organizations Centre de Biotechnology of Sfax Centro Nacional de Tecnificación Agrícola, El Salvador Centre Régional de Recherche Agronomique, Maradi, Niger Central Food Technological Research Institute, India Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research International Center for Tropical Agriculture, Colombia International Maize and Wheat Improvement Centre, Mexico Central Institute of Post Harvest Engineering and Technology, India Centre de Coopération Internationale en Recherche Agronomique pour le Développement, France Cytoplasmic male sterility National Center for Agricultural Research and Biotechnology, Nicaragua Coordination nationale des organisations paysannes du Mali Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, France Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa West and Central African Council for Agricultural Research and Development Le Centre de Recherches Environnementales, Agricoles et de Formation, Kamboinsé CGIAR Research Program Centre Regional de Recherche Agronomique, Mali Collaborative Research Support Programs Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, South Africa

BSGM BYDV CABI CAC CAPIs CBARDP CBBC CBFFS CBOs CBS CENTA CERRA CFTRI CGIAR CIAT CIMMYT CIPHET CIRAD

ABRII ACIAR ACTIA

AE AFD AFTER AGRA AIP AIRD

AIs AMEDD AMPROSOR AMSP ANRRO AOPP APAARI APCAEM

CMS CNIAB

CNOP CNRS COMESA CORAF

ARC ARCAD

AREA AREEO

CREAF

ARIs ASARECA

CRP CRRA CRSPs CSIR

BBSRC BC

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CSOs CTA CVM CWANA DARE

DARI DC DEEDI

DICTA DNA DRC DRD

DSR DWR EAR EC ECARSAM ECO ECOWAS EDPs EECA EIAR EISMV

EMBRAPA ENSAI EPC ESA ESB ESRI EU FAAU FAO FCI FFEM FFS FIGS FIPs FOFIFA FONTAGRO FOs

Civil Society Organizations Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation, The Netherlands Contingent valuation method Central and West Asia and North Africa Department of Agricultural Research and Education, Ministry of Agriculture, Govt of India Dryland Agricultural Research Institute, Iran Dryland cereals Department of Employment, Economic Development and Innovation, Australia Directorate of Agricultural Science and Technology, Honduras Deoxyribonucleic Acid Domestic resource cost Department of Research and Development, Ministry of Agriculture, Tanzania Directorate of Sorghum Research, India Directorate of Wheat Research, India Estimated nutrient requirement European Commission Eastern and Central Africa Regional Sorghum and Millet Network Economic Cooperation Organization Economic Community of West African States Entrepreneur development programs East Europe and Central Asia Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research, Ethiopia Ecole Inter-Etats des Sciences et Médecine Vétérinaires de Dakar, Senegal Empresa Brasileira de Pesquisa Agropecuária, Brazil National School of Agro-Industrial Sciences, Cameroon Effective protection coefficient Eastern and Southern Africa Escola Superior de Biotecnologia, Portugal Environmental Systems Research Institute Inc., USA European Union Faculture of Agriculture, Alexandria University, Egypt Food and Agriculture Organization Food Corporation of India Fédération française d’économie montagnarde Farmers Field Schools Focused Identification of Germplasm Strategy Farm inputs promotions Centre National pour le Developpement Rural, Madagascar Regional Fund for Agricultural Technology, Latin America Farmer Organizations

FPU FRI FTE GBS GCDT GCP GI GIS GIZ

GPG GRIN-GLOBAL GRiSP GS GWS GxE HOPE HPLC HPR IAR IARC IASA IBP ICAMEX

ICAR ICARDA ICAR-DWR ICM ICP ICRISAT ICRW ICT ICTA IDIAP IDM IDRC IER IFAD IFAD-CBARDP

IFAD-PDRD

Food processing unit Food Research Institute, Ghana Full time equivalent Genotyping by sequencing Global Crop Diversity Trust CGIAR Generation Challenge Program Glycaemic Index Geographic information system Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit, Germany Global public goods Global Genetic Resources Information Management System Global Rice Science Partnership Genomic Selection Genome-wide selection Gene by Environment Harnessing Opportunities for Productivity Enhancement High performance liquid chromatographic Host plant resistance Institute for Agricultural Research, Nigeria International Agricultural Research Center Impulsora Agricola, S.A. de C.V., Mexico Integrated Breeding Platform Agricultural, Forestry and Fisheries Research and Training Institute, Mexico Indian Council of Agricultural Research International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas Indian Council of Agricultural Research - Directorate of Wheat Research Integrated crop management Inductively coupled plasma International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics, India International Center for Research on Women, USA Information and communication technology Imperial College of Tropical Agriculture, Trinidad Institute of Agricultural Research of Panama Integrated Disease Management International Development Research Centre, Canada Institute for Economic Research, Mali International Fund for Agricultural Development International Fund for Agricultural Development and Community Based Agricultural and Rural Development Project, Nigeria IFAD-Programme de Développement Rural Durable, Burkina Faso

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IFAD-PPILDA

IFDC IFEU

IFPRI IGNRM IIAM IICEM IICPT ILRI IMPACT INAT INERA INRA INRAB INRAN INRAT INSAH INSTAPA

INTA INTSORMIL

IP IPK IPM IPR IRAG IRD IRRI IRSAT

ISF ISFM ISHS

IFAD- Project for the Promotion of Local Initiative for Development in Aguié, Niger International Fertilizer Development Corporation, USA Institut für Energie- und Umweltforschung Heidelberg GmbH, Germany International Food Policy Research Institute, USA Integrated Genetic and Natural Resource Management Institute of Agricultural Research for Mozambique, Mozambique Integrated Initiatives for Economic Growth in Mali Indian Institute of Crop Processing Technology, India International Livestock Research Institute, Kenya International Model for Policy Analysis and Commodity Trade Institute National Agronomique de Tunisia Institut National de l’Environnement et Recherche Agricole, Burkina Faso Institute National de La Recherché Agronomique, Morocco Institut national de recherche agronomique du Bénin, Burkina Faso National Agricultural Research Institute, Niger National Agricultural Research Institute of Tunisia Institut du Sahel, Mali Novel staple food-based strategies to improve micronutrient status for better health and development in sub-Saharan Africa National Institute for Agricultural Technology, Argentina Sorghum, Millet and Other Grains Cooperative Research Support Program Intellectual Property Leibniz Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research, Germany Integrated Pest Management Intellectual Property Rights Guinean Institute for Agricultural Research Institut de Recherche et Développement, France International Rice Research Institute, Philippines Institut de Recherche en Sciences Appliquées et Technologies, Burkino Faso International Seed Federation, Switzerland Integrated Soil Fertility Management International Society for Horticultural Science

ISM ISRA ISTA ITA ITPGRFA JIRCAS KARI KM KSFA LABOSEM LCRI LD LDC LDL LIFDCs M&E MAB MAPI MARS MAS MAU ME&L MENA MET MIS MOSA MPKV MSP MTA NACA NARES NARI NARO NARS NBPGR NCARE NGB NGOs NGS NIN NIRS NPK NRC NRI NRM

Integrated soil management Senegalese Institute for Agricultural Research, Senegal International Seed Testing Association Institut de Technologie Alimentaire, Dakar, Senegal International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture Japan International Research Center for Agricultural Sciences, Japan Kenya Agricultural Research Institute, Kenya Knowledge Management Karnataka State Farmers’ Association, India Directeur du Laboratoire de Semences, Mali Lake Chad Research Institute, Nigeria Linkage disequilibrium Least developed countries Low-Density Lipoprotein Low Income Food Deficit Countries Monitoring and Evaluation Marker-assisted breeding Marker-assisted population improvement Marker-assisted recurrent selection Marker-assisted selection Marathwada Agricultural University, India Monitoring, evaluating and learning Middle East and North Africa Multi-Environment Trials Market information services Maltería Oriental S.A., Uruguay Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth in Rahuri, India Minimum support price Material Transfer Agreement Network of Aquaculture Centres in Asia-Pacific National Agricultural Research and Extension Systems National Agricultural Research Institute, Eritrea National Agricultural Research Organization, Uganda National agricultural research system National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources, India National Center for Agricultural Research and Extension, Jordan The Nordic Gene Bank Non-Governmental Organizations New generation sequencing National Institute of Nutrition, India Near-Infrared Spectroscopy Nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium National Research Centre, Egypt Natural Resources Institute, United Kingdom Natural Resource Management

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OECD OPVs ORAC P4P PAM PASS PDRD PIA PMG PPILDA PRA PRGA PROMISO QTL R4D RDAs ReSAKKS RMPs RMT RNIs RVA RWA SA SAARC SADC SARI SAT SC SCRI SHGs SINGER SLOs SMEs SMIP SMTA SNP SO SOLIBAM

SPES SPII SRF SSA SSNM UAC UACT

Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development Open-Pollinated Varieties Oxygen radical absorbance capacity Purchase for Progress, World Food Program Policy Analysis Matrix AGRA's Program in Africa's Seed Systems Programme De Developpement Rural Durable Program Implementation Agreement Producer marketing groups Projet de Promotion des Innovations Locales de Developpement Agricole Participatory Rural Appraisal Participatory Research and Gender Analysis Promoting Pearl Millet and Sorghum Production Quantitative Trait Loci Research-for-Development Recommended Dietary Allowances Regional Strategic Analysis and Knowledge Support System Random mating populations Research Management Team Recommended Nutrient Intakes Rapid Visco Analyser Russian wheat aphid South Asia South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation Southern African Development Community The Savannah Agriculture Research Institute, Ghana Semi-Arid Tropics Steering Committee Scottish Crop Research Institute, UK Self-help groups CGIAR System-wide Information Network for Genetic Resources CGIAR System Level Outcomes Small and Medium Enterprises Sorghum and Millet Improvement Program Standard Material Transfer Agreement Single nucleotide polymorphism Strategic objective Strategies for Organic and Low-input Integrated Breeding and Management Spread European Safety, Italy Seed and Plant Improvement Institute, Iran Strategic and Results Framework Sub-Saharan Africa Site-specific nutrient management University of Abomey Calavi, Benin Union des Agriculteurs de Cercle de Tominian/Union of Farmers of the Circle of Tominia

UCAD

UGCPA/BM

UGPCA

ULPC UN UNA UN-CAPSA

UNSCPC

UNZA UPOV USAID USDA UT VAM VOP VPD WA WCA WFP WTP WUE XRF

Ecole Supérieure Polytechnique / Cheikh Anta Diop University of Dakar, Senegal Union de Groupement pour la commercialisation des Produits Agricole, Boucle du Mouhoun, Burkina Faso Union des groupement des producteurs pour la commercialisation agricole, Burkina Faso Union Locale des Producteurs de Cereales, Mali United Nations Universidad Nacional Agraria en Managua, Nicaragua United Nations – Centre for Alleviation of Poverty through Sustainable Agriculture Union Nationale des Sociétés Coopératives de Producteurs de Coton Producteurs, Mali University of Zambia, Zambia International Union for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants United States Agency for International Development United States Department of Agriculture, USA Antananarivo University, Madagascar Vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhiza Value of production Vapour pressure deficit West Africa West and Central Africa World Food Programme Willingness to pay Water use efficiency X-ray Fluorescence

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
The CGIAR has long been one of the few organizations that have consistently invested in improving smallholder productivity in marginal dryland areas found in many developing countries. That attention notwithstanding, at least half of the more than 1.5 billion people living in these areas struggle to survive on US$ 1.25/day or less, usually from smallholder subsistence agriculture. Both Asia and Africa contain deep pockets of poverty that are closely aligned with the drylands, and while much has been done to improve the livelihoods of families living in these areas, much more needs to be accomplished. WHY A DRYLAND CEREALS CRP? This CGIAR Research Program (CRP 3.6 DRYLAND CEREALS) is focused exclusively on improving the productivity and profitability of four major cereal crops commonly grown in dryland areas – barley, finger millet, pearl millet and sorghum. Taken together, the farm gate value of these crops in Low Income Food Deficit Countries (LIFDCs) is US$ 27.3 billion (Table 1). Population growth is a primary demand driver, with at least 40% of production being consumed directly by the poor as food. About 50% of the demand for dryland cereals is related to sustaining livestock (providing feed and fodder) in integrated crop-livestock systems. In addition, urban consumers are rediscovering the health benefits that come with eating traditional foods and newer processed products prepared using dryland cereals. Moreover, a growing portion of these crops is being marketed for industrial uses (e.g., malting and sweet syrups), a trend that is providing increasing cash income for smallholder farmers. Based on recent projections using IFPRI’s IMPACT model, the aggregate demand for dryland cereals will increase significantly by 2020 in our target regions and countries (Table 2). Demand for barley will rise by about 44% over the 2000 baseline used in the model, millets (mainly pearl millet) by 39%, and sorghum by 48%, largely because of population growth, combined with a lack of viable alternative crops. At the same time, because these cereals tend to be grown in harsh environments, the potential for meeting growing demand by expanding the area sown is limited. Moreover, according to recent studies even these hardy crops will be adversely affected by climate change. In Africa, for example, average yields of sorghum and millets are predicted to fall about 17% by 2050, due mainly to rising temperatures. While we know less about the probable effects of climate change on barley, it is safe to say that its productivity will also be affected. Efforts by DRYLAND CEREALS in partnership with CRP 7 on Climate Change will be made to further study these effects on the target cereals. DRYLAND CEREALS partners believe strong and sustained efforts are urgently needed to deal with these changing realities. There are three primary interventions proposed: 1) we will produce welladapted, higher yielding varieties with better disease resistance and tolerance to abiotic stresses; 2) we will develop improved crop management technologies that are well suited to dryland areas and can get more out of existing and improved varieties; and 3) we will identify and encourage the implementation of efficient and effective systems for getting improved technologies into the hands of smallholder farmers. These interventions form the core of CRP 3.6. In addition, for us to make these in a timely and efficient manner and to keep our efforts and priorities properly focused, we will gather and analyze gender-disaggregated data and information about our specific target countries, and we will use state-of-the-art genomic tools to improve breeding efficiency. Moreover, in order to help smallholder farmers – especially women – improve their livelihoods, partners involved in the CRP will identify effective ways to reduce post-harvest losses, as well as new opportunities for processing and marketing dryland cereal products.

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WHY WORK ON THESE CROPS UNDER A SINGLE CRP? In addition to shared demand drivers, other factors make it both more efficient and more effective to focus research-for-development (R4D) initiatives on dryland cereals under a single CRP. All four crops, for example, can be improved using similar breeding and development approaches, e.g., participatory breeding, the use of genomic-based methods, and the exploitation of heterosis. Working on them together also gives rise to a critical mass in research aimed at achieving development impacts – which would be much less likely if dryland cereals were integrated into one or more other CRPs. There are also important researchable issues that cut across these crops. These include:  Understanding the genetic tolerances of the four crops to such abiotic stresses as drought, high temperatures, low soil fertility and high salinity, as well as their tolerance for or resistance to pests and diseases;  Exploring the potential for transferring those genetic tolerances and resistances to other major food crops to improve their productivity and climate change readiness;  Determining the potential for increasing total biomass production and quality for use as fodder;  Developing alternative weed management strategies, given the limited availability of labor in sparsely populated dryland areas;  Addressing similar constraints faced by these crops regarding seed delivery systems and market access; and  Improving post-harvest processing for better shelf life and nutritional value. DRYLAND CEREALS research efforts and outputs are demand driven, with smallholder farmers heavily involved in identifying preferred traits and driving participatory breeding programs. Barley, finger millet, pearl millet and sorghum all possess substantial genetic yield stability under adverse production conditions and high levels of water and nutrient-use efficiency, which indicates considerable potential for reducing production risks for resource-poor dryland smallholders. These crops also have high levels of important micronutrients (zinc, iron, calcium) and other nutritive benefits, and all are consumed primarily where they are produced, indicating high potential for direct impacts on livelihoods. All four crops are used in multiple ways – directly for food, as very important sources of feed and fodder, and increasingly for industrial purposes – and women play a prominent role in their cultivation, processing and preparation, which opens opportunities to improve their well-being. PROGRAM INNOVATIONS We believe that combining the efforts of a wider range of partners, each with their own comparative advantages but oriented around a shared vision and set of strategic objectives, will lead to new R4D innovations. Specific major innovations include the following (for details, see the Program Innovations Section, as well as each Strategic Objective):  Promoting use of new ICT tools to effectively gather, store and present crop and locationspecific data to enhance research efficiency in economic and social analysis, synthesis and dissemination;  Using whole genome sequencing of the dryland cereals to identify new genes and markers for breeding;  Integrating breeding, agronomy, physiology, genomics and crop modeling to exploit genetic diversity and optimize GxMxE options;  Promoting integrated breeding platforms and the application of genomic-based technologies;  Tapping heterosis to boost yields;

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 Developing and disseminating multi-purpose varieties;  Integrating abiotic and biotic stress management strategies for increased adoption and more sustainable yields;  Enhancing seed availability through farmer-based seed production and small seed packs;  Improving access by smallholders, especially women, to information and knowledge via modern communication tools and techniques;  Improving the processability, quality and shelf life of dryland cereal products. VISION OF SUCCESS Over the next ten years, we will achieve a sustainable 15% increase in dryland cereal farm-level production on at least 10.5 million hectares in Africa and Asia. This will be done through a combination of crop improvement research, better agronomic practices, and more effective delivery systems for seed, information and other inputs. At the same time, we will improve grain and stover quality. We project that these improved technologies will be made available to 5.6 million smallholder households (30.5 million total beneficiaries) in our target regions and countries. Women farmers will be a primary focus of our work. Through their participation, we will ensure that appropriate quality traits are preserved or integrated into new varieties, suitable agronomic practices are developed and promoted, and effective and profitable post-harvest processing and market access options are identified. Rural households will benefit primarily from increased food security and better nutrition (an additional 22 million households will become food secure), but also from an increase in cumulative net incomes of about US$ 0.9 billion. DRYLAND CEREALS will increase the stability of productivity (yield per unit area) and production (total availability) of barley, finger millet, pearl millet and sorghum grown in dryland environments. The Program will generate at least 150 new varieties that have the traits preferred by smallholder farmers and consumers in target countries. Formal and informal seed sectors (public and private) will be mobilized to produce and disseminate quality seed of improved varieties to target smallholder farmers, with particular attention paid to those who usually face the greatest difficulties in accessing seed and other inputs. The value added additional grain production alone is expected to reach US$ 300 million. A FOCUS ON GENDER Gender is given a high priority throughout DRYLAND CEREALS. Key considerations include recognition of the role gender plays in growing, harvesting and processing dryland cereals, women farmer-led research and the need for participatory and gender-responsive approaches to the problems of poverty, food security and sustainability. Gender specific roles are explicitly addressed by each Strategic Objective and reflected in targeted activities and outputs. Gender-differentiated data will be collected to more fully understand the differing roles of men and women; capacity strengthening and technical training will include women in equitable numbers; and technologies will be developed with the aim, not just of reducing drudgery, but opening marketing and incomeearning opportunities for women. STRATEGIC OBJECTIVES AND OUTPUTS DRYLAND CEREALS is focused primarily on the core competencies of crop improvement (including the use of genetic resources and genomics), cropping systems and post-harvest technologies, with significant efforts in production systems and price, trade and policy areas. Beyond these traditional core competencies, DRYLAND CEREALS also brings expertise and focus to new areas identified in the Strategy and Results Framework (SRF) such as climate change adaptation/mitigation and nutrition and health.

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DRYLAND CEREALS is structured around six Strategic Objectives (SOs): SO 1 – Better targeting of opportunities for technology development and delivery of dryland cereals to smallholder farmers in Africa and Asia SO 2 – Enhancing the availability and use of genetic diversity, genomics and informatics to enhance the effectiveness and efficiency of dryland cereal improvement SO 3 – Developing improved dryland cereal varieties and hybrids for increased yield, quality and adaptation in smallholder farmers’ fields SO 4 – Developing sustainable crop, pest and disease management options to capture genetic gains from improved dryland cereal varieties and hybrids SO 5 – Enhancing effective seed and information systems for better delivery of improved technology packages to smallholder farmers SO 6 – Adding post-harvest value and improving market access of dryland cereals to provide smallholder farmers more benefits from dryland cereals These Strategic Objectives address a key set of researchable questions or issues of central relevance to dryland cereals, including: their usefulness as sources of genes for stress tolerance for adapting to climate change, and especially our understanding of such tolerance mechanisms; their importance as sources of feed, fodder and straw in the face of the ongoing “livestock revolution”; the potential for achieving sustainable increases in productivity, production and nutritive value on behalf of the poorest of the poor living in highly marginal production environments; and the need to identify effective ways to improve the delivery, availability, and adoption of improved dryland cereal technologies in our target areas and farming systems, as well as viable post-harvest alternatives for adding value and earning additional income through better market access. Each SO comes with a description of its priority activities and impact pathway, the partners that will be involved and what they will contribute, how relevant gender issues will be addressed, the innovations that pertain to the Objective, the outputs that will be produced, the methodologies that will be applied, and key milestones that will be used to gauge progress. While all six SOs are important in each target region, differing emphasis will be given depending on prevailing challenges and opportunities. In West and Central African countries, for example, relatively more attention will be given to improving the sustainable production of dryland cereals (especially sorghum and pearl millet) under very harsh conditions. In South Asia, our emphasis will be on improving the profitability of dryland cereals as the demand for feed and fodder increases and new market opportunities open up for farmers. Countries in the West Asia/North Africa and Eastern and Southern African regions have a broader mix of farmers and opportunities, and we will thus take a more balanced approach among our Objectives. CAPACITY STRENGTHENING Capacity strengthening will be integrated throughout DRYLAND CEREALS. This will include provision of degree and non-degree training, workshops and conferences, and the development of knowledge and distance learning products. Because extension staff and NGOs work at the grassroots level, special efforts will be made to empower them. Our training programs will reflect a return to basics to offset declines in the number of staff trained in conventional breeding, agronomy, pest control, and field techniques. Capacity strengthening will be targeted to enable all actors along the value chain to produce required outputs and achieve desired outcomes in order to impact smallholder farmers.

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CONTRIBUTIONS TO SYSTEM LEVEL OUTCOMES DRYLAND CEREALS will contribute to all four of the CGIAR System Level Outcomes – reduced rural poverty, improved food security, improved nutrition and health, and sustainably managed natural resources, though our focus will be on the first three of these. Barley, finger millet, pearl millet and sorghum do well in harsh environments, and thus they offer farmers important opportunities for increasing their incomes and improving their livelihoods. Crop residues, especially stover and straw, are increasingly important commodities that add significantly to the overall value of dryland cereals. The demand for processed, value-added dryland cereal products is growing, especially in urban areas, and we will partner with organizations specializing in cereal processing, as well as those designing and producing post-harvest processing equipment. In addition, there is mounting interest in using dryland cereal grains for industrial purposes, especially for malting, which presents additional marketing and income opportunities. However, dryland cereals are still consumed primarily on-farm and by the very poorest people. Trapped in subsistence farming, these families are very food insecure and often suffer from hunger and malnutrition, especially in the months leading up to harvest. Women and children, who are less empowered within households, normally suffer the most. By improving the production, productivity and nutritional content of dryland cereals (the latter building on existing HarvestPlus and CRP 4 research efforts and partnerships), smallholder farmers who grow them will be able to capture much-needed benefits. PARTNERS INVOLVED ICRISAT is the Lead Center, and ICARDA is its CGIAR partner, in developing and implementing DRYLAND CEREALS. This CRP, however, is a global alliance, and will benefit greatly from the leadership and expertise of the many partners in the CGIAR’s Generation Challenge Program (GCP); the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR); the Iranian Agricultural Research, Education and Extension Organization (AREEO); the L'institut de recherche pour le développement (IRD) and the Centre de coopération internationale en recherché agronomique pour le développement (CIRAD) in France; the USAID-supported Sorghum, Millet and Other Grains Collaborative Research Support Program (INTSORMIL); and more than 70 national agricultural research and extension programs in Africa and Asia; 15 advanced research institutes; 20 NGOs, CSOs, and Farmer Organizations; and 30 private sector companies (see chapter on Partners and Tables 9 and 10). INTERACTIONS WITH OTHER CRPS DRYLAND CEREALS will link with – and leverage resources, information, partnerships and technologies from – a number of other CRPs (see Table 11). Specifically, CRP 3.6 will:  Work with CRP 1.1 (Dryland Systems) to better combine the best genetic and management options towards optimal cereal production natural resource management in smallholder mixed farming systems;  Identify deficiencies in marketing systems and devise mitigation strategies together with CRP 2 (Policies and Markets);  Exchange information on breeding methodologies, traits and genes with CRP 3.1 (WHEAT), 3.2 (MAIZE ) and 3.3 (GRiSP);  Optimize cereal-legume systems through collaboration with CRP 3.5 (Grain Legumes);  Develop more suitable feed and fodder varieties in concert with CRP 3.7 (Livestock);  Partner with CRP 4 (Health and Nutrition) to improve household nutrition with dryland cereals;  Contribute to better land- and water-use efficiency together with CRP 5 (Water scarcity and Land degradation); and  Ensure availability of climate change-ready crops with CRP 7 (Climate Change).
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PROJECTED RETURN ON INVESTMENT DRYLAND CEREALS will increase the average productivity of its target crops by at least 15% in ten years, which will result in an increase in production of about 3 million tons in total grain production. At current average prices, this additional annual grain production will be worth about US$ 0.9 billion in net income to smallholder farmers. In addition, for sorghum more than 12 million extra tons of fodder will be produced, which because of changes in stover quality and higher stover prices, will be worth an estimated US$ 4.6 billion. These substantial benefits will accrue to an estimated 5.6 million resource-poor smallholders (30.5 million beneficiaries) farming and living in very harsh and risky production environments, and will result from an average annual investment in R4D activities of US$ 25 million per year.

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VISION OF SUCCESS
The overall vision of success for CRP 3.6 DRYLAND CEREALS is straightforward: Over ten years, we will achieve a sustainable 15% increase in dryland cereal farm-level production on at least 10.5 million hectares in Africa and Asia. This will be done through a combination of crop improvement research, better agronomic practices, and more effective delivery systems for seed, information and other inputs. At the same time, we will improve grain and stover quality. We project that these improved technologies will be made available to an additional 5.6 million smallholder farmers (30.5 million beneficiaries) in our target regions and countries. Women farmers will be a primary focus of our work. Through their participation, we will ensure that appropriate quality traits are preserved or integrated into new varieties, suitable agronomic practices are developed and promoted, and effective and profitable post-harvest processing and market access options are identified. Rural households will benefit primarily from increased food security and better nutrition (an additional 22 million households will become food secure), but also from an increase in cumulative net incomes of about US$ 0.9 billion. New forms of collaboration and partnership will enable us to make this vision a reality. These will involve the two CGIAR centers that focus significant resources on dryland cereals (ICARDA and ICRISAT); major developed country partners (INTSORMIL in the USA, and CIRAD and IRD in France); the Indian Council for Agricultural Research (ICAR), which has long invested in dryland cereals research and development; the Iranian Agricultural Research, Education and Extension Organization (AREEO), which has been a partner with ICARDA for many years; research partners involved in Generation Challenge Program projects on dryland cereals and integrated plant breeding; national agricultural research and extension systems in our target countries in Africa and Asia; advanced research institutes in the public and private sector; and a wide range of development-oriented NGOs and CBOs working in targeted dryland areas (see DRYLAND CEREALS Partners). These organizations will be coordinating their respective efforts and capitalizing on their comparative advantages in a common cause. Opportunities will be identified for sharing research and testing facilities, as well as results and new knowledge. Smallholder farmers in the drylands will benefit from having one unified source for new options aimed at improving cereal productivity and production. We believe that encouraging such collaboration and realizing potential R4D efficiencies is the fundamental reason behind the CGIAR reform process and, especially the development of CGIAR Research Programs. CONTRIBUTING TO CGIAR SYSTEM-LEVEL OUTCOMES We believe that DRYLAND CEREALS will contribute to achieving all four CGIAR System Level Outcomes (SLOs) – reduced rural poverty, improved food security, improved nutrition and health, and sustainably managed natural resources. Our primary contributions clearly will be to the first three of these, but because dryland cereals are among the most efficient in using natural resources (water and soil nutrients), the increased use of improved varieties will also help reduce environmental degradation in dry areas. We also anticipate that dryland degradation will be reduced through research aimed at optimizing dryland cereal/legume cropping systems, which will enable cereal production to increase without significant additional nitrogen inputs. Still, our contributions to SLOs 1, 2 and 3 will be more significant, as outlined below. Reduced rural poverty (System Level Outcome 1) Over the past two decades, the average yields of dryland cereals have risen. This upward trend, however, is relatively small (0.5-1%/year, depending on the region) and has not been enough to keep up with population growth, let alone to create marketable surpluses for generating additional income for smallholders (see Appendix 1). On-station and on-farm experiments with dryland cereals

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have demonstrated that yields in many dry production ecologies could be two to four times higher using available technologies than those commonly achieved. Dryland cereal crops hold considerable potential for overcoming production limitations that are common across marginal environments, and thus they offer farmers important opportunities for increasing their incomes and improving their livelihoods. Work aimed at increasing profitability and marketing options will be done in close collaboration with CRP 1.1 (Dryland Systems). Assessing production and marketing risks, especially for women farmers, will be a key component, along with identifying options for improving smallholder access to local and regional markets. Crop residues, especially stover but also straw, are increasingly important commodities that significantly increase the overall value of dryland cereals. The current estimated value of sorghum stover in our target regions, for example, is US$ 13.4 billion. The increasing value of stover has been a prominent trend in Asia (Nordbloom et al., 1983; Kelley et al., 1996), and stover markets are emerging in the drier, more densely populated areas of West Africa. The increasing demand for livestock and livestock products is raising the importance of fodder and feed. DRYLAND CEREALS will thus focus on increasing the quantity and quality of stover and straw, as well as grain (see Strategic Objective 3), work that will be done together with CRP 3.7 (Livestock). Home processing of coarse dryland cereals to produce traditional foods is both difficult and time consuming, especially in urban settings. Processed dryland cereal products that are easy and fast to prepare and have good shelf life are increasingly in demand, especially in South Asia. DRYLAND CEREALS will therefore work with partners specializing in cereal processing, as well as developers and manufacturers of locally adaptable post-harvest processing equipment, to help meet the rising urban demand for dryland cereals. Moreover, the growing interest in using dryland cereal grains for industrial purposes, especially for malting and the production of sweet syrups, presents additional marketing and income opportunities for smallholder producers. Improving food security (System Level Outcome 2) More than 650 million (155 million in our targeted countries) of the poorest and most food-insecure people live in dryland areas. To cope with the harsh agro-climatic conditions (low and variable rainfall, high temperatures, poor fertility, and saline soils and especially the high risk of drought), families in the drylands tend to rely on growing barley, finger millet, pearl millet and sorghum – the world’s hardiest and least risky cereals. These crops are consumed primarily on-farm and by the very poorest people (depending on the region and crop, as much as 80% is consumed directly). Locked into subsistence farming, these families often suffer from hunger and malnutrition, especially in the months leading up to harvest. Women and children often suffer the most. Improving the productivity and production of dryland cereal crops can thus provide additional food security benefits to the poorest of the poor. DRYLAND CEREALS will work with these farmers to identify and prioritize specific preferences – the traits farmers need and want in new varieties to make them truly useful (see Strategic Objective 1). New genes and traits for better adaptation to stresses will be identified through the application of genomics. We will use the latest crop physiology tools and methodologies to understand the basis for stress tolerance, and better stress-tolerant germplasm with higher and more stable yields will be produced. Improved methodologies and tools for genetic improvement in dryland cereals will be developed and applied (Strategic Objectives 2 and 3). More effective seed and input systems that target smallholder farmers will be established (Strategic Objective 5). And the R4D capacity of CRP partners, as well as the practical skills of smallholder farmers in our target countries and regions, will be strengthened. DRYLAND CEREALS will develop new varieties that can better cope with abiotic stresses, such as drought, high temperatures, poor soil fertility and high salinity. New varieties will also have better resistance to insect pests and diseases. Preferred grain and stalk quality and processing characteristics will be maintained or improved for specific users and agro-ecologies. Smallholder
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farmers will be heavily involved in shaping the trait combinations of their new varieties to ensure that the process is demand-driven and that new varieties meet farmers’ needs for local adaptation and uses. Special emphasis will be given to improved yield stability under the most difficult production conditions in the drylands, which will reduce adoption risks for resource-poor producers. Low-cost agronomic packages will be developed to optimize yields of the new varieties and to increase farmer experimentation with the technologies (Strategic Objective 4). Stronger formal and informal seed and information systems will improve awareness and availability of the new technologies (Strategic Objective 5). Farmer-owned seed businesses or other emerging local seed enterprises in areas where the formal seed system is not well developed will help fill the current seed-marketing gap. Concerted R4D is required to ensure that development organizations, private sector entities, and policy makers are aware of and can capitalize on the opportunities that new varieties can trigger. This is especially important in the area of post-harvest handling, processing and marketing (Strategic Objective 6). Improving nutrition and health (System Level Outcome 3) Malnutrition is a challenging and complex issue that requires cooperation among various actors in the agricultural, nutritional, and health arenas (World Bank, 2006). In general, dryland cereals provide important sources of carbohydrates, energy, protein, fiber, calcium, iron, and certain vitamin B complexes, which is especially relevant for poor households that depend on these crops. Finger millet is extraordinarily high in calcium, and eating whole grain barley can regulate blood sugar (i.e., reduce blood glucose response to a meal) for up to 10 hours. Sorghum is a good source of protein, carbohydrates, fiber and energy, as well as iron and potassium. And pearl millet is the highest of these cereals in terms of available protein, energy content and iron. DRYLAND CEREALS will produce grain types that have the qualities needed for optimum local processing, work that will be done mainly under Strategic Objective 3 and in close collaboration with CRP 4. HarvestPlus and CRP 4 have identified appropriate methodologies and established the feasibility of increasing the iron and zinc content of dryland cereals, and our main focus will be to ensure that new varieties at least match the nutritional content of local varieties, i.e., that important nutritional factors are not lost in the breeding and selection process. Biofortification research remains of interest as well, and DRYLAND CEREALS will explore the potential to increase iron and zinc content in the grain of superior, preferred varieties. Also of importance is improving such factors as the ease of processing and the shelf life of dryland cereal products. We believe that linking this work with the efforts of HarvestPlus is critical and that the integrated agriculture, nutrition, and health platform envisioned in CRP 4 can generate significant synergies. THE DRYLAND CEREALS VALUE PROPOSITION DRYLAND CEREALS will measurably increase the stability of production, productivity (yield per unit area), and production (total availability) of barley, finger millet, pearl millet and sorghum grown in dry environments. Both the productivity of these cereals and their production in the fields of farmers using the new technologies will rise at least 15% over ten years. Total grain production in the harsh environments that characterize the drylands of Africa and Asia will rise by about 3 million tons, which will have a total value of about US$ 20 billion. At least 5.6 million farmers will be using improved technologies, and these farmers and their families (30.5 million beneficiaries) will have greater food security (defined here as meeting at least 30% of the basic kilocalorie needs of a household from dryland cereals). Farmers will earn a total additional net income over ten years from dryland cereal grain of about US$ 0.9 billion, and the value of the additional sorghum stover produced will be about US$ 3 billion. DRYLAND CEREALS will generate at least 150 new widely adapted varieties that have the traits preferred by farmers and consumers in target regions and countries. The formal and informal seed sectors (public and private) will be mobilized to produce and disseminate quality seed of improved varieties, with particular attention paid to farmers who usually face the greatest difficulties in
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accessing seed and other inputs. Training courses and workshops will strengthen the technical capacity of researchers and development specialists involved in the initiative. The research capacity of NARES will be strengthened with the training of 60 PhD and MSc students. Moreover, DRYLAND CEREALS will implement a gender-focused approach to R4D in the drylands, with particular emphasis given to food processing and value-adding business opportunities for women. To achieve its vision, DRYLAND CEREALS is structured in terms of six interrelated Strategic Objectives: SO 1 – Better targeting of opportunities for technology development and delivery of dryland cereals to smallholder farmers in Africa and Asia SO 2 – Enhancing the availability and use of genetic diversity, genomics and informatics to enhance the effectiveness and efficiency of dryland cereal improvement SO 3 – Developing improved dryland cereal varieties and hybrids for increased yield, quality and adaptation in smallholder farmers’ fields SO 4 – Developing sustainable crop, pest and disease management options to capture genetic gains from improved dryland cereal varieties and hybrids SO 5 – Enhancing effective seed and information systems for better delivery of improved technology packages to smallholder farmers SO 6 – Adding post-harvest value and improving market access of dryland cereals to provide smallholder farmers more benefits from dryland cereals We will link to and explore collaborative opportunities with a number of other CRPs, including CRP 1.1 (Integrated agricultural production systems for the poor and vulnerable in dry areas); CRP 2 (Policies, institutions, and markets to strengthen assets and agricultural incomes for the poor); CRP 3.5 (Grain legumes); CRP 3.7 (Sustainable staple food productivity increase for global food security: livestock and fish); CRP 4 (Agriculture for improved health and nutrition); CRP 5 (Durable solutions for water scarcity and land and ecosystem degradation); and, CRP 7 (Climate change, agriculture and food security), as well as other major donor-funded initiatives. The program will build on existing knowledge, previous achievements, and the considerable strengths of a wide range of partners to focus attention on opportunities in the drylands to improve the livelihoods of smallholder farmers and their families through improved food security, increased incomes, and better household nutrition. Work with CRP 1.1 will be especially important, as it will enable us to identify and evaluate optimal dryland cereal production technologies (improved varieties and crop management practices) that better suit smallholder mixed farming systems. We will actively participate in the CRP 1.1 annual planning meetings for the regions relevant to DRYLAND CEREALS (and vice versa). We will work with CRP 2 to identify deficiencies in marketing systems and devise mitigation strategies. We will exchange information on breeding methodologies, traits and genes with CRPs 3.1, 3.2 and 3.3, and work to optimize cereal-legume systems through collaboration with CRP 3.5. Our association with CRP 3.7 will focus on developing more suitable feed and fodder varieties in support of the Livestock Revolution, and we will partner with CRP 4 to improve household nutrition through nutritious dryland cereals. Working with CRP 5 will enable us to draw on better land- and water-use technologies, and contribute to their development as well. And collaboration with CRP 7 – again through joint research planning efforts – will enable us to target breeding towards changing abiotic and biotic stresses and produce new climate change-ready varieties.

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PROGRAM JUSTIFICATION
DRYLAND CEREALS FOCUS CROPS The drylands of Africa and South Asia are among the most marginal crop production environments. The people who farm there have few options in terms of crops, and commonly depend on the hardiness of barley, finger millet, pearl millet and sorghum, which require less moisture and nutrients to survive and that respond well to additional resources when available. These crops have substantial economic value (Table 1) and are a mainstay for smallholder incomes and food security in our target regions and countries.
Table 1. Production (in million tons) and value of production (VOP in US$ billions) for dryland cereals (barley, millets, sorghum) worldwide and in low-income food deficit countries (LIFDC)1 Production (MT) Crop Barley Millets (finger and pearl) Sorghum Total Dryland Cereals
1

VOP (US$ billion) LIFDC 2.94 13.37 10.98 27.29 World 36.76 13.68 15.60 66.04

LIFDC 10.1 33.5 36.7 80.3

World 155.1 35.2 66.8 257.1

FAOSTAT 2009. FAO's classification and criteria for low-income food-deficit countries (LIFDC) can be found at http://www.fao.org/countryprofiles/lifdc.asp?lang=en

Below are brief descriptions of our focus crops; additional details can be found in Appendix 1. Barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) is grown on 18 million hectares in developing countries, often at the fringes of deserts and steppes or at high elevations. The crop has many uses. Its grain is used as feed for animals, for malting, and as food for direct human consumption. In the highlands of Tibet, Nepal, Ethiopia, Eritrea, in the Andean countries, and in North Africa, barley is used as human food either for bread making (usually mixed with bread wheat) or in traditional recipes. In recent years the use of barley as food has gained momentum, especially in North America and Europe, gaining the label as a ‘functional’ food. Still, about 75% of all barley is used for animal feed; 20% for malting; and the remaining 5% for direct food use. Barley straw is used as animal feed in many developing countries, and for animal bedding and as cover material for hut roofs. After the harvest, barley stubble is grazed during the summer in large areas of West Asia and North Africa. Barley is also used for green grazing or is cut before maturity and either directly fed to animals or used for silage. Malting barley is grown as a cash crop in a number of developing countries. Utilization for malting and by the brewing industry has picked up recently with an increase of consumption of beer and other malt products. In a 2009 ranking of cereal crops in the world, barley was fourth both in terms of quantity produced (136 million tons) and in area cultivated (56.6 million ha). Finger Millet [Eleusine coracana (L.) Gaertn] plays an important role in both the dietary needs and incomes of many rural households in eastern and southern Africa and South Asia, accounting for 10% of the 38-50 million hectares sown to all the types of millet globally. Finger millet is rich in fiber, iron and calcium. It is the most important small millet in the tropics (where 12% of the global millet area is found) and is cultivated in more than 25 countries in Africa (eastern and southern) and Asia (from the Near East to the Far East), predominantly as a staple food grain. Major producers of finger millet include Ethiopia, Uganda, India, Nepal and China. The crop has high yield potential (more than 10 t/ha under optimum irrigated conditions) and its grain stores very well. Even so, like most millets it is grown mainly as a rainfed crop in marginal environments having low soil fertility and limited

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moisture. Finger millet is native to the Ethiopian highlands and was introduced into India approximately 4,000 years ago. It is well adapted to higher elevations and is grown in the Himalayan foothills and the East Africa highlands, up to 2,300 masl. Pearl Millet [Pennisetum glaucum (L.) R. Br.] is the world’s hardiest warm season cereal crop. It can survive even on the poorest soils in the driest regions, on highly saline soils and in the hottest climates. It is annually grown on nearly 30 million hectares across the arid and semiarid tropical and subtropical regions of Asia, Africa and Latin America. Pearl millet is a staple food for more than 90 million people who live in the drier areas of Africa and Asia. India is the largest single producer of pearl millet, both in terms of area (9.3 million hectares) and production (8.3 million tons). The West and Central Africa (WCA) region has the largest area under millets in Africa (15.7 million hectares), of which more than 90% is pearl millet. Since 1982, the millet area in WCA has increased by over 90%, and productivity has risen by 12% (up from 800 to 900 kg/ha). Production has increased by about 130% (up from 6.1 to 14.1 million tons), most of which has come from area expansion. Lack of seed production in the region, however, is a major bottleneck in the spread of improved cultivars. The same is true in eastern and southern Africa (ESA), where pearl millet is cultivated on more than 2 million hectares. Sorghum [Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench] is cultivated in the drier areas of Africa, Asia, the Americas and Australia. It is the fifth most important cereal crop, and is the dietary staple of more than 500 million people in more than 30 countries. It is grown on 42 million hectares in 98 countries of Africa, Asia, Oceania and the Americas. Sorghum is a staple in sub-Saharan Africa, its primary center of genetic diversity. It is most extensively cultivated in zones of 600-1,000 mm rainfall, and where poor soil fertility, soil acidity and aluminum toxicity are common. The crop is extremely hardy and produces even under very poor soil fertility conditions. It is adapted to a wide range of temperatures, and is thus found even at high elevations in East Africa, overlapping with barley. It is adapted to a wide range of soil conditions, ranging from sanddunes to waterlogging to residual moisture, and from salinity to extremely low soil pH. Sorghum has good resistance to grain mold and thus has a lower risk of contamination by mycotoxins. The grain is mostly used for food purposes, and is consumed in the form of flat breads and porridges (thick or thin, with or without fermentation). In addition to food and feed it is used for a wide range of industrial purposes, including starch for fermentation and bio-energy. Sorghum stover is a significant source of dry season fodder for livestock. It also serves as construction material and is used as fuel for cooking. Sweet sorghum is emerging as a multi-purpose crop. It can provide food, feed and fodder without significant trade-offs among any of these uses in a production cycle. RISING DEMAND FOR DRYLAND CEREALS The aggregate demand for barley, millets (mainly pearl millet) and sorghum is projected to rise in all our target regions and countries. The International Model for Policy Analysis of Agricultural Commodities and Trade (IMPACT), which was developed by IFPRI, shows significant increases in demand for dryland cereals by 2020 over the model’s year 2000 baseline (Table 2 and Appendix 3). Demand for barley will increase by about 64 million tons (44%) over the 20-year period, while demand for millets will grow by more than 8 million tons (39%) and sorghum by over 11 million tons (48%). Demand is projected to rise largely because of population growth in dryland areas, coupled with: 1) an increasing need for feed and fodder/straw to support livestock in mixed crop-livestock systems; 2) new market opportunities; and 3) the simple fact that there are few if any alternative crops that will grow in harsh dryland environments. While it is true that per capita demand for dryland cereals will fall relatively faster than for other cereals as incomes rise, total demand will continue to increase for the reasons mentioned above. See Appendix 3 for a full discussion of demand trends and drivers.

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Table 2. Demand projection for dryland cereals in 2020 ('000 MT) from IMPACT model Sorghum Region 2000 WCA ESA CWANA SA Total 8,388 5,914 7,706 22,008 2020 13,778 9,546 8,818 32,142 2000 9,243 1,770 9,680 20,693 2020 15,063 3,155 10,379 28,597 2000 4,378 38,072 66,421 108,873 2020 7,180 53,942 95,502 156,624 Millet Barley

* Food demand only, excluding demand for feed

WHY WORK ON THESE CROPS UNDER A SINGLE CRP? The demand for these crops is driven by a common set of factors. For example, about 50% of the demand for them is related to sustaining livestock (feed and fodder/straw) in integrated croplivestock systems, while 40% of what is produced is consumed directly by the poor as food in various forms. Moreover, a growing portion of dryland crops is being marketed for various industrial uses (e.g., malting and sweet syrups), which is providing increasing amounts of cash income to smallholder farmers. In addition to these shared demand drivers, a number of other characteristics make it more efficient and effective to focus R4D initiatives on them under a single CRP. All four crops, for example, lend themselves to similar breeding and development approaches, such as the use of genomic-based methods, the exploitation of heterosis, and participatory development. Given their economic value and their importance to the hundreds of millions of people living in our target areas, relatively limited resources have been allocated to dryland cereals. Working on them together enables us to create a much-needed minimum critical mass in research aimed at achieving research outcomes and development impacts. This would be much less likely if dryland cereals were integrated into one or more other CRPs. Such integration would likely lead to competition for attention and resources, rather than complementarities and efficiencies. There are a number of common researchable issues associated with these crops, including, but not limited to:  Understanding the genetic tolerance the four crops to such abiotic stresses as drought, high temperatures, low soil fertility and high salinity, as well as their tolerance for or resistance to pest and diseases, in order to provide solutions for future stresses due to climate change;  Exploring the potential for transferring those genetic tolerances and resistances to other major food crops to improve their productivity and climate change readiness;  Optimizing the combined production and quality of grain and stover to meet future livestock demands for specific farming conditions;  Developing alternative weed management strategies, given the limited availability of labor in sparsely populated dryland areas;  Addressing similar constraints faced by these crops regarding seed delivery systems, market access, production and market-related policies; and  Improving post-harvest handling and processing for better shelf life and nutritional value. All four crops are used in multiple ways – directly for food, as critically important sources of feed and fodder, and increasingly for industrial purposes. Moreover, women play a prominent role in the

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cultivation, processing and preparation of dryland cereals, which opens opportunities to significantly and directly improve their wellbeing. Barley, finger millet, pearl millet and sorghum all possess genetic yield stability and high levels of water and nutrient-use efficiency, traits that can reduce production risks for resource-poor dryland smallholders, especially in the face of climate change. These “climate-smart” crops also have a strong genetic tolerance for drought, high temperatures and soil salinity, as well as high levels of resistance to pests and diseases. Thus, joint research on crop physiology and root characteristics will accelerate the identification of causal factors for increased stress tolerance, leading to the efficient development of more tolerant varieties. Significant potential exists for capacity strengthening and skill development that is relevant to working with all four crops, and there are a number of organizations striving to address the need for using improved seed and production practices, and to improve the capacity and knowledge of farmers, post-harvest processors, traders, research and development specialists, and policymakers. While not currently well linked, all these organizations work in various ways to promote sustainable improvements in the livelihoods of smallholders in dryland areas, strengthen dryland crop-livestock systems, and protect fragile soil and water resources. DRYLAND CEREALS will provide a mechanism through which the agendas and activities of many of these different organizations can be better coordinated. Finally, the R4D efforts and outputs produced by DRYLAND CEREALS will be demand driven, and as described earlier will feature linkages to the work being done in other CRPs – especially, CRP 1.1 (Dryland Systems), CRP 4 (Nutrition and Health), CRP 3.7 (Livestock), and CRP 7 (Climate Change). These linkages will be more effective and efficient for those CRPs if they are dealing with a single Program focused on dryland cereals. TARGET REGIONS AND COUNTRIES DRYLAND CEREALS will be working in four major target regions – West and Central Africa (WCA), Eastern and Southern Africa (ESA), Central and West Asia and North Africa (CWANA), and South Asia (SA). Within those regions, we will be targeting countries where our focus crops are prevalent (Appendix 2). We began the process of delineating the geographical focus of DRYLAND CEREALS by first identifying the primary developing countries in which barley, finger millet, pearl millet and sorghum are currently grown. With few exceptions, we established a minimum threshold of 0.5 million hectares in a country to merit the allocation of research resources from the Program. With this primary filter in place, we then factored in several other important considerations, including rural and urban populations, the number of poor (earning less than US$ 1.25/day), the number and prevalence of stunted children (as an indicator of malnutrition), and the probability of drought (Table 3).
Table 3. Population, poverty and malnutrition indicators, by region Indicator Rural Population (millions) Urban Population (millions) Stunted Children (millions) Prevalence of Stunting (%) Number of poor (millions earning less than US$ 1.25/day) Probability of Drought (%) WCA 154 72 13 32 142 19 ESA 254 86 22 38 157 38 CWANA 164 267 10 34 28 11 SA 947 376 80 37 589 22 Total 1,510 801 125 35 916 23

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In additi ion, we also considered the t geograph hical prioritie es expressed d in the Strat tegy and Results Framew work (SRF), which encoura ages a strong g focus on Af frica and Asia. As indicat ted in Tables 4 and 5 and Figu ure 1, the end result of th his initial targ geting and priority p settin ng effort indiicates that DRYLAND CEREALS S research re esources sho ould be targe eted to:  B Barley in nine e countries in three regio ons (Eastern and Southern Af frica, Centrall a and West Asia and North Africa and S South Asia);  F Finger millet in three cou untries in E Eastern and Southern S Afr rica;  P Pearl millet in ten countr ries in three regions (Wes st and Centra al Africa, East tern a and Southern n Africa, and South Asia); ;  S Sorghum in eight e countries in three regions (Wes st and Centra al Africa, East tern a and Southern n Africa, and South Asia). .
Figure 1. DRYLAND CEREALS S Target Coun ntries
WE ARE NOT WORKING W , AND WHY WHERE W

As can b be seen in Tables 4 and 5, DRYLAND C CEREALS will not be work king everywh here its crops are grown. I Instead, reso ources will be e focused on n key countri ies in two lar rge regions in n Africa (WC CA and ESA), Ce entral and West Asia and North Africa a (CWANA), and South Asia. This is pr rimarily base ed on four con nsiderations: 1) size of the area sown n to dryland cereals, c 2) a principal foc cus on drier environm ments, 3) the e availability y of alternativ ve suppliers, , and 4) the synergies s be eing achieved d with current, long-standin ng partners. For example e:  In n South Asia, we will not t devote reso ources to res search on finger millet or r rainy season sorghum; ICA AR is handling g those as pa art of its own n ongoing re esearch and d development p program. ICR RISAT is focus sed on harsh her environm ments in Sout th Asia, wher re yields are low and there are larg ge numbers of o smallhold ers. Thus, CR RP resources s will be alloc cated to rese earch that will bene efit the large e post-rainy s season sorgh hum area. Ho owever, beca ause of the effective e IC CAR/ICRISAT T collaboratio on on pearl m millet – all of f which is gro own during t the rainy sea ason – that work wil ll continue in n the region using CRP re esources. And d while the a area of barle ey in the region is now w relatively sm mall, deman d is increasin ng for barley y as forage an nd as a cash crop (f for malting). . In addition, because of its drought tolerance t barley can perf form reasonably well otations being used. o on residual moisture m and its earliness s makes it a good g fit for the current ro  In n Eastern and Southern Africa, A the pr rimary use of o CRP resour rces will be f for work targ geting 8 800,000 hect tares of sorgh hum in the r egion. Resou urces will also be devote d to over 220,000 h hectares of fi inger millet and a the over r 200,000 hectares of highland barley y.  T The large are eas of pearl millet m and so rghum will receive considerable atte ention in Wes st and C Central Africa a, though nearly 2 million n hectares of sorghum gr rown in the v vast pastoral areas o of the region will not because the sor rghum grown n in those areas is so spre ead out and remote, a as to greatly reduce the Program’s P ab bility to address them all successfully y.  B Barley will be e the focus in n CWANA, an nd most of th he research resources flo owing to that region w will be used in selected co ountries in t he Middle Ea ast and North Africa; this s work will create spillovers for regions and countries th hat are not a primary foc cus of the Pro ogram, such as Latin A America and China; there e is no finger r millet grown in the regio on and only small amoun nts of p pearl millet and a sorghum.

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Table 4. Regions and primary countries where dryland cereals are grown (CRP 3.6 targeted areas are shaded in brown)

West and Central Africa1
Barley Country Millets2 Sorghum Rural Population ('000 persons) Proportion of rural population in poverty (%) Prevalence of child malnutrition (% of children under 5) Cropped area planted to dryland cereals (%) Travel time to market (minutes) 237 263 279 410 195 179 226 598 578 409 260 189 199

Area ('000 ha)

Yield (t/ha)

Area ('000 ha)

Yield (t/ha)

Area ('000 ha)

Yield (t/ha)

Benin 0 0.0 38 0.8 134 0.9 5,133 7 46 20 Burkina Faso 0 0.0 1,398 0.8 1,846 1.0 13,109 55 52 26 Cameroon 0 0.0 51 1.3 675 1.4 8,153 12 55 17 Chad 0 0.0 971 0.6 832 0.7 8,128 42 59 34 Gambia 0 0.0 143 1.0 29 1.1 724 43 68 16 Ghana 0 0.0 181 1.2 265 1.3 11,830 10 39 14 Guinea 0 0.0 324 0.8 35 1.2 6,448 13 63 21 Mali 0 0.0 1,520 0.9 1,102 1.1 10,252 41 58 28 Mauritania 0.5 2.4 11 0.4 205 0.5 2,027 56 61 17 Niger 0 0.0 6,865 0.5 2,974 0.4 12,921 66 64 40 Nigeria3 0 0.0 4,134 1.4 5,697 1.1 79,528 29 64 27 Senegal 0 0.0 989 0.7 221 0.9 7,100 31 62 15 Togo 0 0.0 72 0.7 218 1.1 3,412 13 74 22 1 Area and yield statistics represent FAOSTAT averages from 2008-2010 (http://faostat.fao.org). Rural population, rural population poverty, and prevalence of child malnutrition statistics were extracted from datasets at The World Bank (http://data.worldbank.org/indicator). Travel time to market statistics were extracted from datasets at the Generation Challenge Program Priority Setting Homepage (http://sites.google.com/site/gcpprioritysetting/). 2 In WCA the predominant millet is pearl millet. 3 The millet yield data for Nigeria is based on information provided by FAOSTAT. Our expert opinion suggests that these values are likely to be overestimates.

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Eastern and Southern Africa1
Barley Millets2 Sorghum Rural Population ('000 persons) Proportion of rural population in poverty (%) Prevalence of child malnutrition (% of children under 5) Cropped area planted to dryland cereals (%) Travel time to market (minutes)

Country

Area ('000 ha)

Yield (t/ha)

Area ('000 ha)

Yield (t/ha)

Area ('000 ha)

Yield (t/ha)

Angola Eritrea Ethiopia Kenya Mozambique Namibia Rwanda Somalia Sudan3 Tanzania Uganda

0 48 1,030 17 0 0 0 0 0 2 0

0.0 0.8 1.5 2.9 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.8 0.0

151 65 392 86 93 235 6 0 2,235 317 459

0.2 0.2 1.4 0.6 0.4 0.2 1.2 0.0 0.3 0.7 1.8

0 252 1,589 168 519 17 141 365 6,294 861 327

0.0 0.3 1.7 0.6 0.6 0.3 1.1 0.2 0.6 0.9 1.5

7,919 4,119 68,350 31,519 14,409 1,416 8,616 5,841 23,866 33,003 28,979

39 49 57 49 64 37 27

28 35 35 16 21 18 18 33 32 17 16

4 53 22 5 12 32 11 36 42 12 12

551 244 551 384 539 643 400 552 425 493 333

Zimbabwe 12 5.2 212 0.2 289 0.3 7,757 12 342 44 14 1 Area and yield statistics represent FAOSTAT averages from 2008-2010 (http://faostat.fao.org). Rural population, rural population poverty, and prevalence of child malnutrition statistics were extracted from datasets at The World Bank (http://data.worldbank.org/indicator). Travel time to market statistics were extracted from datasets at the Generation Challenge Program Priority Setting Homepage (http://sites.google.com/site/gcpprioritysetting/). 2 In ESA the predominant millet is pearl millet except in Uganda and Ethiopia where the predominant millet is finger millet. In Tanzania the ratio of millets is 1:1 pearl millet to finger millet.
3

Includes both Sudan and South Sudan.

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Central and West Asia and North Africa1
Barley Millets Sorghum Rural Population ('000 persons) Proportion of rural population in poverty (%) Prevalence of child malnutrition (% of children under 5) Cropped area planted to dryland cereals (%) Travel time to market (minutes)

Country

Area ('000 ha)

Yield (t/ha)

Area ('000 ha)

Yield (t/ha)

Area ('000 ha)

Yield (t/ha)

Algeria Azerbaijan Egypt Iran Iraq Kazakhstan Kyrgyzstan Libya Morocco Syria Tunisia

896 258 86 1,443 1,019 1,680 126 199 2,094 1,299 328

1.4 2.3 1.6 1.8 0.7 1.2 1.9 0.5 1.2 0.5 1.3

0 0 0 16 4 30 0 6 0 2 0

0.0 0.8 0.0 0.6 0.8 0.8 2.6 1.2 0.0 1.3 0.0

0 0 145 0 3 0 0 0 12 2 3

0.0 1.0 5.4 0.0 0.3 0.4 0.7 0.0 0.8 1.3 0.3

11,882 4,325 46,401 22,562 10,762 6,771 3,402 1,404 13,835 9,221 3,450

19 30 39 22 51 15 -

4 8 7 10 7 5 3 6 10 10

12 14 8 8 23 7 10 12 26 28

490 215 265 202 182 594 694 422 202 156

12 333 3 Turkey 2,903 2.3 3 2.1 0 5.1 22,117 14 170 39 4 Yemen 39 0.8 116 0.7 458 0.9 16,404 52 488 40 43 1 Area and yield statistics represent FAOSTAT averages from 2008-2010 (http://faostat.fao.org). Rural population, rural population poverty, and prevalence of child malnutrition statistics were extracted from datasets at The World Bank (http://data.worldbank.org/indicator). Travel time to market statistics were extracted from datasets at the Generation Challenge Program Priority Setting Homepage (http://sites.google.com/site/gcpprioritysetting/).

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South and East Asia1
Barley Country Area ('000 ha) 259 690 724 26 Yield (t/ha) 1.6 3.7 2.1 1 Millets2 Area ('000 ha) 10 786 11,333 266 Yield (t/ha) 1.9 1.6 0.9 1.1 Sorghum Area ('000 ha) 0 532 7,655 0 Yield (t/ha) 0 3.3 0.9 0 Rural Population ('000 persons) 25,858 737,403 818,486 24,507 Proportion of rural population in poverty (%) 38 3 28 35 Prevalence of child malnutrition (% of children under 5) 33 5 44 39 Cropped area planted to dryland cereals (%) 3 2 12 12

Travel time to market (minutes) 519 689 773 782

Afghanistan China India Nepal
1

2

Pakistan 87 0.9 499 0.6 244 0.6 109,364 4 441 27 31 Area and yield statistics represent FAOSTAT averages from 2008-2010 (http://faostat.fao.org). Rural population, rural population poverty, and prevalence of child malnutrition statistics were extracted from datasets at The World Bank (http://data.worldbank.org/indicator). Travel time to market statistics were extracted from datasets at the Generation Challenge Program Priority Setting Homepage (http://sites.google.com/site/gcpprioritysetting/).
In SEA, the predominant millet is pearl millet except in India (see following table for data on pearl millet and finger millet in selected states). ** The millet yield data for North Korea is based on information provided by FAOSTAT. Our expert opinion suggests that these values are likely to be overestimates.

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South and East Asia – Selected States of India1
Sorghum (rainy) State of India
Area (‘000 ha) Yield (t/ha) Area (‘000 ha) Yield (t/ha) Area (‘000 ha) Yield (t/ha) Area (‘000 ha) Yield (t/ha) Area (000 ha) Yield (t/ha)

Sorghum (post-rainy)

Pearl millet

Finger millet

Barley

Rural Population (‘000)

Rural population in poverty (‘000)
<$1.25/day

Prevalence stunting (%)

Cropped area planted to dryland cereals (%) 12 15 11 32 30 33 15 10 10

Travel time to market (minutes)

Andhra Pradesh Gujarat Haryana Karnataka Maharashtra Rajasthan Tamil Nadu Uttar Pradesh Uttarakhand
1

143 81 86 303 1,271 625 213 211 0

1.4 1.4 0.5 1.7 1.5 0.6 0.9 0.8 0

188 47 0 1,079 2,877 0 70 0 0

1.4 0.9 0 1.2 0.7 0 0.9 0 0

74 921 630 432 1,283 5,077 60 856 0

1.2 1.4 1.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 1.4 1.5 0

55 22 0 833 128 0 94 1 128

1.3 0.8 0 1.8 0.9 0 1.9 1.0 1.4

0 0 40 0 1 249 0 155 24

0 0 3.0 0 1.0 2.2 0 2.1 1.1

57,917 33,276 15,844 35,998 57,859 46,713 33,483 141,626 6,668

6,470 6,340 2,140 7,500 17,110 8,730 7,650 47,300 2,710

43 52 46 44 46 44 31 57 44

240 350 225 180 320 415 450 -

Area and yield statistics were extracted from2007-2008 datasets at the Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Dept. of Agricultural Cooperation, ministry of Agriculture, Government of India (http://eands.dacnet.nic.in/). Rural Population and poverty statistics are based on a report of the expert group that reviewed the methodology for estimating poverty, Government of India, Planning Commission, 2009. * Based on URP-Consumption = Uniform Recall Period consumption in which the consumer expenditure data for all the items are collected from 30-day recall period. Source: Planning Commission, Government of India. ** Statistics of Women in India, National Institute of Public Cooperation and Child Development, 2010 *** Final Report on Planning Commission Project: Growth of Indian Agriculture: A District Level Study, 2010

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LESSONS WE HAVE LEARNED A number of relevant lessons pertaining to the importance and practice of dryland cereals research for development have emerged during the preparation of this proposal. These lessons, along with the perceived challenges and opportunities for the Program described below, have helped shape our Strategic Objectives. More details of the barriers to adoption are provided in Appendix 2.  Dryland cereals hold considerable promise for stable yields in the face of climate change and the likelihood of more erratic rainfall patterns and higher temperatures in important production zones and cropping systems, including those where less resilient crops are currently grown. Even so, while these crops are more reliable than alternatives in such harsh environments, dryland cereals are already being pushed into areas where they cannot perform well;  Adoption of improved dryland cereal technologies has been limited over the years by poor farmer access to seed and relevant information;  Seed and other inputs should be packaged in smaller, more affordable sizes to encourage purchase by smallholders;  Dryland cereal farmers’ decisions about adopting improved varieties must take into account multiple uses, consumer preferences, and the international and local markets for the crops, a dynamic that is not yet well understood by researchers;  Hybrids are proving viable in certain regions and countries, and there is significant private sector interest in developing that market (mainly in India);  The ongoing livestock revolution has important implications for dryland cereal demand, and for how research should be focused (for example, because we now know that grain/stover tradeoffs are minimal, we can give more research attention to improving the quantity and quality of stover without sacrificing grain yield or quality);  There is a renewed and growing interest in India in coarse grains and traditional recipes using them, especially in urban areas; and  Genomic technologies and tools have advanced rapidly in recent years and are applicable to dryland cereal crops. In combination with better access to timely, accurate data and information, the breeding of improved varieties can be greatly accelerated. THE CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR DRYLAND CEREALS Beyond addressing the common researchable issues associated with dryland cereals that were highlighted earlier, CRP 3.6 partners have identified several other important challenges and opportunities that should be tackled. These further strengthen the rationale for a separate CRP on dryland cereals. Sources of genes for stress tolerance and adapting to climate change One of the principal wildcards facing global agriculture is the probable impact of global warming. Recent studies suggest that the production of major commodities has declined since 1980 due to global warming (Lobell et al., 2011). Furthermore, it is estimated that, given current warming trends in sub-Saharan Africa, by mid-century there could be declines as large as 20% in the production of major cereals, even including millet and sorghum (Schlenker and Lobell, 2010). The poor who depend on agriculture for their livelihoods and are less able to adapt will be disproportionately affected (World Bank, 2007). Climate-related crop failures, fishery collapses and livestock deaths already cause significant economic losses and undermine food security, and these are likely to become more severe as global warming continues. A recent study estimates the annual costs of adapting to climate change in the agricultural sector to be over US$ 7 billion (Nelson et al., 2009). As environments that are currently considered favorable for agriculture become hotter and dryer over time, dryland cereals will become increasingly suited for production in areas where other crops

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are now grown. DRYLAND CEREALS research planned under Strategic Objectives 2 and 3 will contribute to meeting the eventual needs of smallholders in these areas. The use of dryland cereals as cost-effective alternatives should be accelerated through increased investments and wider, more diverse partnerships to facilitate adaptation to changing agro-ecological conditions. A close partnership with CRP 7 (Climate Change) will ensure that DRYLAND CEREALS effectively targets improved technologies to the conditions of new dryland environments and provides scientific data to enhance climate change models for dryland crops. The looming threat of higher temperatures and more vicious droughts due to climate change is a major concern. Fortunately, barley, millets and sorghum possess the most exceptional genetic traits for climate-related stress resistance that evolution has been able to engineer (i.e., tolerance to such major abiotic stresses as drought, water logging, heat, salinity and acid soils). At the same time, the CGIAR has unparalleled positioning on the genetics of these crops, with its extensive germplasm collections and leading global plant breeding expertise focused on the needs of the developing world. An enormous opportunity thus exists for the CGIAR and an expanded group of partners to conduct strategic research and better tap the stress tolerances found in these crops. Since the CGIAR’s work spans all the major staple cereals, the CG and its partners are ideally placed to generate and foster such knowledge spillovers. In addition to the scientific gains, this could be a mechanism for building stronger synergies and collaboration between the crop-focused CGIAR Centers. The Generation Challenge Program (GCP), an important partner in this CRP, was established specifically for this purpose and has demonstrated significant progress towards the characterization and use of genetic diversity. Responding to the “Livestock Revolution” Mixed crop-livestock smallholder farming enterprises are commonly found in dryland zones, and the nutritious crop residues produced by dryland cereals (especially sorghum, but also barley straw) are a vital source of fodder for livestock. To date, however, little research has been done to increase the quantity and nutritive quality of dryland crop residues. The traditional focus of research has been on increasing the output of grain, and the value of the “leavings” was of secondary interest. Smallholder farmers, on the other hand, have a strong interest in their crop residues. In fact, the widespread availability of crop residues and the extent of their use as livestock fodder mark them as a strategic feed resource of the highest order. Furthermore, it is very important to realize that such residues require no specific allocation of water and land; they result simply from growing crops whose primary product is grain. Thus, any improvement in the nutritive value of crop residues, however small, can have considerable value and impact. There appears to be significant genetic variability for grain yield, stover and straw yield, and fodder quality among the dryland cereals, and there are limited negative correlations among these attributes. These variations came about largely by chance, and existing genetic variability can easily be exploited through targeted breeding to increase the productivity of mixed crop-livestock systems. The work that will be done under Strategic Objectives 1, 2 and 3 will give considerable attention to better understanding the dynamics of the livestock revolution as a demand driver for dryland cereals, and to research designed to improve the quantity and quality of fodder (and feed) in our target environments while maintaining or improving grain yields. Sustainable increases in productivity and improvements in nutrition Dryland cereals are among the hardiest of crops, enabling their persistent survival in harsh environments. They all have notable resistance/tolerance to a range of abiotic and biotic stresses commonly encountered in the dryland ecosystems in which they are grown. This contributes to their production stability and the high potential that exists for achieving further sustainable increases in yields, productivity and profitability.

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Improvin ng productiv vity – Further r improveme ent in the gen netic potential of barley,, millets and sorghum m, mainly thr rough SO 3, is essential fo or increasing g grain yield and quality, as well as fo or improvin ng the quant tity and quality of their s stover and straw. SO 4 will use the pr roducts gene erated by SO 3 as i it strives to identify impr roved agrono omic practice es that will minimize m yielld gaps, redu uce labor requirem ments (drudg gery), and im mprove field-level produc ction and pro oduct quality y. We must continue c to probe e the dryland d cereals gen ne pools to id dentify addit tional source es of toleranc ce and resist tance, gain kno owledge about how these genes cont tribute to cro op stability, and ensure t that all varieties released d contain app propriate lev vels of resista ance. This will be an important aspec ct of work do one under SO O 2 that will feed into SO O 3, and this need, along with other researchable r e issues comm mon to these crops, reinforc ces the idea of working o on them as a group – cap pitalizing on b both the min nimum critical m mass afforde ed by DRYLAN ND CEREALS, , as well as the efficiencie es of the par rtnerships envision ned. Improvin ng nutritiona al content – Increasing I affluenc ce is contribu uting to a rising demand in urban m markets for va alue-added products, p especially those with h more nutritive value. Finger m millet has hig gh levels of ir ron and fiber r and exce eptionally high levels of calcium. c It also has better energy content, making m it ideal for r weaning ch hildren, pregn nant and nursing mothers (Shashi et al., 2007). Moreover, it is being g used as a therapeutic food in p programs for diabetics and people who can nnot tolerate e gluten. During t the last decade there has s been increasin ng interest in n incorporating barley in the hum man diet to im mprove healt th, mainly in as developed countries s and in majo or urban area of developing countries. This is boosting b the development of food d products from barley and consumer intere est in eating them. The effective eness of barl ley beta-gluc cans in lowering g blood chole esterol and its low glycaem mic index in diets for Type e II diabetics is widely a accepted. The consumption of barley y reduces the rate at which w glucos se is released d to the blood (Björck et al., 2000) ) causing a reductio on in the Glyc caemic Index x (GI). Betaglucans derived from m barley help p reduce its glycaem mic response (Cavallero et t al., 2002). I In addition n, barley is a rich source of o tocols, which ar re known to reduce serum LDL choleste erol through their antioxi idant action. . Food produ ucts made fro om hulless b barley are considered whole-g grain foods, and a in North and East Afr rica, producing and mark keting such p processed foods is becomin ng a common n source of income for w women. Pearl mi illet and sorg ghum have in nherently hig gher content t of importan nt micronutr rients, such as a iron and zinc c. In addition ICRISAT and d its partners s have recently identified d varieties w with significan ntly higher m micronutrient content, which w can hel p consumers s avoid micro onutrient de eficiencies. These two cere eals are also reasonably good source es of protein and fat – and thus fat-so oluble vitami ins. Pearl mi illet and sorg ghum are glu uten-free, an nd like barley y have low glycaemic indiices.
23

CRP 3.6 D DRYLAND CER REALS – Progra am Justificatio on

DRYLAND CEREALS Strategic Objectives 2, 3 and 4 will pay particular attention to at least maintaining – and where possible, increasing – the micronutrient content of dryland cereal grain. They will also work to improve the nutritional value of stover and straw for use in smallholder mixed crop-livestock systems. Consumers are learning more about the advantages of consuming these traditional “coarse grain” cereals (see Box), and research on post-harvest, value adding processing (as part of SO 6) is required to help ensure that some of the preferred, traditional dishes can be made more readily available in urban markets. Improving the delivery, availability and adoption of dryland cereals A persistent challenge for dryland cereals is the lack of effective seed production and delivery systems in many of our target areas, which limits the availability of improved varieties and related technologies and information for smallholders. Research will be done under SO 5 to more clearly identify the constraints to establishing viable delivery systems and opportunities for overcoming them. The lack of such systems also contributes to the poor adoption track record for improved dryland cereal technologies. Another major factor limiting adoption is that our target farmers in general are among the poorest of the poor and are farming marginal lands in harsh and unpredictable environments. They can ill afford to take risks with new technologies. Thus, research aimed at more fully understanding technology adoption dynamics under such risky circumstances will be done under SO 6; options for increasing household incomes through value-adding activities and better market access will also be explored. Scarcity of alternative suppliers Although the importance of dryland cereal crops is increasingly recognized, only a few organizations other than the CGIAR are investing in them. These are primarily public-sector institutions, such as INTSORMIL, and several universities in the USA, EU, UK and Australia. The private sector understandably gives more priority to other crops with large cash markets, although a few do have breeding programs focused on one or more dryland cereal. National governments in developing countries do support work on barley, millets and sorghum, but usually on a relatively small scale. Notable exceptions include EMBRAPA in Brazil and ICAR in India, both of which have significant research programs because of the national importance of these cereals. Unfortunately, many of the government institutions in countries where dryland cereals are important crops are woefully underfinanced, especially in the poorest (and driest) nations. Addressing this investment gap is directly in line with the CGIAR’s core mission. The CG System was originally founded with a focus on helping the very poorest and hungriest in the developing world. The CGIAR must continue with and strengthen its flagship focus on the forgotten poor – those outside the mainstream of economic and political influence. It must help them find ways to grow their way out of poverty, and become more important actors in national economies (and in doing so, mattering more to decision makers). There is strong evidence that the CG can play an effective role in catalyzing the interest of the private sector in dryland crops. The vigorous millet and sorghum private seed industry in India, for example, openly credits the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), with the help of ICRISAT, as being responsible for their success. These companies say they would not have been able to start profitable businesses without prior research having created improved germplasm, particularly hybrids. In fact, they are now funding a significant portion of ICRISAT’s hybrid improvement research in India, through annual consortium membership fees. Such partnerships have transformed the way plant breeding is done by a number of CG centers operating in Asia, Africa and Latin America, and yet they present but a glimpse of what may be achievable through creative arrangements with a more diversified array of R4D partners in the future.

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DRY YLAND CE EREALS IMPACT PATHW WAY
DRYLAND CEREALS will w gauge its s impacts in t the context of o the CGIAR R Consortium m Strategy an nd Results F Framework. The SRF iden ntifies three key stages in the outrea ach process: t the development and delivery of outp puts, the co-p production o of outcomes with those who w will dire ctly use them m, and engagem ment with th hose who del liver impacts s to our ultim mate beneficiaries – the s smallholder farmers f of Africa a and Asia. The DRY YLAND CEREA ALS impact pathway p has its focus on the millions of smallhold der farmers whose w ove. Prioritie lives and d livelihoods we are working to impro es for research intervent tions are aide ed by knowled dge gained fr rom targeted d dryland cer real value ch hain and adoption studies s (Strategic Objectiv ve 1). Five ad dditional Stra ategic Object tives work in n concert to yield y outputs s that are the e substrat tes for variou us research outcomes. o Th hese researc ch outcomes feed into de evelopment eater resilien outcome es that, in tu urn, contribute to impact ts such as improved food d security, gre nce, increase ed income, im mproved gen nder equity, and a reduce ed environm mental footpr rint (Figure 2). 2 For example e, increased access to and enhanced use of genet tic resources s and tools (f from Strateg gic Objectiv ve 2) contribu ute to more efficient bre eeding programs and imp proved variet ties, especia ally those that can n perform under harsh en nvironments s. Higher yielding, more robust and m more nutritious varieties s (Strategic Objective O 3) will w give grea ater benefits s where pests and diseas ses are better managed and natura al resources are optimallly used (Strategic Objective 4). Farme ers will have better o improved technology t packages p wh hen disseminated through affordable e and effectiv ve seed, access to input an nd communic cation system ms (Strategic c Objective 5). 5 Improved access to ma arkets and in ncreased attention to and by end-users e (Strategic Obje ective 6) sho ould drive change and cre eate new demand for varie eties and oth her technolog gies in a feed dback loop. Finally, F impro oved capacit ty of partner rs for research h and innova ation should increase the e probability that outputs s lead to the relevant outcomes.

Figure 2. 2 Strategic Objectives, O res search and de evelopment outcomes and impacts

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The pathway depicted in Figure 3 shows in greater detail where the key actors are adding or absorbing value. The actors include R4D partners (NARES, ARIs, IARCs and private sector entities), development and delivery partners (which includes a range of NGOs, CSOs and private sector organizations), smallholder farmers, small- to medium-sized agro-enterprises and larger-scale agroindustries, through to rural and urban consumers. Our development partners are the primary “delivery mechanism” for moving better seed and other inputs, better agronomic practices, and better information and other innovations into the hands of smallholder farmers, which will then allow them to improve their farming operations and related processing and marketing activities. For many farmers – those mired in a subsistence existence – this alone will be a big step towards finally being able to meet their own household food needs. In order to have maximum impact, however, we must do more. We need to help create an environment in which smallholder farmers can produce marketable surpluses and in which they can gain access to more efficient and effective markets, access that will transform surpluses into additional income and open opportunities for establishing commercially viable SMEs and/or link directly with agro-industries. Beyond that, we must work through development organizations, educational institutions and governments to further educate consumers about the nutritional value of these crops, an “awareness trend” that is already picking up speed in South Asia and holds similar promise in Africa, especially in urban areas. As consumers increasingly partake of coarse grains, whether in the form of traditional foods or as new, timesaving processed food products, the demand for additional surplus production will continue to increase. While this pathway may appear overly simplified and rather linear, we recognize that it is anything but. Feedback loops and multiple roles abound in the real world. Smallholder farmers, for example, are of course the producers of dryland cereals, but are also critical sources of knowledge about the crops who are often involved in participatory on-farm research; they may be involved both in household and (increasingly) in commercial food processing; and they are certainly consumers as well. A large number of producers and consumers can potentially be reached through DRYLAND CEREALS. We estimate that there are some 5.6 million smallholder households (about 30.5 million potential beneficiaries) farming nearly 10.8 million hectares in 17 target countries across our four regions (Table 5). We also use ex-ante analysis (Appendix 3) to provide a preliminary estimate of potential economic benefits from DRYLAND CEREALS. Because of adoption lags, a 10-year timeframe is used to project an additional net income from dryland cereal grain of around US$ 0.9, and the value of the additional sorghum stover produced will be about US$ 3 billion. Because the technologies that will be developed are mainly targeting production, processing, and marketing constraints, most of these benefits will accrue to poor farmers and their family members. As these crops are mostly for domestic consumption, the benefits are shared between consumers, producers, and traders, with a larger portion of the benefits accruing to consumers. Not surprisingly, gender plays a very important role in all this. About 70% of the smallholder farmers we want to reach are women and we obviously need to understand upfront the constraints they face and their preferences so that outputs can be tailored to gender-based demands. We also need to know how to create market opportunities that can benefit women, opportunities that lead to empowerment and improved livelihoods. Outputs relating to nutrition and food security are particularly relevant to women, as are those relating to improving feed and fodder quantity and quality since women often care for household livestock. Improved processing technologies that make it easier for women to process food for home consumption, and to process it in larger quantities for storage, can help reduce drudgery and the workload handled by women.

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Figur re 3. The DRY YLAND CEREAL LS impact pathway

p mus st consider t he whole value chain to make sure d different outc comes DRYLAND CEREALS partners e desired beh havioral imp pacts on diffe erent actors. As noted ea arlier in this s section, we realize r have the that par rticipants alo ong the value e chain intera act in a number of ways and that the ere is a multiplicity of feedback loops not shown government s here. The role of g ts in creating g enabling en nvironments is also critical, a as are gende er considerat tions and cap pacity streng gthening.

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Table 5. Estimated target area and number of potential beneficiaries by crop and region (millions)
Region / Country Barley Targeted Area (ha) Targeted Households Targeted Beneficiaries Targeted Area (ha) 279,610 303,949 1,373,015 826,880 197,897 0 206,121 0 137,414 0 687,069 2,783,453 78,424 111,774 63,463 91,867 206,121 179,115 288,667 203,862 335,920 418,907 259,835 580,621 2,266,927 144,840 144,840 2,617,887 137,414 89,557 144,334 101,931 167,960 209,453 129,917 290,311 1,133,463 72,420 72,420 1,343,297 687,069 447,787 721,668 509,654 503,880 1,047,267 649,587 870,932 4,750,775 362,100 362,100 5,799,944 0 2,266,507 2,266,507 5,593,384 0 1,743,467 1,743,467 2,719,156 0 8,717,333 8,717,333 16,577,129 0 1,530,933 1,530,933 4,659,559 0 1,177,641 1,177,641 2,295,098 0 5,888,205 5,888,205 13,799,395 2,981,350 Millet Targeted Households 69,903 75,987 343,254 206,720 49,474 695,863 52,283 74,516 42,309 61,244 745,337 Targeted Beneficiaries 629,123 683,885 3,089,283 1,860,480 445,267 6,262,770 261,414 372,579 211,543 306,222 6,708,037 804,722 536,481 2,682,406 2,323,904 317,835 314,745 172,142 580,976 211,890 209,830 114,761 5,228,783 1,059,449 1,049,151 573,807 Targeted Area (ha) 369,201 220,531 594,807 1,139,364 Sorghum Targeted Households 92,300 55,133 148,702 284,841 Targeted Beneficiaries 830,703 496,195 1,338,317 2,563,569 TOTAL ALL CROPS (considering overlap) Targeted Area (ha) 324,406 262,240 1,574,258 1,179,746 178,107 3,340,650 542,142 383,867 212,045 82,680 3,518,756 179,115 288,667 203,862 335,920 418,907 259,835 580,621 2,266,927 3,745,166 3,745,166 10,751,582 Targeted Households 81,101 65,560 393,564 294,937 44,527 835,162 361,428 255,911 141,363 55,120 879,689 89,557 144,334 101,931 167,960 209,453 129,917 290,311 1,133,463 2,843,851 2,843,851 5,670,826 Targeted Beneficiaries 729,913 590,040 3,542,080 2,654,429 400,741 7,516,461 1,807,139 1,279,557 706,815 275,600 7,917,202 447,787 721,668 509,654 503,880 1,047,267 649,587 870,932 4,750,775 14,219,257 14,219,257 30,956,344

West and Central Asia Burkina Faso Mali Niger Nigeria Senegal Sub-total Ethiopia Sudan Tanzania Uganda Sub-total Algeria Iran Iraq Kazakhstan Morocco Syria Turkey Sub-total South Asia India Sub-total TOTAL Central and West Asia and North Africa Eastern and Southern Africa

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DRYL LAND CERE EALS STRA ATEGIC OBJECTIVES
DRYLAND CEREALS is focused primarily on th he core encies of cro op improvem ment (includin ng the compete use of ge enetic resou urces and gen nomics), crop pping systems (use of sustainable crop p, pest and d isease management option ns) and post-harvest tech hnologies (appropriate storage e, processing g and market ting), with sign nificant colla aborative eff forts with oth her CRPs in produ uction system ms and price, , trade and p policy areas (Figure 4). Bey yond these tr raditional co ore compete encies, DRYL LAND CEREAL LS also bring gs expertise and focus to new areas identified iin the y and Results s Framework k (SRF), such as Strategy climate change adap ptation/mitig gation (tappiing dryland cereals for traits ght, heat t and gen nes for droug and nutr rient use) an nd nutrition and a health. OVERVIEW W OF DRYLAN ND CEREALS STRATEGIC OB BJECTIVES CRP 3.6 is organized around six interrelated Strategic Objectiv ves, which th hemselves rest logically o on the central c challenges an nd/or opportunities desc cribed in the Prog gram Justifica ation section n. Strategic Objective 1 – Better ta argeting of unities for te echnology de evelopment and opportu delivery y of dryland cereals c to sm mallholder fa armers in Africa an nd Asia
Figure 4. Focu us of DRYLAN ND CEREALS in n overall research structure of the C CGIAR (figure from CGIAR Strategy and Result ts Framework k)

Togethe er with CRP 2, 2 Strategic Objective O 1 aiims to develop information resource es required fo or better targeting of DRYLAN ND CEREALS research r effo orts. An information syst tem will be d designed to track the ction, adoption and impa act of dryland d cereal tech hnologies. Indicators of a adoption and d impact introduc will be d developed, and a flexible M&E system m will be imp plemented th hat will faciliitate critical reflectio on, learning and a feedback. Key partne ers will be tr rained in stan ndardized su urvey design and data collection meth hods, project t M&E, and a analysis of th he dynamics of adoption and impact. . Major O Outputs: 1.1. Knowledge and priorit ties for R4D o opportunitie es along the dryland d cere eals value cha ain to increase benefits b to sm mallholder fa armers, espe ecially women 1.2. Knowledge of trade-of ffs between food and no on-food uses of dryland c cereal multip purpose varieties and a hybrids 1.3. Evidence for f policy and regulation s to increase e demand an nd supply of d dryland cere eal grain and proce essed produc cts Strategic Objective 2 – Enhancin ng the availa ability and us se of genetic c diversity, g genomics and informa atics to enhance the effic ciency of dry yland cereal improvement This Objective is des signed to mo ore fully docu ument the wide w range of genetic dive ersity found in c of dryland cer real germpla asm to facilitate developm ment of mor re publically available collections productive varieties (Strategic Objective O 3) t hat have imp proved stability of produ uction, better storage characteristics, improved nutritionall quality, and d enhanced value v for mu ultiple uses, such s as
CRP 3.6 D DRYLAND CER REALS – Strategic Objectives s Overview 29

for grain and fodder or using stover and straw as construction materials. The work that will be done under this objective is needed to ensure that diversified dryland cereal varieties are available to farmers over the longer-term. This diversification will provide them with viable options for increasing the availability of food grain with preferred traits under a range of production conditions, and increase the resilience of farming systems in anticipation of climate change impacts. Major Outputs: 2.1. Dynamic dryland cereal germplasm conservation, exchange and utilization 2.2. Characterized dryland cereal genetic resources for key traits and future use 2.3. Integrated breeding platform for more efficient breeding Strategic Objective 3 – Developing improved dryland cereal varieties and hybrids for increased yield, quality and adaptation in smallholder farmers’ fields The work planned under this Strategic Objective is focused on using in creative ways the very wide genetic diversity found in dryland cereals, between and within species, to develop new, higher yielding varieties with improved tolerance for abiotic stresses and resistance to biotic pests. These varieties will have greater yield stability and will express farmer-preferred quality traits that increase household food security, nutrition and/or income via new marketing opportunities for these cereals or products derived from them. Products from this research will be well-adapted and more productive hybrid parents, varieties and hybrids. At the same time, the methods and tools used for variety development will be analyzed and documented so that crop breeding efficiency and effectiveness can be improved across crops, regions and traits. Major Outputs: 3.1. High grain and fodder yielding varieties and hybrids with desired end-user quality attributes 3.2. Varieties and hybrids with better tolerance to heat, drought and low soil fertility 3.3. Varieties and hybrids with improved resistance to diseases and pests 3.4. Varieties and hybrids with enhanced green forage, stover and straw varieties for fodder and other uses 3.5. Varieties and hybrids with enhanced grain qualities for food, feed and industrial uses Strategic Objective 4 – Developing sustainable crop, pest and disease management options to capture genetic gains from improved dryland cereal varieties and hybrids This Strategic Objective will target the development of crop management options that contribute to increased cereal yields and quality. The options produced will be affordable and meet the requirements of smallholder farmers. The interventions will exploit genetic yield potential and will include nutrient application, seed priming, and integrated management strategies for biotic and abiotic constraints (IPM/IDM). In addition, information will be generated for breeders regarding desirable traits and plant types for low fertility, variable rainfall conditions and different farming systems. Many of these crop management activities will be done in conjunction with CRP 1.1 to ensure that interventions are based on knowledge of and experience with dryland farming and livelihood systems. Major Outputs: 4.1. Gender responsive crop management options to optimize crop productivity in smallholder farmers’ fields 4.2. Integrated Striga, disease, pest and weed management options to meet the social, environmental and ecological sensitivities of dryland cereals

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Strategic Objective 5 – Enhancing effective seed and information systems for better delivery of improved technology packages to smallholder farmers Focused on research related to improving the effectiveness and efficiency of seed and information delivery systems, Strategic Objective 5 will identify viable ways to enhance the availability of improved technologies (e.g. seed and agronomic practices) to smallholder farmers in Africa and Asia. Weak seed production and delivery systems (both formal and informal), coupled with high prices for and poor availability of fertilizers, and limited awareness about new technologies and provision of relevant information combine to inhibit the use of technologies that can increase the productivity and production of smallholder dryland cereal producers. Government policies occasionally adversely affect input delivery systems, and extension services generally must focus their limited resources on farmers in more favorable environments, giving scant attention to those in marginal dryland systems. Major Outputs: 5.1. Integrated crop and management technology packages for dryland cereals 5.2. Innovations to strengthen seed and input delivery systems for smallholder farmers 5.3. Better communication and knowledge sharing options for improved awareness and use of dryland cereal technologies Strategic Objective 6 – Adding post-harvest value and improving market access of dryland cereals to provide smallholder farmers more benefits from dryland cereals This Objective targets identifying and developing options for producing value-added products from dryland cereals. Smallholder farmers, especially women, can benefit from value-adding post-harvest activities and enterprises, as well as better market access. The first and most widespread opportunity rests on the integration of food and fodder, and possibly feed production. If they have desired qualities, and are available when demand is high, fodder and feed can become a valuable marketable surplus. Processing options that maintain and add value to dryland cereals in food processing value chains will be identified, and appropriate business models will be adapted for marketing newly developed dryland cereal food products. Special attention will be given to determining what is required for smallholder farmers, especially women, to reliably supply high quality grain to the food industry at competitive prices. Major Outputs: 6.1. Improved storage and processing technologies to reduce post-harvest losses in quantity and quality 6.2. Novel and diverse dryland cereal-based products to stimulate demand grain 6.3. Institutional innovations to improve linkages between smallholder farmers and markets

A summary of the major planned activities is provided in Table 6, beginning on the next page. This table shows the activities that will be undertaken to produce the outputs associated with each Strategic Objective, and indicates which of the planned activities will cut across two or more crops – giving rise to implementation efficiencies – and which will pertain to individual crops only.

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Table 6. Major crop-specific workplans, by Strategic Objective and key outputs
Strategic Objective / Output SO1 Better targeting of opportunities 1.1 Knowledge and priorities for R4D  Analyze existing crop statistics for data quality; obtain higher quality data where necessary; assemble and make available as IPGs via webbased information system  Map value chains; analyze cost-benefits; identify R4D opportunities; provide data and analyses as IPGs  Assemble data on yield gaps; identify R4D opportunities; provide data and analyses as IPGs  Monitor and evaluate barriers to adoption; use to identify new constraints and priorities; provide data and analyses as IPGs  Inventory key non-food uses; synthesize and identify key R4D opportunities; provide data and analyses as IPGs  Analyze sub-sector for non-feed uses; provide data and analyses as IPGs  Assess willingness to pay for hybrid seed (WCA); provide analyses as IPGs  Ex-ante impact analysis using IMPACT model; provide data and analyses as IPGs via web-based information system  Measure competitiveness of dryland cereals; provide indicators as IPGs  Produce policy brief for each region; distribute to all target countries in region; provide as IPGs  Determine gaps in global collections; enrich collections with missing diversity; provide global access via web-based information system and quality seed distribution  Develop or update representative sub-sets of collections; provide global access via web-based information system and quality seed distribution  Develop germplasm association panels; provide global access via web-based information system and quality seed distribution  Assemble TILLING populations; provide global access via web-based information system and quality seed distribution  Produce DNA samples for sub-sets of collections; provide global access via web-based information system and quality DNA distribution  Identify key traits across crops, especially drought/heat tolerance related; refine high-throughput phenotyping procedures; screen sub-sets for identified traits; provide data and analyses as IPGs  Identify and validate trait-marker associations; provide marker sets as IPGs  Obtain genome-wide sequence information; re-sequenced sub-sets; identify common alleles; provide sequence and allelic information as IPGs  Identify new information technologies for breeding; strengthen data management capacities  Develop and promote integrated marker-assisted breeding tools Barley Finger millet Pearl millet Sorghum

1.2 Knowledge of trade-offs

1.3 Evidence for policy and regulations

SO2 Genetic resources and tools 2.1 Dynamic germplasm exchange and utilization

2.2 Characterized genetic resources

2.3 Integrated genomic and information platforms

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Strategic Objective / Output SO3 Variety and hybrid development 3.1 High grain and fodder yield

Barley  Develop increased outcrossing populations

Finger millet  Test methods for improving crossing; provide analyses as IPGs; implement in breeding programs

Pearl millet

Sorghum

3.2 Abiotic stresses

   

3.3 Biotic stresses



  

 Develop superior parental lines for hybrids; provide seed and information as IPGs  Produce genetic diversity data; identify heterotic groups; provide data and analyses as IPGs  Initiate recurrent selection; assess efficiency; provide analyses as IPGs  Develop genetically diverse and locally adapted restorer progenies; provide seed Identify QTLs for drought related traits; provide linked markers for breeding Develop parental lines with improved drought tolerance; provide seed IPGs Assess stability of drought tolerance traits; provide data and analyses as IPGs Develop salinity tolerant  Develop protocol for drought  Identify markers linked to P varieties; provide seed as IPGs screening; evaluate lines; efficiency; provide as IPGs provide data and analyses as  Develop salinity tolerant IPGs varieties; provide seed as IPGs  Develop high biomass and grain yield hybrids; provide parental lines as IPGs  Refine screening protocols for Identify sources of resistance  Refine screening protocols for  Refine screening protocols for midge and aphids; identify to fungal leaf and root blast disease; identify sources head miner and blast disease; sources of resistance; provide of resistance; provide data and identify sources of resistance; diseases; develop mapping data and seed as IPGs seed as IPGs provide data and seed as IPGs populations; provide data, information and seed as IPGs  Develop varieties with  Develop varieties with  Develop varieties with improved Striga tolerance, Refine screening protocols; improved blast resistance; improved head miner and foliar and grain mold, shoot provide seed as IPGs downy mildew resistance; provide as IPGs fly, stem borer and aphid provide seed as IPGs  Monitor evolution of blast Develop varieties and hybrids resistance; provide seed as with improved resistances; virulence; provide data and  Monitor evolution of blast and IPGs provide seed as IPGs analyses as IPGs downy mildew virulence;  Identify QTLs for aphid provide data and analyses as Identify QTLs for resistances; resistance; establish markerIPGs establish marker-assisted assisted protocols for transfer protocols for transfer of  Identify QTLs for downy of resistances; provide as IPGs resistances; provide as IPGs mildew resistance; establish marker-assisted protocols for transfer of resistances; provide as IPGs

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Strategic Objective / Output 3.4 Green forage, stover and straw    

Barley

Finger millet

Pearl millet

Sorghum

3.5 Enhanced nutritional grain

Review options for improving total plant value; characterize components across germplasm; provide data and analyses as IPGs Standardize NIR protocols; establish protocols in regions; implement in breeding programs Develop dual-purpose varieties combining grain and stover yield; provide seed as IPGs Develop marker-assisted selection strategy for stover value; establish in breeding programs  Screen sweet sorghum lines for multi-cut traits; provide data and analyses as IPGs  Develop high-biomass sweet sorghum with low lignin genes; provide seed as IPGs  Characterize cultivars for processing and value-addition traits; provide data and analyses as IPGs  Characterize lines for poultry and small ruminants feed traits; provide data and analyses as IGPs  Develop and test screening protocols for malting quality; provide as IPGs  Profile for key nutrients and minerals; provide data and analyses as IPGs  Characterize lines for poultry and small ruminants feed traits; provide data and analyses as IGPs  Identify source lines with high mineral content; provide data and analyses as IPGs

 Quantify decortification losses; determine bioavailabilty of iron and zinc; provide data and analyses as IPGs SO4 Sustainable crop management 4.1 Gender responsive crop management options  Identify crop x management options; produce and distribute brochure on best options  Establish on-farm optimal rates of micro-doses of fertilizer; demonstrate advantages on-farm; produce and distribute brochure on best practices  Identify training needs; conduct farmer field schools on integrated management practices  Identify guidelines for optimized soil fertility/organic matter/weed management; conduct training to farmers in best practices  Identify salinity management options; conduct training to farmers in best practices  Identify best IPM and IDM strategies; conduct training; produce and distribute brochure on best strategies  Compare weed management options; produce and distribute brochure on best options  Develop and test integrated  Develop and test integrated RWA management; conduct Striga and soil fertility management; conduct training training on best strategies to farmers  Conduct FFS on integrated aphid control

4.2 Integrated biotic stress management options

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Strategic Objective / Output SO5 Effective seed and information 5.1 Integrated technology packages 5.2 Innovations to strengthen seed and input delivery

Barley

Finger millet

Pearl millet

Sorghum

 Identify and test optimal technology (crop, management) packages; demonstrate packages; evaluate cost-benefits; assess impacts Review existing seed delivery models; evaluate sustainability; provide data and analyses as IPGs Analyze national seed system; provide recommendations to national governments Review early generation seed production; establish functional seed units and procedures Review infrastructure needs; train personnel in seed science and technology  WCA: Study technical efficiency of public and private sector seed production  WCA: Support harmonized regulatory framework  WCA: Strengthen farmer access to inputs  Review agricultural extensions systems; identify key gaps; provide recommendations to NARES  Develop web-based information repository on seed sector; produce and distribute newsletter  Train farmer organizations, NGOs and NARES on producing radio and video messages       Assess losses due to storage pests; perform gap analysis of post-harvest management technologies; provide data and analyses as IPGs Compare drying technologies; test on-farm best technologies; produce and distribute brochure on best strategies Identify best threshing, winnowing, grading and decertification equipment; analyze cost-benefits of each; provide data and analyses as IPGs Evaluate storage techniques; provide training; provide data and analyses as IPGs Optimize pre-treatment and food preparation methods to maintain nutritional value; develop value-added products using best methods; provide training Optimize processing  Optimize processing technologies for value-added food products; technologies for value-added profile for nutritional and sensory values; provide data and food and malt products; analyses as IPGs profile for nutritional and  Develop packaging and labeling protocols for food products; sensory values; provide data provide as IPGs and analyses as IPGs  Formulate value-added food products; validate for retention of Develop packaging and bioactive components; provide data and analyses as IPGs labeling protocols for food products; provide as IPGs Formulate value-added food products; validate for retention of bioactive components; provide data and analyses as IPGs Identify existing institutional arrangements linking farmers to grain and fodder markets; analyze cost-benefits; provide analyses as IPGs Develop and test models linking farmers to grain and fodder markets; provide analyses as IPGs, provide training Establish communication platform to provide information flow to diverse stakeholders    

5.3 Alternative communication and awareness strategies SO6 Post-harvest value and markets 6.1 Improved storage and processing technologies

6.2 Novel and diverse products for entrepreneurs

 

6.3 Institutional innovations to improve market linkages

  

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LINKAGES S AMONG STRA ATEGIC OBJECT TIVES These six Strategic Objectives O are closely link ked (Figure 5). 5 Strategic Objective O 1s supports and d helps to focus the other fiv ve Strategic Objectives o on relevant geographic g areas and par rticular challe enges facing sm mallholder dryland d cerea al farmers in our target fa arming syste ems. Strategiic Objective 2 supports s DRYLAND CEREALS C com mmodity dev velopment work w by ensur ring the avai lability of an nd access to genet tic resources s containing traits t import tant to small lholders, to facilitate f the e more efficie ent creation n of diverse varietal v optio ons (and hyb brids) with modern breed ding approac ches, and to increase i the resilience of targ get farming systems. s It a lso contribut tes to breedi ing work aim med at produ ucing e use varietie es (fodder an nd feed) need ded to suppo ort the livest tock revoluti on, and to in ncrease multiple smallholder product tivity and foo od security in n general. Strategic Objective 3 draw ws on the rese earch outputs of Strategic Objectives 1 and 2 to im mprove the ef fficiency and d effectivene ess of dryland d cereal breeding g work, and partners wit th Strategic O Objectives 4, , 5 and 6 to make m sure th he varieties and a hybrids being produced have not only high y yield potentia al and better r disease res sistance and abiotic ces, but also meet other farmer prefe erences for quality, q mana agement, po ost-harvest handling h toleranc and proc cessing. Strategic Objective 3 will als so evaluate and a documen nt the approa aches and breeding tools being used so that t breeding efficiency and effective eness can be e improved a across crops, regions and trait ts. Strategic Objective 4 is centered o on generatin ng viable crop p manageme ent options for f harsh environm ments that will w get the most m out of th he new dryla and cereal va arieties and h hybrids being produce ed, and optim mize smallho older product tion, productivity, and pr rofitability to o encourage adoption n. Strategic Objective O 5 is focused on n identifying constraints to t the delive ery of seed, informat tion and oth her inputs to dryland sma allholders, an nd devising feasible optio ons for addre essing them. And Strategic Objective 6 will investig ate opportunities for add ding post-ha arvest value to t dryland cereals, especially for women, and in ncreasing access to local and regiona al markets. Capacity C strength hening of var rious kinds will w cut across s all the Strategic Objectives, as will e efforts to ensure gender m mainstreami ing in our wo ork to meet t the specific needs n of wom men farmers s – as well as s draw on their experience, knowledge and skills rellative to producing, proc cessing and m marketing dr ryland cereals.

Figure 5. Link kages among DRYLAND CEREALS Strateg gic Objectives s

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Each of the DRYLAND CEREALS Strategic Objectives is described in more detail below, and especially in Appendix 4. The rationale for and major lessons learned about each are presented, as well as the process used to establish research priorities. An impact pathway for each Strategic Objective is presented that illustrates how research outputs lead to products, research outcomes, development outcomes and impacts. Key partnerships are briefly discussed, but a more detailed presentation (including the roles of partners in producing or contributing to specific outputs) is included in Appendix 4. Gender issues specific to each Strategic Objective are discussed, and innovations that pertain to the research being done are identified. Outputs and milestones (2012-2014) are outlined below, and then presented in more detail in Appendix 4, along with the methodologies that will be used to produce them.

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STRATEGIC OBJECTIVE 1: BETTER TARGETING OF OPPORTUNITIES FOR TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT AND DELIVERY OF DRYLAND CEREALS TO SMALLHOLDER FARMERS IN AFRICA AND ASIA Rationale and Description In close collaboration with CRP 2, Strategic Objective 1 will develop the information resources required for better targeting of the DRYLAND CEREALS research program and for exploiting opportunities to promote appropriate technologies and innovations. Specifically, this Objective will develop an information system to track the introduction, adoption and impact of proven dryland cereal technologies in primary target and secondary diffusion areas in Africa and Asia. It will identify indicators of adoption and impact in terms of productivity, equity, income, profitability and food and nutrition security that need to be tracked. It will design and implement a participatory, innovative and science-based monitoring and evaluation system that will allow critical reflection, learning and feedback. The impacts of early adoption of technologies and innovations will be monitored and documented using multi-dimensional indicators. The capacity of all partners will be enhanced through training in survey design and data collection methods, project monitoring and evaluation and analysis of dynamics of adoption and impact of dryland cereals Agricultural research institutes the world over have developed crop improvement and management technologies and innovations targeting rainfed agriculture. However, these technologies and innovations often do not reach smallholder farmers due to a lack of effective delivery mechanisms. Thus adoption remains low, and is further constrained by limited access to capital, poor infrastructure, weak linkages between producers and input and product markets, and a lack of appropriate policy support. Interventions for improving productivity and/or reducing production risks for dryland cereal farmers will be more effective with better characterization and targeting of production environments, stress factors, markets, and the profiles of target farmers. This targeting will be based on secondary information regarding: geographic areas, production and productivity levels; the extent of adoption; priority preferences (i.e. of farmers, consumers and other end users) along the value chain; utilization and marketing; and past efforts to introduce new technologies and the lessons learned from those efforts. GIS tools will be used to develop maps of target areas for technology delivery and diffusion, and situation and outlook reports will be prepared for dryland cereals in the WCA, ESA, CWANA, and SA regions. There is still limited understanding of the trade-offs producers place on both food and feed in different regions. In addition, under the right circumstances the development and introduction of locally adapted hybrids will offer increased productivity over OPVs. Thus, there is a need to better understand the trade-offs for smallholder farmers and the potential of hybrids to not only increase yields, but to attract the private sector in order to ensure remunerative returns to the smallholder farmers. To increase returns to investments in R4D, it is necessary to give priority to options that will provide the highest benefits. Ex-ante analyses of potential impacts from the introduction of proven technologies and delivery alternatives should be conducted. This will provide the information needed to select and target the most promising opportunities. When complemented by well-designed monitoring and evaluation systems, impact will be increased through greater success in technology development, innovation and adoption. Lessons Learned Key lessons have been learned from past targeting and evaluation efforts:  The adoption of improved technologies by smallholders lags significantly behind its development. Adoption tracking requires disaggregation of adoption pathways of smallholders versus large-scale farmers to be able to delineate delays and the magnitude of benefits that accrue to smallholders relative to larger scale farmers.

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 The Sorghum and Pearl Millet Improvement Program undertaken in SADC during the mid1980s to the early 2000s concluded that “champions” and collective action in seed multiplication enables a sustained uptake of improved seed technologies.  Smallholder farmers value the multi-purpose uses of dryland cereals, especially in West Africa. Dryland farmers are both crop producers and livestock raisers, and new varieties that do not embody multiple traits are not likely to be adopted. This is also the case for South Asia. In India, farmers have been reluctant to adopt improved sorghum varieties grown in the post-rainy season because of low grain and fodder quality traits. It is therefore necessary to simultaneously improve food/feed traits to make new cultivars attractive to smallholder farmers.  In the case of pearl millet in West Africa, varieties that have short, thin stalks have been rejected, as have varieties that have been used to produce processed products with short shelf lives. In Asia, pearl millet grain that cannot be stored and that produces flour that turns rancid after only a short time is likely to be rejected by farmers. Thus, there is a need to increase the shelf life of grain and reduce certain undesirable attributes, such as fat content and phenolic compounds, which will improve the shelf life of the flour.  During the last 30 years, governments and donors have invested more than US$ 200 million in the development of seed systems in WCA. These efforts have produced little impact; formal systems still supply less than 1% of commercially used seed. However, for dryland cereals, the development of seed systems has relied largely on OPVs and the private sector has as a result shown little interest to invest because of limited potential for profits. This led to the emergence of community based seed systems, but these have proven to be unsustainable. Priority Setting The ex-ante analysis of potential benefits of the broad set of alternative options in the dryland cereals research portfolio is an essential component of this Strategic Objective. This component will determine the range of opportunities for achieving research benefits while targeting different crops and crop types with alternative uses as food, feed, fodder and fuel. Participatory priority setting efforts will involve scientists who will provide knowledge about potential technologies and associated gains; public and private sector stakeholders and ultimate beneficiaries (farmers) will provide perspectives on multi-use traits and trade-offs among competing research opportunities. A top priority for Strategic Objective 1 will be to systematically define and develop measurable indicators that correspond to all six DRYLAND CEREALS Strategic Objectives. The effectiveness of research investments in specific dryland cereal crops, traits and productivity constraints will be evaluated, using measures that enable the comparison of benefits among competing research objectives as well as measurement of tradeoffs among multiple-use traits. Strategic Objective 1 research priorities will be based on the relative valuation of traits, and the trade-offs between traits, by smallholder farmers, the private sector (e.g. food/feed/energy processing industries – bakeries, breweries, and poultry and cattle feeders) and consumers. Food and feed traits will be identified and prioritized, and researchers will focus on the improvement of varieties/hybrids incorporating those traits. Desired traits will normally be site specific, and influenced by such factors as farmers’ socio-economic and demographic profiles, biophysical environments, and institutional and policy considerations that can limit (or promote) adoption of new technologies. Food and livestock value chain analyses aimed at increasing efficiency, reducing transaction costs, and estimating the value added at different stages will also be a high priority research activity under Strategic Objective 1. Impact Pathway Strategic Objective 1 outputs and their associated products will lead to several research and development outcomes and, eventually, impacts (Figure 6). Enhanced knowledge of smallholder
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farmer preferences regarding improved varieties and hybrids suitable for food, feed, processing, and industrial use will lead to increased seed replacement and adoption of improved technologies. Changes in cropping patterns towards sorghum and millet for industrial uses will lead to higher incomes. Enhanced forward and backward linkages between producers and other actors in the value chain will lead to reduced transaction costs and better participation of service providers, such as input dealers, commercial and cooperative banks, private firms, and NGOs. Better, evidencebased policies will help stimulate demand for dryland cereals for different uses and contribute to increasing private investment. Knowledge about value addition options that is generated as new processing options are developed will both facilitate their adoption and use, as well as joint priority setting by program partners leading to inclusive growth. Institutional innovations that increase market access and demand will encourage adoption and the increased production, productivity and profitability of dryland cereals in our target regions. This will in turn improve household food and nutritional security and contribute over time to a much needed transition to increasingly marketoriented dryland cereal economies that enhance livelihoods of the very poor. Key Partners A number of major partners will be involved in producing Strategic Objective 1 research outputs (Appendix 4 for more details). Groups and organizations engaged in monitoring and evaluation and impact assessment will be engaged, as will experts from various disciplines to ensure the effectiveness of the envisioned participatory process involving stakeholders across the dryland cereals value chain. Also, partners with special competencies in using advanced research tools, including GIS and spatial analysis, as well as in data management and warehousing will be involved. Local entities, such as well-established and emerging farmers’ associations, will play important roles in identifying farmers’ needs and opportunities in specific zones or regions. Development organizations working to improve crop productivity and sustainability in dryland areas, private (commercial) businesses that need dryland cereals to produce products for end users (such as breweries), and service and input providers will all be essential partners under Strategic Objective 1. Gender Strategy Because women and men often have different but complementary roles in crop production through to consumption, they have different needs, priorities and knowledge related to traits and crops that must be taken into account by households when adopting new technologies. To increase adoption rates of improved varieties and practices, it will be important that the gender-differentiated needs of all farmers involved along the food chain are documented and used to inform breeding strategies. Strategic Objective 1 will thus mainstream gender-disaggregated data collection and analyses on the roles of women and men in dryland cereal value chains. Gender-sensitive data collection methods, such as the use of female enumerators, will be employed to elicit information on gender-sensitive issues. Special training programs to enhance the skills of women farmers in such areas as postharvest handling, agro-processing value addition, and small agri-business entrepreneurship will be conducted. Gender perceptions on quality attributes of grain and fodder, and tradeoffs between food and non-food uses of grain will be assessed. The institutional arrangements for active participation of women groups from seed to final product in the value chain will be analyzed. The economic viability of different options for linking smallholder women’s groups to various service providers will also be analyzed. Welfare implications of drudgery-reducing technologies will be evaluated with an eye towards scaling them up.

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Figu ure 6. Strateg gic Objective 1 impact pathway

Gender-disaggregate ed baseline data d will be c collected. Qu uestions will be framed d differently fo or women and men so as to captur re a clearer p picture of the e perceptions, roles and preferences among women and men wit thin househo olds. Strateg gies for impro oving liveliho oods and em mpowering women will be d designed taki ing into acco ount gender-disaggregate ed data. Such data will a lso be collec cted relating to gender ro oles in marke ets, access to o inputs and new technologies, and v value additio on. DRYLAND CEREALS research r will increase aw wareness of gender-based g d constraints s and opport tunities by expan nding the range of gende er-disaggreg ated data an nd socioecon nomic modells and the us se of gender a analysis in re esearch in se emi-arid trop pical agricultu ure. In partic cular, value-c chain work will w identify ways of ensuring that co ommercializa ation in crop production does not tra ansfer contro ol from women to men, and d that the rep presentation n of women throughout t the t value cha ain and critic cal impact p pathways is strengthened s d. The enhan nced learning through pa artnership-ba ased innovat tions in R4D will help strengt then the role es of ICRISAT T, ICARDA an nd other key partners in p policy dialog gue and advocac cy. Innovations Strategic c Objective 1 will capitalize on new s science tools s to capture data, includiing compute erassisted processing instruments (CAPIs) for g gathering on ngoing M&E information n; PRA innovations to

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regularly complement the baseline and monitoring farm surveys on adoption and real-time intermediate impacts; and a project portal using cloud computing that effectively serves as a platform for disseminating and retrieving data. Partners with competencies in new science tools will be strategically involved for spatial analyses (e.g. ESRI, aWhere and the GIS unit at CIAT), and data management and warehousing (Microsoft or other resources) to enhance research efficiency in economic and social analysis, synthesis, documentation and data dissemination. Outputs and Milestones for Strategic Objective 1 (Appendix 4) 1.1 Knowledge and priorities for R4D opportunities along the dryland cereals value chain to increase benefits to smallholder farmers, especially women Detailed analyses of the costs and returns for individual dryland cereal value chains will help to identify where to invest, what to improve, what kinds of innovations are needed, and what the real opportunities are for R4D to have sustainable and beneficial impacts, particularly for women farmers. Milestones  Mainstreamed gender plans for dryland cereals (2012)  Identify end market opportunities for dryland cereals (2013)  Completed Value Chain Analysis for two crops in two countries per region (2014) 1.2 Knowledge of trade-offs between food and non-food uses of dryland cereal multipurpose varieties and hybrids Alternative uses of dryland cereals create new opportunities that have potential to increase market demand and income for smallholder farmers. We need to know more about farmers preferences and decision making relating to a) the varieties/hybrids incorporating the quality attributes preferred by them for consumption or industrial use, b) improving keeping quality of the flour and exploring health benefits and nutraceutical value, c) exploring non-conventional uses and extrusion products, and d) nutritional value. Milestones  Identification of key non-food uses in region/country for target crops (2012)  Completed analysis of one subsector in each region (2013)  Completed analysis of willingness to pay for hybrid seed in Nigeria and Niger (2014) 1.3 Evidence for policy and regulations to increase demand and supply of dryland cereal grain and processed products While productivity improvements have been achieved over the years, a lack of economic incentives and effective demand has adversely affected the willingness of risk-averse smallholder farmers in dryland areas to adopt new technologies. Evidence suggests that barley, millets, and sorghum can substantially contribute to food, nutritional, and economic security of these farmers, but that appropriate policies need to be developed and put in place to stimulate effective demand for these crops. Milestones  Outlook Report for dryland cereals for each region (2012)  One Policy Brief for each region disseminated to policy makers (2013)  Measure the efficiency and competitiveness of dryland cereals (2014)

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STRATEGIC OBJECTIVE 2: ENHANCING THE AVAILABILITY AND USE OF GENETIC DIVERSITY, GENOMICS AND INFORMATICS TO ENHANCE THE EFFICIENCY OF DRYLAND CEREAL IMPROVEMENT Rationale and Description Genetic variability for economically important traits, and the tools needed to effectively manipulate such variability are keys to the success of any crop improvement program. Strategic Objective 2 will enhance the effective exploitation of the very wide range of genetic diversity found in public collections of dryland cereals to facilitate development of more productive varieties, with improved stability of production, storage characteristics, and with enhanced value for multiple uses like grain and fodder or construction materials combined and improved nutritional quality. It will achieve this by:     Ensuring reliable conservation and availability of dryland cereals genetic resources; Identifying and filling gaps in existing ex-situ collections; Enhancing access to information on the contents of existing collections; Enhancing, better characterizing and disseminating representative subsets of these collections that provide cost-effective entry points for use in identifying novel favorable variation for traits of economic importance from existing collections;  Strengthening tools for mining allelic diversity from wild and cultivated gene pools of these dryland cereals;  Enhancing screening methods for complex traits, such as

‒ Tolerance to abiotic stresses, ‒ Resistance to biotic production constraints, and ‒ Product quality;  Establishing platforms integrating conventional and molecular plant breeding approaches; and  Assessing pre-breeding approaches to move new variation for economically important adaptation and quality traits into genetic backgrounds readily accessible to dryland cereal programs globally. These activities will ensure the continuous flow of genes needed for longer-term effectiveness of dryland cereals in breeding genetically diverse varieties for farmers in our target areas. Access to such varieties will give farmers options for improving the availability of food and feed grain that has the traits they prefer, and do so over a range of production conditions. The economic uses of these resilient crops will also be diversified in anticipation of increased impacts from climate change. Lessons Learned Several key lessons have been learned from past research efforts:  Applying best practices will ensure long-term conservation and continued availability of genetic resources;  To be effectively exploited by breeders, germplasm characterization data sets require curation to correct obvious errors, and therefore better database management tools need to be implemented;  Using core/minicore/reference collections (Caniato et al., 2011) and Focused Identification of Germplasm Sources (FIGS) (El Bouhssini et al., 2010) result in efficient characterization and evaluation of large germplasm collections to identify sources of desirable traits;  Enhancing the quality of passport data increases the value of collections for future use;  Applying genetic marker-based diversity analysis is a rapid and effective way of grouping germplasm accessions, including those of unknown origin;

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 Genetic transformation technologies provide additional avenues for increasing genetic diversity for complexly inherited traits, and for validating the role of specific genes in controlling such traits, but are still politically sensitive in many regions;  Phenotypic characterization of germplasm within a phenological/adaptation group is more meaningful than characterizing random samples/minicore collections, although the latter provide efficient ways to identify specific germplasm groups for more detailed phenotypic evaluation;  There is a need to strengthen the capacity of partners to improve their understanding of ITPGRFA/SMTA regulations and increase their appreciation for the necessity and value of germplasm sharing through this international treaty; and  Regional gene banks facilitate more dynamic germplasm sharing and effective utilization, complementing centralized gene banks. Priority Setting New collection missions will give highest priority to collecting landraces and wild relatives in dryland cereal gene pools. Primary and secondary centers of diversity that are subject to the rapid loss of biodiversity will get priority attention from new collection missions. Priority regions for these missions will be defined through gap analyses to cover the geographic distributions of each species and/or to target accessions containing specific valuable traits. In the case of barley, the focus will be on landraces and the two Hordeum wild species (H. spontaneum and H. bulbosum), while for sorghum the focus will be on wild sorghums from the secondary gene pool that have potential as sources of high levels of insect resistance. The traits desired by farmers and consumers will guide breeding efforts, and will thus be the priority traits sought in conserved genetic resources. Adaptive traits critical for future climate change will be given priority, as will quality traits that will enhance food and feed uses and sources of resistance to major diseases and insects. In terms of improving quality of and access to passport, characterization, phenotype and genotype data sets associated with dryland cereals germplasm collections, we will give priority to updating location data, assessing the potential of GrinGlobal as a management and information resource, and establishing crop registries for each of the dryland cereals. For genetic transformation technologies for dryland cereals, priority will be given to their development and possible use as functional genomics tools (to validate the roles of specific genes in particular traits of interest), and to refinement of transformation protocols to the point that they could deployed without delay to enhance useful genetic diversity of dryland cereals. Minicore, reference and FIGS sets will be refined, and promoted as cost-effective entry points to the larger DRYLAND CEREALS germplasm collections, for identification of sources of traits, establishment of marker-trait associations, and allele mining. Extensive evaluation of these subsets, combined with archival of phenotyping datasets in readily accessible form, will be given priority over routine singlesite assessment of larger numbers of accessions that necessarily confound genotype and environment effects. As pearl millet is the only largely cross-pollinated crop among the dryland cereals, and its breeding behavior makes it more difficult to perform such association mapping studies because of the large proportion of within-accession variation, an inbred association panel will be established for this cereal so that it, too, benefits from the opportunities available for identifying marker-trait associations based on replicated phenotypic observations of genetically uniform accessions having high-density genetic fingerprints. Priority traits for evaluation in these germplasm collection subsets will be those required by dryland cereal producers and consumers in the highest priority production systems for each crop in each region (Strategic Objective 3). Priority will be given to traits that are critical to food security, improved nutrition, and reduced drudgery for women and children, for which potential gender benefits are clear. Therefore, traits associated with yield performance, yield stability, and product quality in the regionally prioritized production systems for each of the dryland cereals will be given
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priority. For example, in pearl millet, stemborer is primarily a problem in the Cereal and Root Crop System (which has not been identified as highest priority for pearl millet in WCA) and so would be given lower priority as a target trait than Striga resistance, which is required across all production systems in which this crop is grown in WCA. Further, due to the inherently greater difficulties in evaluating heterogeneous accessions varying in their level of inbreeding, preference for phenotyping for association mapping would be given to screening subsets of the primarily self-pollinated dryland cereals (barley, finger millet and pearl millet) until such time as an appropriate inbred association panel is available for pearl millet. Similarly, low priority would be given to evaluation of pearl millet for water conservation traits for the high priority Pastoral and Agro-pastoral Systems in WCA, as the predominance of sandy soils with low water retention capacity renders such drought-tolerance mechanisms ineffective there. Once improved high-throughput phenotyping platforms are available for dryland cereals, priority for their use will be given to well-characterized experimental populations of use in trait mapping and gene discovery (such as minicore, reference or FIGS sets). Similarly, priority will be given first to exploratory use of the GCP Integrated Breeding Platform, via proof-of-concept projects including the on-going sorghum MARS and BCNAM projects, rather than independent development of such a platform. Priority will also be given to enhancing the capabilities of ICARDA’s and ICRISAT’s dryland cereals breeding programs, as well as the more applied breeding programs of our NARES partners, to use the IBP to appropriately increase their use of molecular and information technologies as breeding tools, initially through proof-of-concept projects. Impact Pathway The three outputs that will be produced under Strategic Objective 2 will lead to products useful for generating research and development outcomes, which in turn will lead to measurable impacts (Figure 7). In the context of Strategic Objective 2, efforts will be targeted on enhancing:  Existing germplasm collections of DRYLAND CEREALS and their wild relatives;  Content and access to databases (of passport as well as phenotypic and genotypic data) associated with these collections (Dwivedi et al., 2011);  Cost-effective access to these collections;  Screening protocols for complexly inherited traits of economic value; and  Platforms for more effective integration of conventional and molecular plant breeding approaches. This will make genetic improvement of dryland cereals for target environments more efficient and effective in addressing the needs of producers and consumers of grain, biomass and crop residues from these crops. The primary consumers of Strategic Objective 2 outputs will be public- and private-sector dryland cereal crop improvement scientists, including plant breeders, molecular biologists, stress physiologists, pathologists, entomologists, and weed scientists, as well as scientists focused on economic uses of dryland cereals as a means of generating economic value – all of whom will benefit from more efficient systems to tap the economic value that is contained in genetic resource collections of these crops. These primary consumers will in turn contribute more directly to dryland cereal varietal enhancement and diversification in Strategic Objective 3. When farmers adopt the resulting superior, genetically diverse, and locally adapted cultivars, dryland cereal cultivation will become less risky and more profitable, resulting in enhanced food and nutritional security and lower consumer prices. The ultimate goal is to contribute to food and feed production increases to sustain the livelihoods of resource-poor farmers in our target areas and farming systems.

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Figu ure 7. Strateg gic Objective 2 impact pathway

Key Part tners A numbe er of partner rs have been n identified t hat will cont tribute to the e delivery of f specific outputs. ICARDA and ICRISAT T will contribute to all of t the Strategic c Objective 2 outputs, bu ut other public and private o rding to their organizations will make important i co ontributions to specific outputs accor relative comparative e advantages s. The partne erships we envision range from work king with priv vate malting companies to t select and d test new m alting varieties of barley, to conduct ing joint rese earch with pub blic sector or rganizations on disease r resistance an nd various ab biotic toleran nces. Advanc ced
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research institutes in the developed and developing world will bring new technologies to bear on persistent breeding challenges, as will selected universities with expertise in relevant genomics and genetic characterization techniques (Appendix 4). Gender Strategy Strategic Objective 2 will focus on improving the range of genetic variation and the selection protocols used by dryland cereal breeding programs to develop improved cultivars that open market opportunities to benefit women, particularly opportunities that lead to their empowerment and improve their livelihoods. Traits relating to nutrition and food security are especially relevant to women, as are those that improve feed and fodder quantity and quality, as women often care for household livestock. Improved technologies that make it easier for women to process food for home consumption, and to process it in larger quantities for storage and for sale in the market, can help reduce drudgery and the workload handled by women. Therefore, in large part trait-specific research in this CRP will focus on traits that are critical to food security, improved nutrition and reduced drudgery for women and children:  Abiotic stress tolerance and biotic stress resistance that enhance food security by improving the stability of production;  Better crop-establishment characteristics that enhance food security; and  Enhanced food processing and storage characteristics, as well as nutritional quality. Innovations Strategic Objective 2 will produce and/or capitalize on a number of innovations, including:  Better access to data and information on phenotyping and genotyping of representative and targeted samples from global collections of dryland cereal germplasm;  Linking genetic resources information to the GCP molecular breeding platform;  High-throughput, high-precision phenotyping;  Crop models incorporating allele-specific coefficients to assess potential utility of candidate target traits, genes and alleles;  Gene discovery and allele mining that exploits appropriate association panels, TILLING and Eco-TILLING populations, and genotyping-by-sequencing approaches;  More effectively integrating MAS and genome-wide selection as applied tools in breeding programs;  Tapping secondary and tertiary gene pools of dryland cereals to access useful alleles not present in cultivated materials;  Applied use of transformation/transgenics as tools for gene discovery, increasing genetic diversity, and cultivar improvement;  Enhanced efficiency of doubled haploid production as a tool for speeding derivation of inbred lines of finger millet, pearl millet, sorghum, and barley (this is already used in breeding barley and becoming increasingly common in breeding maize);  Greater exploitation of genetic sterility as a tool to assist in the production of large segregating backcross populations to reduce the number of generations required for markerassisted introgression of diversity and/or specific traits into elite, adapted, market-preferred genetic backgrounds for specific target regions;  Integrated application of modern tools – molecular, quantitative, modeling, and participatory – for targeted use of local and regional crop diversity. Molecular markers will be used to better understand the diversity existing in each region. We will identify markers associated with resistances to main biotic stresses (e.g. blast and Striga for finger millet, downy mildew, blast and Striga for pearl millet, shoot fly and Striga for sorghum, net and spot form of net

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blotch, scald and stripe rust in barley) and use them to aid breeding efforts to combine and pyramid resistances using MAS and GWS; and  Establishment of community of practices for better adoption of new technologies in breeding programs of NARS. Capacity Strengthening One of the lessons we have learned from past efforts is that strengthening the capacity of partners in the use of modern tools and techniques is an ongoing process. Relative to Strategic Objective 2, we will:  Train scientists and students (MSc, PhD) in new technologies, and their integration with costeffective conventional breeding methods;  Help educate scientists and research managers as to the importance and application of the ITPGRFA, and the SMTA that is required for its implementation; and  Strengthen applied breeding capabilities in national programs in concert with (or as a foundation for) using biotechnological methods as tools for variety development and deploying new biotechnology-based products. Outputs and Milestones for Strategic Objective 2 (Appendix 4) 2.1 Dynamic dryland cereal germplasm conservation, exchange and utilization The focus here is on determining the status of existing germplasm collections and related data of barley, finger millet, pearl millet and sorghum, as well as documenting their exchange among the principal dryland cereals partners, i.e., national, regional and international research institutes, NARES, public and private sector seed companies, NGOs, farmers and other individuals to enrich the existing collections globally. Milestones  Location data (latitude and longitude) updated for all DRYLAND CEREAL accessions in ICARDA and ICRISAT genebanks (2012)  GRIN-Global implemented as a global DRYLAND CEREAL management and information resource (2012)  Mini core, reference and/or FIGS sets of DRYLAND provided to partners for evaluation in stressful environments and assessment of quality traits (2012)  Reference sets and minicore collections of DRYLAND CEREALS updated (2013)  Crop registries for DRYLAND CEREALS genetic resources developed and gaps in existing exsitu germplasm collections of barley, finger millet, pearl millet and sorghum identified (2013)  DRYLAND CEREAL germplasm collection missions completed in priority areas in Africa and Asia to fill gaps and to collect trait-specific germplasm (2013)  Pearl millet inbred germplasm association panel developed, conserved and available for dissemination (2014) 2.2 Characterized dryland cereal genetic resources for key traits and future use This output will deliver novel sources of genetic variation to enhance productivity, production stability, and product quality of grain and crop residues from dryland cereals. Exploiting existing germplasm resources, new approaches to identifying the genes underlying phenotypic variation will focus on traits having the greatest potential for improving crop performance across sites and over time.

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Milestones  Re-sequencing and genotyping-by-sequencing (GBS) approaches identify more than 1 million single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) markers in sorghum (2012)  Publically available DRYLAND CEREAL association panels, TILLING populations, MAGIC populations and bi-parental mapping populations inventoried, priorities for their assembly in ICARDA and ICRISAT gene banks determined, and likely costs for their assembly estimated (2012)  Phenotyping network established for DRYLAND CEREALS across partners and crops (2012)  Effective field phenotyping methods for adaptation to low-P identified (2013)  Sorghum backcross nested association mapping (BCNAM) populations available for evaluation in genetic backgrounds for two production systems in WCA (2013)  Recessively inherited genetic male-sterility backcrossed (to BC1) into backgrounds of at least five genetic genetically diverse, agronomically elite cultivars of barley, finger millet and sorghum for each priority target production system as tool for genetic diversification (2013)  High-throughput phenotyping platform, including imaging facility (infra-red and RGB imaging), based on existing lysimeter facility established at ICRISAT-India (2014)  Draft genome sequences produced for additional DRYLAND CEREALS (2014)  Protocols to screen for resistance to blast in finger and pearl millet, and aphids in sorghum refined and shared with NARS; and protocols to screen barley for resistance to barley gall midge established (2014)  At least ten new sources of resistance to downy mildew, blast, and head miner in pearl millet; grain molds, foliar diseases, shoot fly, and aphids in sorghum; major diseases and insect pests in barley, and blast in finger millet identified and distributed to NARS (2014)  Mini core and reference collections of pearl millet, sorghum, and finger millet evaluated against key biotic and abiotic stresses and for quality traits (2014) 2.3 Integrated breeding platform for more efficient breeding The power of genomics, up-to-date information technology, and systems biology enable large increases in the efficiency of dryland cereal research and breeding efforts, and offers an opportunity for the entire CRP to exploit new opportunities through advanced science. Milestones  Analysis pipeline for genotyping-by-sequencing data implemented at ICRISAT (2012)  New marker-based breeding projects initiated with national breeding programs and links with Integrated Breeding Platform facilities established (2013)  Marker-assisted recurrent selection (MARS) demonstrated in sorghum (2013)  Genome-wide selection (GWS) method evaluated for at least for one trait in each DRYLAND CEREAL crop (2014)  Marker-assisted population improvement (MAPI) demonstrated in pearl millet (2014)

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STRATEGIC OBJECTIVE 3: DEVELOPING IMPROVED DRYLAND CEREAL VARIETIES AND HYBRIDS FOR INCREASED YIELD, QUALITY AND ADAPTATION IN SMALLHOLDER FARMERS’ FIELDS Rationale and Description While systems approaches are necessary for overcoming yield gaps over the longer term, genetic solutions – new varieties and hybrids – tend to provide low-cost entry points for more comprehensive technology changes, decreasing food shortages, and increasing levels of income (Waddington et al. 2010). Promising improved varieties or hybrids of dryland cereals will have to be adapted to the patterns of rainfall and water availability of specific target production systems. They must also be adapted to prevalent pest, weed and disease dynamics, and other constraints of specific cropping systems, such as nutrient deficiencies or toxicities, and high or low temperatures during critical growth phases. Appropriate end-use traits, such as grain and stover quality, are also essential for determining adoptability of new varieties in specific production systems. In addition to being well adapted, dryland cereals need to provide significant advantages in terms, for example, of yield potential and stability or overall commercial value to farmers. Dryland cereals traditionally have multiple end-uses: grain for food, feed or industrial uses (e.g. malting), and stover for fodder, construction, fuel, or as a soil amendment. It is this complexity and multiplicity of traits required, in view of the enormous diversity of cropping systems in which dryland cereals are grown, that is the major challenge for achieving impacts from varietal improvement of these crops. Our breeding strategies and methods have, over the past 10-15 years, evolved to become more efficient in dealing with multiple farmer-preferred traits and in targeting specific productivity improvements, as well as providing farmers with a range of varietal options for the major production systems being targeted (Rattunde et al., 1997). The work planned under Strategic Objective 3 aims at creatively using the very wide range of genetic diversity found in these cereals, between and within species, to develop new varietal options for smallholder farmers to increase their own household food security and/or incomes via new options for marketing cereals or derived products. Products from this research will include more productive germplasm, inbred lines, varieties, and hybrids with improved yields and stability, as well as other targeted end use traits. At the same time, we will analyze and document the methods and tools used for variety development, so that learning for improved efficiency and effectiveness can occur across crops, regions and traits. Lessons Learned Decades of breeding research on dryland cereals have produced a number of important lessons that will guide future efforts. For example:  Grain and fodder yield (in barley, pearl millet and sorghum) have considerable degree of independence and therefore the two can be improved simultaneously (Bidinger et al., 2009; Bluemmel et al., 2010; Goodchild et al., 1996; Grando et al., 2005; Nepolean et al., 2009,), and a significant increase in fodder quality has been achieved with just two cycles of recurrent selection. Regional variety testing can be done in a few test sites selected using available MET data to improve efficiency and cost effectiveness (Mgonja et al., 2005; 2006);  Gains obtained while breeding for quality traits are favorable for different final uses. Selection of plump and bright grain in barley is positive for improving food, feed and malting;  Brown midrib sorghums have higher nutritive value than ordinary sorghum, but trade-offs with biomass yield are observed in some mutants (Pinnemeni SrinivasaRao et al., 2011a/b);  Sweet sorghums have high biomass and digestibility, hence they can be easily accepted as green fodder (Bluemmel et al., 2009);  In sorghum, season specific selection is vital for high genetic gain from selection, both for sugars and juice in the stem, grain and biomass as well as tolerance to shoot fly;  Significant yield gains can be achieved by applying systematic recurrent selection methods to dryland cereals (Rattunde and Witcombe, 1993; Rattunde et al., 1997);
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 High diversity exists in finger millet in ESA, which could be exploited for increased productivity and for improving resistance to blast;  The adoption of new dryland cereal varieties frequently requires improved performance under unfavorable as well as favorable conditions, and farmer participatory variety testing is essential for achieving impact (Ceccareli and Grando, 2007; Ceccarelli et al., 2007; Weltzien et al., 2008a; Weltzien et al., 2008b); and  Participatory sorghum variety evaluations in WCA have shown that measuring grain productivity alone is not sufficient to assure increased food quantity, as grain storability and grain processing characteristics are essential criteria for adoption (Weltzien et al., 2007). Priority Setting The initial DRYLAND CEREALS partners have decided to focus research on one or two production systems in each region, and to implement the work in key locations having adequate research facilities and affording good opportunities to generate spillovers. Variety development efforts will be directed at creating varietal options for farmers in the context of these production systems. For each of the cereal crops and target production systems, a limited number of biotic and abiotic constraints contribute significantly to yield losses, yield instability and quality losses. The key abiotic constraints, water and nutrient availability are often confounded with socioeconomic and management-related constraints (Waddington et al., 2010). These include drought and water management, fertilizer availability and cost, soil degradation, and farmer knowledge about options for soil fertility and Striga management. The breeders’ traditional focus on yield must expand to include not only grain but also the yield of stover and straw, whereby the target ratios are determined by the prevailing or predicted price ratios of grain to stover and straw for target production systems (this is information that will come from Strategic Objective 1). In discussions among the initial DRYLAND CEREALS partners, commonalities across the four crops emerged in terms of priority traits for genetic improvement (Table 7). Improving the intake and digestibility of stover and straw was judged to be the top priority in terms of improving the overall value of dryland cereals for farmers, especially in the more drought-prone production systems, but also in those where crop-livestock integration is only just beginning. This judgment is based on: experience with variety adoption (Kelley et al., 1996); the opportunity to improve stover yield and quality at the same time as grain yield and quality; and the predicted benefits accruing to farmers in a range of production systems (Kristianson and Zerbini, 1999). Abiotic constraints – including drought, heat, salinity and poor soil fertility – add to the rationale for working on these crops together in one program. Improving adaptation to these constraints is indispensable for improving stability of productivity, especially in view of climate change. Sharing methodologies and approaches to tackle these complex adaptive traits through exchange and collaboration across crops will provide the necessary critical mass to generate breakthroughs. When priority traits for variety development are discussed with farmers, extension agents or breeders, the notion of “good adaptation to local conditions” invariably becomes a central focus of attention. While flowering date or behavior, and thus escape of key biotic or abiotic stresses, are key factors, other traits enter into the concept of “adaptation”. This can be a predominant soil factor, such as low pH (in WCA Cereal Root Crop Mixed systems) or high pH (in the Agro-pastoral systems of SA), but also locally important pests and diseases (Table 8). The importance of such local adaptation tends to manifest itself as high genotype x environment interactions compared to the importance of genetic effects alone, when analyzing multi-location performance trials (Ceccarelli et al., 1994). In terms of priority setting for future research, such locally specific constraints will be dealt with, as necessary, as part of the efforts for productivity improvements, and will be discussed in more detail in the section describing Output 3.1 (Appendix 4). The specific priority setting for generating adoptable varieties will involve targeted actors, primarily farmers and traders or processors, in case of marketable commodities using approaches as described by Christinck et al., 2005.

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Table 7. Priority of traits across dryland cereals targeted for selection, in order of importance (by category and within category)
Specific trait for genetic improvement Stover/straw traits Intake and digestibility Barley in CWANA and ESA Pearl millet in SA Sorghum in WCA and Post-rainy season in SA Abiotic stresses Drought-tolerance Barley in CWANA and ESA Finger millet in ESA Pearl millet in SA, WCA and ESA Sorghum in post-rainy season SA Heat-tolerance Barley in CWANA, SA, and ESA Finger millet in SA Pearl millet SA Sorghum in SA Adaptation to poor soil fertility, phosphorus deficiency and salinity Barley in CWANA Pearl millet in WCA and ESA Sorghum in WCA Biotic stresses Striga spp. Finger millet in ESA Pearl Millet in WCA, ESA Sorghum in WCA and ESA Blast (Pyricularia grisea) Finger millet in ESA and SA Pearl millet in SA Grain quality traits Zn and Fe concentration and bioavailability Barley in CWANA and SA Finger millet in SA Pearl Millet in in SA (contribution of CRP 4 and in WCA Sorghum in SA and WCA Malting quality Barley in SA and ESA Finger millet in ESA and in SA Sorghum in ESA and WCA Crop and region where the trait is a priority

Priorities for breeding research on constraints are based on the importance of yield losses, and the opportunities for using or developing new sources of resistance or combinations of resistances to achieve impact through increased yield stability. Research on yield losses (Waddington et al., 2010) and reasons for lack of adoption of improved varieties (Omanya et al., 2007; Siart, 2008) contributed to determining our breeding priorities. Monitoring production constraints with farmers during participatory research planning or evaluation sessions (van Mourik et al., 2011) have contributed, and continue to do so, to the revision of the key priorities for breeding research listed in Tables 6 and 7. Interactions with key stakeholders in India through regular Hybrid Seed Parent Consortium and All-India Coordinated project meetings drive priority setting for South Asia. For barley in
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CWANA, a network of practitioners (breeders, farmers and extensions workers) for participatory breeding and variety selection activities is being established, which will contribute directly to production system-specific priority setting.

Table 8. Priority for traits for breeding research for dryland cereals essential for achieving impact in priority production systems
Crop Trait Abiotic Stresses Barley Drought tolerance Salinity tolerance Cold and or frost tolerance Sorghum Aluminum tolerance Biotic Stresses Barley Scald, net blotch, rusts, barley yellow dwarf virus Stem gall midge, Russian wheat aphid Sorghum Midge Grain mold Shoot fly Charcoal rot Pearl Millet Head Miner Downy mildew Grain Barley Sorghum High (feed) & low protein (malt), High (food) & low (malt) beta glucan content, high digestibility Low decortication losses with high Fe and Zn content Grain luster Finger millet Protein and mineral content Stover/straw Barley Sorghum Digestibility Sweet stem CWANA and SA WCA, ESA and SA CWANA and SA WCA SA ESA, SA CWANA and ESA CWANA ESA and WCA ESA and SA SA SA WCA WCA, ESA and SA CWANA and SA CWANA CWANA WCA Priority region

As the cropping systems in all regions are evolving rapidly, both due to price changes, policy changes, as well as perceived climate changes, breeding priorities will need to shift, in consultation with the key actors. The priority traits identified for each individual crop are listed in Table 8. These are traits for which research is required (identification of new sources of resistances, screening tools and breeding methodologies) to achieve significant genetic gain in the targeted production systems. There will always be other traits that are essential for achieving variety adoption, but breeding methodologies exist and are being used for monitoring and achieving progress.

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Impact Pathway The breeding research conducted under Strategic Objective 3 will contribute to three of the System Level Outcomes: Improved food security, reduced poverty and improved nutrition (Figure 8). The contributions to the food security outcome will be achieved primarily via farmer adoption of improved varieties of dryland cereals, especially in production systems and areas within production systems that face recurrent food shortages due to abiotic or biotic constraints and inefficient production methodologies. More productive varieties that produce higher value grain, stover and straw will allow farmers to produce more food, while producing valuable by-products for sale or value addition via livestock production. Enhanced livestock production can contribute directly to improved incomes, and thus poverty reduction, if animal products can be traded under favorable conditions. Increased livestock production can also impact further on improved crop production and profitability via enhanced availability of animal traction, and thus timelier field operations, which directly contributes to higher grain, stover and straw yields. In addition, integrated livestock production increases the availability of manure, thus improving farmers’ options for soil fertility management. Improved yields on farmers’ fields will be achieved by varieties that are adapted to locally sustainable crop intensification options, as identified via Strategic Objective 4 and CRP 1.1, such as higher stand densities – especially in production systems where total rainfall rarely limits production, such as the Root Crop Cereals Mixed system of WCA. Another such adaptation will be improved Striga resistance, possibly combined with improved adaptation to poor phosphorous availability, which will express its benefits primarily in combination with other Striga management options. Improved nutritional status, specifically of young children and their mothers, will be achieved by ensuring that young women have access to more productive varieties and hybrids. We are targeting increasing the production of dryland cereals in the fields of women farmers, where this is culturally and socially feasible, thus directly increasing grain availability for women, and possibly additional income via livestock production. Generally improved grain availability will increase food security, including for young children. This will have direct positive impacts on their nutritional status, as in general children in dryland cereal areas do not receive sufficient calories for adequate growth and development. Because dryland cereals tend to have relatively high mineral and vitamin content, and fairly high quality protein content, increasing their availability should show significant effects. Varieties with increased bioavailability of Fe and Zn will be able to contribute to the alleviation of anemia and related diseases. Key Partners Future success from developing hybrid parents and farmer-friendly varieties and hybrids will rest on developing an array of new, non-traditional partnerships, in addition to working with established networks of partners. Local entities, such as well-established and emerging farmers’ associations, will play critical roles in identifying farmers’ needs and opportunities in specific zones or regions. Development organizations working to improve crop productivity and sustainability in dryland areas; private businesses that process dryland cereals for malt, beverage and starch production; and service and input providers will all be essential partners for the successful development, distribution and adoption of dryland cereals. Although coordinating efforts of these diverse actors will be challenging, several factors favor mobilization of the necessary collaboration:

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Figu ure 8. Strateg gic Objective 3 impact pathway

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 Increased interest and commitment for dryland cereals – Farmers’ organizations and such development actors as NGOs and extension services are showing increased interest in the development of profitable dryland cereal production technologies. They are experiencing higher yields and good marketing opportunities (e.g., UGPCA with sorghum in Burkina Faso, FumaGaskya with sorghum and pearl millet in the southern part of Maradi region in Niger, and UACT with fonio (Digitaria exilis and D. iburua) and sorghum in Segou region of Mali). The fact that these cereals require lower levels of inputs and entail less risk, producing grain even without external inputs, is attracting new interest, especially in areas where the West African cotton crisis is severely reducing input availability.  New models for collaboration between actors are emerging – Targeted coalitions for facilitating improved farmer incomes from dryland cereals are being developed. Examples include: professionally supported farmers’ organizations that conduct multi-location trials for variety and hybrid evaluations in West Africa; women’s groups demanding that more research be conducted in their own fields, under their production conditions in West Africa; NGO training of farmer facilitators and trainers for integrated Striga management; a consortium of malting industries contracting sorghum hybrid research in Nigeria to assure sufficient, uniform, and quality raw materials for processing; a consortium of private sector seed companies supporting hybrid parent breeding for pearl millet and sorghum in India; direct collaboration between bio-ethanol investors and sweet sorghum researchers to provide specialized hybrids and production technology; district-level agricultural offices supporting large-scale farmer managed evaluations of new sorghum hybrids and finger millet varieties for local processing industries in Tanzania; a consortium of organic cotton producers paying research support for training on new types of sorghum and pearl millet varieties and hybrids in Mali; and the FAO’s World Food Program improving the capacity of farmer organizations to produce quality grain for food security stocks in West Africa.  Partnership with the private seed sector in India: ICRISAT’s work with private sector partners has greatly contributed to the development and marketing of a very diverse range of improved hybrids and varieties of pearl millet and rainy season sorghum in Asia. For example, in India, more than 4 million hectares are occupied by over 54 rainy season sorghum hybrids developed by private sector seed companies using ICRISAT-bred parental lines or their derivatives. The ICRISAT-based private sector sorghum hybrids JKSH 22 and VJH 540, known for their high grain-yield potential, large grain, and earliness, have experienced remarkable rates of adoption and covered 210,000 hectares in 2002 and 142,000 hectares in 2003, respectively in India. Parental lines of the 15 major sorghum hybrids adapted to rainy-season conditions and marketed by the private sector in India include 9 seed parents and 10 restorer lines based either wholly or in part on ICRISAT-bred materials. All these efforts contributed to enhancing the rainy season sorghum productivity in India from a mere 695 kg/ha in 1981 to 1171 kg/ha by 2008 – an increase of 68%. The ICRISAT-Private Sector Sorghum and Pearl Millet Hybrid Parents Consortia were established in 2000 as an innovative platform for dissemination of improved research products to the farmers and to get feedback from farmers and industry for prioritizing the research on a regular basis. Furthermore, it facilitates mobilizing private sector support for public sector research.  Promoting regional seed trade: This is a primary activity for the seed specialists employed by ICARDA and ICRISAT. During the last few years, ICARDA implemented an ECO-FAO project to strengthen the seed sector in the ten member countries of the Economic Cooperation Organization (ECO): Afghanistan, Azerbaijan, Iran, Pakistan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkey, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan. These countries have many similarities in terms of agro-ecologies, farming systems, crops and varieties, creating a strong basis for a regional seed market that is linked to the global seed industry. Similarly, ICRISAT is engaged with regional seed system coordination efforts in WCA and ESA.
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 Based on professional interaction between the ICARDA barley breeding program and the public and private brewery industries in Ethiopia and India, several superior malt barley varieties have been developed and commercialized. This has a direct impact on the livelihoods of resource-poor barley growers in those countries.  Entrepreneurs in the field of food processing and biofuels production: ICRISAT has established through the AIP linkages with biofuel producers in India. Arrangements are also being worked out to establish links with the industry for use of sweet sorghum as feedstock in other countries like Mali, the Philippines and China. Sweet sorghum syrup is being promoted for use in drug and food industries to help farmers improve their incomes. Many dairy farmers in India and other places are showing interest in using sweet sorghum as fodder because of its higher productivity, and industries are interested in producing starch from sorghum grain.  Multi-disciplinary research targeting specific cereal production zones: The direct collaboration between researchers from a range of disciplines from different partner institutes for solving priority challenges confronting dryland cereal producers will be at the heart of this research. The key to engagement is to focus on the common goal of enhancing cereal farmers’ livelihoods, and to put mechanisms in place to ensure that activities are demand driven. Research partnerships with universities and advanced research institutes for specific technical, social and institutional issues are essential for the success of this program.  Regional cooperation within the same agro-ecological zones: Exchanging germplasm, concomitant diversification of national breeding materials (to increase heterozygosity and therefore hybrid vigor in the hybrids), and joint multi-location hybrid evaluation trials within similar agro-ecological zones across countries can enhance hybrid breeding efficiency in SSA, through the “Lead NARS” approach of regionalized breeding for increased efficiency and cost effectiveness (Mgonja et al., 2005,2006, 2008). This approach will characterize DRYLAND CEREALS, with support from sub-regional organizations (e.g., CORAF, ASARECA, SADC, and others). Mechanisms for regionally harmonized cultivar registration, seed certification, and quality control, as well as Sanitary and Phytosanitary Standards, will facilitate farmers’ fast access to new improved cultivars. Gender Strategy Strategic Objective 3 will assess the “whole plant value” as it pertains to entire farm family, especially in situations where the crop serves as the staple food for much of the year, and family labor is the key source of labor for cultivation and processing. Achieving balanced criteria for evaluating, creating and disseminating new varieties of dryland cereals requires:  Improvements in the gender knowledge and analysis skills of the scientists and other partners involved;  Commitment of partners along the research continuum to act on gender-specific client needs, and develop technology options with benefits to the whole farm family;  Commitment of research and development partners to communicate successes and failures of specific actions in this direction; and  Effective increases in whole plant value or productivity of the dryland cereals. To facilitate these changes, the cereal improvement teams in the different regions are committed to:  Including woman farmers as members of project steering committees;  Assessing the roles of women in various crop management and processing operations in targeted regions;

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 Supporting women self-help groups in target regions, especially in the context of cereal processing and commercialization;  Inclusion of women in decision making, especially regarding the choice of varieties;  Establishing specific variety trials for women, adapted to enable their direct participation;  Communication and training targeted specifically for women and women’s associations, avoiding the pitfalls of indirect communication through husbands and giving less attention to the specific needs of women;  Feedback sessions, discussing results of experimentation specifically for and with women;  Training women farmer groups to adopt affordable mechanization to reduce drudgery and labor in agricultural operations, and to develop their enterprise skills; and  Making information on nutritional advantages and innovations readily available to all members of the household. Innovations Strategic Objective 3 will make use of a number of innovations in plant breeding and related fields to improve the efficiency and effectiveness with which new varieties and hybrids are produced. These include:  Use of male-sterile lines to ease the tedious crossing process in finger millet breeding. The small size of the plant’s flowers, and the plant’s selfing nature, makes crossing very difficult. Using a sterile male line will make crossing easier and more efficient;  Stratification of test sites and breeding for specific adaptation by targeting recommendation domains in each region across country boundaries for all crops and major production systems. Crop breeders will make the necessary efforts to better match the food/feed traits of new cultivars to the needs of smallholder farmers in different agro-ecological systems. This will be achieved by characterizing domains by cropping areas, population densities, livestock populations and productivity, and feed resources, which in turn will enable better targeting of breeding efforts to the needs of farmers in different agro-ecological zones (this work will be done jointly with Strategic Objective 1).  Exploiting heterosis by identifying heterotic groups to bring benefits of sustainable hybrid vigor to SSA;  Integrated improvement for food and fodder and for whole plant utilization to increase the value of production, types of products, and market opportunities for specific target systems;  Identifying germplasm with specific adaptation to low soil phosphorus (P) conditions, and developing breeding strategies to effectively incorporate this adaptive trait;  Farmers, both women and men, will be involved in the selection of hybrid parents derived from populations representing complimentary heterotic groups. They will evaluate new hybrids and identify new traits to target. These hybrids will be easy to produce using stable female parents and male parents that produce well, and will meet grain quality criteria for home consumption, including high micronutrient densities;  Hybrids will be bred to produce higher and more stable yields in extreme stress environments, producing more when it is needed most. Examples include: pearl millet in the rainfed areas of India and the Sahel in WCA; barley for vast expanses of the steppe; sorghum for residual moisture conditions in southern India, photoperiod sensitive sorghums adapted to low phosphorus conditions in WCA, and similar disadvantaged regions of dryland cereal production.  Modern tools – molecular, quantitative and participatory – will be applied to draw on local and regional crop diversity. Traits for adaptation will be better understood, germplasm better characterized and differentiated into heterotic groupings, and genetic markers and other tools will be used to improve specific traits, such as downy mildew resistance in pearl millet,
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 





Striga resistance in sorghum, and abiotic stress tolerance in barley. These modern tools will allow the maintenance and increase of local biodiversity, with significant increases in productivity and stability of production; Double haploids coupled with molecular markers will be employed to accelerate the efficiency of variety and population development; Hybrids will be developed for specific uses: sweet sorghum for juice extraction; sorghum and barley for malting industries; and pearl millet for green fodder production under extreme heat conditions. As processing options achieve larger markets, hybrids can be identified with specific endosperm characteristics, micronutrient composition, or stem composition. The diversity of quality characteristics offered by the dryland cereals needs to be unlocked to create new market opportunities for smallholder farmers; Farmer-driven and market oriented trait breeding will be done. For example, post rainy season sorghum grain fetches higher grain prices (about 100-250% more) than rainy season sorghum in SA. Malting barley commands a 20-25% premium in Ethiopia. Considering the grain quality attributes that fetch higher prices and incomes for farmers, ICRISAT is proposing to allocate more resources in improving sorghum for post-rainy season adaptation. Nutrition concerns will be addressed along with targeted productivity increases. In most DRYLAND CEREALS production systems, malnutrition, especially among young children and their mothers, is dramatic. Through the work on Fe and Zn concentration, biofortification and bioavailability, as well as the gender-focused approach for variety testing, we expect that pathways will be identified for improving productivity and access to better quality grain for women and their children.

Capacity Building, Knowledge Sharing and Communication Plant breeding and variety development – Generally, capacity for plant breeding and variety development is actually becoming rare, as applied genetics research and teaching in universities and other ARIs has moved towards molecular genetics research. Molecular research tools have advanced so rapidly that they now present fundamentally new opportunities for making variety development, in all its complexities, a more efficient and effective process. Skills and capacities to harness these opportunities for the dryland cereals need to be nurtured, so that these tools and methods become an integral part of doing business to achieve the targeted outputs of this strategic objective. This will include: training on quantitative genetic principals for analyzing options for improving genetic gain; new statistical tools, especially to exploit performance and phenotyping data; and database management and utilization. Without a concerted effort on this type of training, the capacity to achieve genetic gains in dryland cereals will rapidly decline, as many experienced NARES and CGIAR scientists are close to retirement. The CRP will support AGRA’s efforts by hosting and advising students, and contributing to specific training courses. We are generally maximizing efforts to train graduate students, especially in collaboration with universities with good training capacity for molecular breeding. The centers’ and NARES contributions tend to focus on providing training in managing efficient field trials, and phenotyping experimentation, as well as insights into multistakeholder-driven priority setting for appropriately targeting breeding research to clients’ demands. In addition to training a new generation of breeders, it is important to ensure that NARES and center breeders upgrade their skills, and learn to better harness the opportunities presented by the new tools. Care will be taken to interest young women in these areas of research. Data management, sharing and exchange – With DNA sequencing and genetic marker analysis becoming easily accessible, the amount of data and information on specific genotypes will increase exponentially. In turn the demand for field performance data, plant analysis data, farmer preference data, as well as data from specific trait analyses will be highly sought after. Thus, publicly funded longer-term field research will become increasingly important resources, if well managed and documented. The skills for doing this effectively will be developed by upgrading the centers and partners’ software for these tasks, and systematically training scientific and technical personnel and
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partners in their effective use. As ICT advances, virtual sharing of data sets and joint analyses with partners located in different sites will become a reality for partners in this research program. Communicating research results – Achieving outcomes and impacts from DRYLAND CEREALS research hinges on effectively communicating results to target audiences. This is especially true for the lesser-known crops targeted by this CRP. Training researchers to publish findings for peer audiences will be enhanced in order to ensure that knowledge about “climate change ready” dryland cereal crops is readily accessible. However, scientific publications are not enough. The creation of new varieties of dryland cereals is of immediate importance to a wide range of actors in the seed value chain. To create demand for improved seed, farmers will need clear information about specific varieties, seed availability and marketing options. Development actors will require information about possible benefits from the use of new technologies. Researchers and technical personnel will be trained to use a wide range of media and harness new ICT options. This will help to overcome one key constraint to adoption, mentioned by farmers in many adoption studies: “lack of information” (Omanya et al., 2007; Yapi et al., 2000). Facilitating variety adoption and seed delivery – Applied research in variety development justifies itself by the benefits it creates for those who adopt these varieties. Improvements, i.e., changes of individual traits alone, rarely lead to wide-scale adoption, unless everything else is “just right”. Breeders and others involved in variety development thus require skills to orient their efforts towards understanding and meeting clients’ needs. This may be as straightforward as understanding market demands, and requiring the skill to interact with industrial processors to understand their concerns. If variety adoption is to support food-insecure farm families in overcoming recurrent food shortages, careful identification of key bottlenecks for increasing production in the specific socioeconomic and biophysical environment is essential. Interdisciplinary diagnostics skills, including gender sensitivity and knowledge, largely hinging on effective communication and facilitation skills but also on production systems thinking are essential to ensure that effective partnerships between producers and breeders can develop. Seed systems innovations serving the needs of underprivileged dryland farmers, men and women, must ensure that aspects of seed security, even under severely adverse conditions are taking into account. This is particularly important when preparing for the adverse effects of climate change, which is predicted to increase climate variability, unpredictability, and thus production risks for farmers. Teams involved in variety development tend to require training in such systems analysis. These skills also enhance the teams’ chances to collaborate successfully with development partners, which is essential for facilitating production changes. Types of training – Training for advanced academic degrees is at the heart of much of the above capacity building effort. We expect that in the next few years, distance learning opportunities for advanced degrees will improve, and will make such degrees more accessible to students from our target regions, where advanced training options tend to be limited. This will also facilitate students conducting supervised field experimentation related to these degrees in their own target environments, and thus increase the chances that new skills will create innovations in the target region itself. Short courses will be the other pillar for this training plan. Communication and social science-related skills will require close interaction with trainers, as the student benefits from immediate feedback when trying out new skills in a training setting. Similarly, data analysis and management relative to specific breeding methodologies lends itself to short courses. It tends to be most useful if the training course is linked to some immediate action plan or project activity, so that learning is handson, with possibly monitoring and feedback from the trainer. As more and more partners have access to the Internet, we expect this type of training and mentoring being done long-distance. Finally, fellowships that allow researchers from partner institutes and countries to spend extended periods at one of the DRYLAND CEREALS research centers will allow for practical hands-on training,
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monitoring for the acquisition of specific methodological skills and knowledge, and for carrying the research through to a communicated result. Outputs and Milestones for Strategic Objective 3 (further details are in Appendix 4) 3.1 High grain and fodder yielding varieties and hybrids with desired end-user quality attributes Dryland cereals are primarily staple crops, and thus the quantity produced, especially in poor years is an essential criterion for variety adoption. Breeding varieties with higher and better quality grain, stover or straw, i.e., a focus on “whole plant value productivity” is the overriding goal for dryland cereal breeding programs. Fortunately, large genetic variability exists for a range of traits in dryland cereal germplasm collections and breeding materials, and effective breeding methodologies are available to substantially improve the quantity and quality of grain and crop residues. Milestones  At least 10 superior hybrid parents for diversification of for hybrid breeding options for sorghum and pearl millet in SA and starting hybrid breeding in WCA identified (2012)  At least 2 new finger millet, sorghum and barley varieties identified for promotion in at least 2 target production systems (2012)  Pearl Millet and Sorghum populations initiated for recurrent selection for adaptation to at least 2 specific new target conditions (2013)  Analysis of genetic diversity patterns of prior studies combined with new studies for improved identification of heterotic groups for breeding hybrid parents of sorghum and pearl millet (2013)  Methods tested for improving efficiency of crossing in finger millet (2013)  Superior sorghum parents for total biomass yield and specific quality trait identified (2014)  Populations of barley developed with increased out-crossing rate using recurrent selection, and morphological as well as biochemical markers (2014)  Efficiency of recurrent selection schemes for sorghum and pearl millet for target production systems with high variability and poor predictability of abiotic constraints assessed (2014)  At least 200 genetically diverse, high-yielding and locally well adapted early-generation restorer progenies of A4 and A5 CMS systems developed in pearl millet and female and male parents for A1, A2 and A4 CMS systems for sorghum for at least two target production systems (2014) 3.2 Varieties and hybrids with better tolerance to heat, drought, salinity and low soil fertility Dryland cereals, by definition, are well adapted to drought and heat stress during key stages of crop development, and can produce grain and straw/stover when other crops fail. They are also remarkably resilient under poor soil fertility conditions. However improved adaptation to drought, heat, salinity and limited soil fertility is necessary for improved yield stability over time, and to reduce the predicted negative effects on food security and the incomes of dryland farmers in the face of climate change. Milestones  QTLs identified for traits related to drought tolerance for at least 2 species (2012)  Analyses of genotype by environment interactions of variety performance trials of dryland cereals linked to water availability estimates for specific production systems and zones for at least two dryland cereals (2012)  Protocol for drought tolerance screening developed for finger millet in ESA (2012)  At least 10 parental lines of pearl millet, sorghum, finger millet and barley adapted to arid conditions developed (2013)

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 Core set of genetic stocks representing effective sources of drought, heat-adaptation and salinity tolerance traits assembled in barley, pearl millet and sorghum (2013)  Drought tolerance traits (e.g., water conversation, root-related) assessed in a range of genotypes adapted to different types of drought-prone environments, in at least two species (2014)  Markers identified for genomic regions conferring P efficiency in sorghum (2014)  Salinity tolerant varieties of sorghum and barley (3) and hybrids of sorghum (2) with high biomass and grain yield in at least two target production systems developed (2014) 3.3 Varieties and hybrids with improved resistance to diseases and pests Insect pests and diseases of dryland cereals have very specific and evolving distribution patterns, which are likely to change with the intensification of certain production systems and with climate change. Varietal resistance is the best option for reducing losses due to biotic constraints, often in conjunction with crop management measures that entail more sustainable IPM options (see Strategic Objective 4). Milestones  Sources of resistance to fungal leaf and root diseases identified in both cultivated and wild barley (H. vulgare subsp. Spontaneum and H. bulbosum), including parents of existing mapping populations, as well as for finger millet (blast and Striga) assembled and multiplied (2012)  Screening protocols refined to identify sources of resistance or tolerance to specific pests and diseases (head miner in pearl millet; midge on sorghum, aphids on sorghum and barley), diseases (blast in pearl millet and finger millet; grain molds in sorghum, net blotch, mildew, scald, and BYDV and Wheat stem sawfly and barley gall midge in barley in CWANA, rust in SA and ESA (2012)  Elite composites of pearl millet with combined resistance to downy mildew and blast developed (2012)  Hybrid parental lines or varieties with resistance to downy mildew in pearl millet (WCA, SA), blast in pearl (SA) and finger millet (ESA, SA); Striga on sorghum in WCA, foliar diseases and grain mold in sorghum and barley; and shoot fly, stem borer, and aphid in sorghum, and aphid in barley identified and distributed to NARS (2013)  Off-season downy mildew screening facilities for pearl millet installed in at least one country in WCA (2013)  Genetic diversity of Striga hermonthica samples from WCA assessed using molecular markers (2013)  Evolution of virulent strains of downy mildew in pearl millet, blast in finger and pearl millet, and net blotch, powdery mildew, scald and rust in barley monitored, and the information shared with NARS (2014)  Marker assisted transfer of specific resistance/tolerance alleles into farmer preferred varieties documented (Downy mildew on pearl millet, Striga and shot fly on sorghum, foliar diseases for barley) (2014)  QTLs or allele markers identified for the transfer of specific resistances/tolerances into target genotypes (Striga on pearl millet, aphids on sorghum, foliar diseases of barley) (2014) 3.4 Varieties and hybrids with enhanced green forage, stover and straw varieties for fodder and other uses The increasing demand for livestock products along with decreasing availability of arable land and water will not only increase the demand for green forage, but especially for dry stover and straw. We will bring about a paradigm shift in dryland-cereal variety development to breed concomitantly
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for superior grain and green forage/stover/straw traits, to maximize total plant value for dryland cereal farmers. Milestones  Review of options for improving total plant value of dryland cereals conducted by CRP partners, across crops and production systems (2012)  Experimental varieties of sorghum, pearl millet and barley characterized for components of total plant value for specific production system scenarios (2012)  NIRS protocols transferred to all target regions, and available for breeding programs for analyzing straw/stover quality components (2013)  Sweet sorghum germplasm accessions (3) for multicut trait identified in SA from the global collection (2013)  High biomass sweet sorghum lines (3) introgressed (to BC2) with low lignin bmr genes (2014)  Dual purpose varieties identified for at least 2 dryland cereals in different target production systems combining superior grain yield with increased straw/stover value (2014)  Marker assisted selection successfully applied to increase quality and value combined of stover and grain beyond released cultivars for at least one dryland cereal (2014) 3.5 Varieties and hybrids with enhanced grain qualities for food, feed and industrial uses Grain quality includes traits that are readily visible (size, shape, color, texture, storability of the grain) and are of direct immediate value to farmers and consumers. These will continue to be an integral part of genetic enhancement of all the dryland cereals. However, many quality traits of considerable nutritional and industrial significance are invisible. These invisible traits – such as nutritional content and industrial and processing quality – will be prominent on the crop improvement agenda. Milestones  Rapid and cost-effective screening protocols for mineral analysis in grain (Fe, Zn and Ca) of sorghum and millets standardized (2012)  Finger millet grain profiled for key nutrients and minerals, based on a range of cultivars and advanced breeding lines from ESA and SA (2012)  Decortication losses of a range of sorghum and pearl millet cultivars quantified, also for the consequences for Fe and Zn concentration, and indications for their bioavailability (2013).  Source materials with high mineral content identified among advanced breeding lines, and commercial/pipeline hybrids/varieties of sorghum (Pearl millet in CRP 4) (2013)  Commercial and pipeline cultivars of pearl millet and barley characterized (at least 40 in each crop) for poultry and small ruminant feed quality traits, including anti-nutritional factors (2013)  Screening protocols for screening barley germplasm for malting quality (2013)  Commercial and pipeline cultivars (at least 40 in each crop) characterized for processing and value-addition related nutritional traits, and starch and bio -active compounds (2014)

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STRATEGIC OBJECTIVE 4: DEVELOPING SUSTAINABLE CROP, PEST AND DISEASE MANAGEMENT OPTIONS TO CAPTURE GENETIC GAINS FROM IMPROVED DRYLAND CEREAL VARIETIES AND HYBRIDS Rationale and Description Strategic Objective 4 will target affordable crop management options that contribute directly to increased dryland cereal yield and quality and meet the requirements of smallholder farmers in Africa and Asia. These options, including nutrient application, seed priming, and integrated management strategies for biotic and abiotic constraints (IPM/IDM), will exploit genetic gains achieved in Strategic Objective 3 and help close the gap between on-station and on-farm yields. Additionally, Strategic Objective 4 will feed information back to researchers on traits and plant types needed for low soil fertility, variable rainfall conditions and different farming systems. Many of these crop management activities will be carried out in conjunction with CRP 1.1 (including the development of joint work plans) to ensure that interventions are designed using existing knowledge and experience of farming and livelihood systems. The integration of crop management practices and varieties to overcome biotic and abiotic constraints will be validated and improved through an assessment of current on-farm practices and using farmer participatory experimentation and testing. Given the complexity and dynamism of dryland cereal farming systems, one of the prime objectives will be to improve the adaptive capacity of the system and that for the farmers, i.e., the ability to sustain a flow of diverse products and services that poor people depend upon, and to do so under constantly changing conditions. Research will need to strengthen farmers’ ability to manage a broad range of production factors, thus increasing her flexibility to respond to exogenous influences. Ultimately, the synergy between cultivar development and crop management research must involve farmer participation and farmer decision-making processes. Strategic Objective 4 also aims at integrating crop management with improved cultivars to address key biotic and abiotic stresses. Strategic Objective 4 will develop and use decision-support systems for farmers to work towards more productive, less vulnerable, and more resilient dryland cereal system. Over the years, researchers have developed improved genotypes, tillage/soil management systems, and integrated pest/disease management packages. Intensification of dryland cereal rainfed agriculture requires greater use of inputs and investments on these inputs and will often involve a higher level of production risk. It is unlikely that impoverished risk-averse smallholder farmers will be willing to make such investments without assurances of a high probability of success and good rates of return to their investments. In this context, prudent management of available water is critical to reduce production risks, especially in water stressed areas. This is further exacerbated by the prediction that in many parts of SSA, available water resources are going to shrink due to changes in climate. Current projections indicate that Ethiopia, Kenya, Rwanda and Burundi will experience serious water scarcities by 2025. Efforts must therefore be made to capture and more effectively use water that is already available. The relative importance of abiotic constraints in determining yield gaps has not been well defined for dryland cereals, though in general soil fertility and water management are the key to improving production of grain and stover. Many studies have shown that the application of nutrients in small quantities, both macro (NPK) and micro (boron, zinc, etc.) can substantially raise cereal yields and increase crop water use efficiency. When these interventions are combined with other aspects of crop management, such as specific tillage practices, e.g., zero tillage, contour ridging, in-field water harvesting, and rotation with legumes, then productivity can be further enhanced (Subbarao et al., 2000; Zougmore et al., 2010). Ex-ante simulation studies have clearly shown that even with existing cultivars, improved management practices can raise yields and reduce risk in variable climates (Cooper et al. 2009). Among the biotic stresses affecting dryland cereals (except for barley), Striga is the most damaging obligate parasite, affecting a wide range of hosts (sorghum, pearl millet, finger millet, rice and

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maize). Striga is a serious constraint to production, productivity, and utilization of dryland cereals. Crop losses due to this pest have been estimated at over US$ 7.4 billion annually (Sharma 2006). Over 50% of sorghum production fields in Ethiopia are infested by different Striga species. Average yield losses due to Striga infestation in Africa ranges from 40-100%. Parasitism develops through exchange of complex biochemical signals, in which strigol initiates or stimulates the germination of Striga and its attachment to the root of the sorghum plant or seedling. Common weed control methods are usually ineffective, because the parasite emerges after the normal weeding or herbicide use period. Damage is more serious in areas where soil fertility is already low and drought is prominent. Integrated Striga management packages have been designed that include: Striga resistant varieties; judicious and appropriate timing and application of phosphate, nitrogen and composite fertilizers in combination with organic fertilizers; and water conservation measures using tied ridges (or local alternatives). Striga management will continue to require cultural and chemical treatments, resistant varieties, and an integrated approach to both Striga and soil fertility. Of these approaches, development of resistant crop cultivars has been recognized as the most effective and feasible method. To date Striga-resistant sorghum cultivars – such as N13, SRN39, Framida, 555, ICSVs, SRN39 derivatives (P401 to P409), Soumalemba (IS15401), Seguetana CZ and CMDT45 – have been identified and, as has been observed by Tabo et al. (2006) and ICRISAT (2009), these can be integrated with available crop management options to enhance productivity. Weed management is the primary bottleneck to yield increases by smallholder farmers, yet has been neglected by researchers in recent years on the premise that this is a straightforward crop husbandry practice in which farmers should invest. However, because of labor shortages most farmers prefer to use herbicides for controlling weeds other than Striga. As patents for key herbicides (such as glyphosate and atrazine) and others expire, their availability and use in dryland cereal production areas is increasing, in many areas without technical guidance or understanding of the potential health risks involved. Research support is thus needed to guide safe and efficient use, and to develop alternative options for diverse dryland cereal production environments. A number of important pests and diseases of dryland cereals have very specific and evolving distribution patterns. Grain molds, shoot fly, stem borers, midge, and head bugs are important pests in sorghum across the SSA and SA regions whereas downy mildew, blast, stem borer and head miner are important in pearl millet. Finger millet blast (Mgonja et al., 2007) and stem borers are important in SA and ESA and elsewhere where finger millet is produced. The productivity of barley is constrained by globally important foliar diseases, such as scald (Rhynchosporiumsecalis), net blotch (Pyrenophorateres), leaf rust (Puccinia hordei), powdery mildew (Erysiphe graminis f. sp. hordei) and barley yellow dwarf virus. Crown and dryland root rot diseases caused by Fusarium spp. (F. graminearum and F. culmorum) are also important diseases of barley and wheat in the Maghreb countries. Aphids are important barley insect pests in CWANA and ESA. The Russian wheat aphid (RWA), Diuraphisnoxia (Kurdjumov), and the Barley stem gall midge (Mayetiola hordei Keiffer) are the most important insect pests of barley in CWANA. RWA losses of up to 60% have been reported in countries such as Ethiopia and Turkey, especially in dry years. The Barley stem gall midge has been the major pest of barley in North Africa (Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya) causing about 30% yield losses (Lhaloui et al. 1992). Recently, and as result of climate change, this pest has also become an important pest of barley in Syria Lessons Learned Several important dryland crop management-related lessons have been learned over the years:  Crop and natural resource management practices that improve soil fertility, production and profitability do exist; however, farmer adoption of improved crop management practices on dryland cereals and especially sorghum and millets has been low (Hagmann et al., 2002; Ley

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

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et al., 2001) for various reasons. This is especially true of soil fertility (both organic and inorganic fertilizers) and soil water management practices. Farmers are reluctant to invest in new crop management practices for two reasons: high production risks where dryland cereals are produced and limited incentives to increase productivity, largely due to limited access to markets for these small grains. A host of other issues, such as unavailability of inputs, lack of awareness or information about improved practices, or inappropriate recommendations for dry areas has also played a role. However on the other hand, farmers will find ways to adopt/adapt new NRM and crop management technologies into their farming systems when incentives are sufficiently high from their perspective and the technology adaption and adoption process is adequately supported and explained (Twomlow et al., 2006; Van Mourik, 2008). Crop management practices, including IPM, IDM and ICM (integrated pest, disease and crop management, respectively) are more knowledge intensive than seed technology, and require different approaches that are often location specific and local in nature (Pound et al., 2004). Participatory approaches based on diagnosis, validation, experimentation and demonstration with farmers, and popularization have proved successful and include such approaches as the Striga and soil fertility cluster-based farmer field school approach (CBFFS; see http://hope.icrisat.org/manual-for-implementing-cluster-based-farmer-field-schools-forintegrated-Striga-and-soil-fertility-management/). Once a farming system or region specific IPM, IDM or ICM practice has been developed, tested and validated, the challenge is finding ways to scale up these approaches. The approaches used for Striga and soil fertility have shown some early encouraging results, not only scientifically but also in terms of farmer knowledge exchange and adoption. CBFFS is being adopted by national research partners and NGOs that see the resource and time-scale benefits of the approach. Strategic Objective 4 will use the CBFFS approach for the most important constraints to the production of dryland cereals in new areas to develop, adapt, test, and scale up integrated management approaches. Another key lesson for crop management and related technologies is the need to link these interventions to other actions that address bottlenecks in the impact pathway. Fertilizer use in SSA is dismally low, less than 10 kg/ha on average, and simply advocating fertilizer use without addressing issues of supply and marketing of surplus product will change nothing. Microdosing, for example, arose out of the recognition that small quantities of fertilizer could make a significant difference to yields, were more likely to be affordable than the recommended rates, and were relatively risk-free (Tabo et al., 2006; Twomlow et al., 2006). Linking microdosing to credit and storage schemes (“warrantage”) ensures that farmers can both afford and obtain fertilizer, and can subsequently store the crop to obtain a higher price, leading to greater and more sustainable adoption of microdosing. Likewise, in Zimbabwe the promotion of conservation agriculture is enabled by free seed and/or fertilizer under protracted drought relief schemes. Specific to pests and diseases, key lessons include:  Pesticide application is not feasible for the control of panicle feeding pests;  Host plant resistance is not adequate to control many insect pests and diseases, e.g., sorghum shoot fly, stem borer, grain mold and head bugs in sorghum, and blast in finger millet;  There is evidence of development of resistance to metalaxyl in downy mildew pathogen in sorghum; and  Pesticide application is not only uneconomic, but also unavailable in most parts of Africa, and hence needs to be combined with moderate to high levels of host resistance to target pests.

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Priority setting Finger millet, pearl millet and sorghum in ESA – The Eastern and Central Africa Regional Sorghum and Millet Network (ECARSAM), established by ASARECA in 2003, conducted a regional priority setting exercise in 2003 and 2004. A step-wise priority setting process, using the “analyze-formulateevaluate” sequence, was followed to identify the priority issues for sorghum and millet research. Participants in the priority setting were drawn from the private sector (e.g., food processing, seed producers, breweries), research institutions, universities, NGOs, and farmers’ and donor organizations. The balancing composition of the stakeholders from different sectors (production, processing marketing, policy, etc.) was essential to address the entire value chain and to overcome biases towards self-interest in prioritization of research themes. The outcome of the process indicated the following priorities:  Development, dissemination and promotion of integrated water management practices for increased productivity and livelihoods in drought stressed areas;  Participatory development, dissemination and promotion of high yielding sorghum varieties for specific end-use for different agro ecologies;  Participatory development, dissemination and promotion of high yielding millet varieties for specific end-use for different agro ecologies; and  Participatory development, dissemination and promotion of integrated Striga management option. In the SADC region, at the closure of the Sorghum and Millet Improvement Program (SMIP), stakeholders agreed that “improved crop management is the key to greater productivity and food security”. Crop management technology options for smallholder farmers have been developed, tested and piloted, although they remain to be mainstreamed and disseminated to national extension agents (Heinrich, 2004). Strategic Objective 4 is focusing its activities on priority farming systems as well as areas with potential for sustainable production and productivity increases. Since there is a range of crop management options to be considered and integrated (Table 9), decisions will also be informed by interactions with sub-regional organizations. Sorghum and pearl millet in WCA – Over all farming systems present in WCA, soil fertility is the most important abiotic constraint (Breman, 1995) while Striga hermonthica is the most important biotic constraint (Gressel et al., 2004). Soils in the semi-arid regions of WCA are especially poor in nitrogen and phosphorus, which constrains growth of dryland cereals more than the limited rainfall and poor soil moisture (Breman, 1995). Micronutrients such as zinc and boron may also be limiting in specific areas, requiring a proper assessment of soil fertility and specific soil nutrient management strategies. Recently, fertilizers coating macronutrients as well as micronutrients have appeared on the fertilizer market and experimentation should be geared at assessing the relative (economic) efficacy of these fertilizers in relation to macronutrient fertilizers and organic fertilizers. Other important biotic stresses for the DCs in WCA are weeds, diseases (downy mildew, smut) and insect pests (head miner, stem borer, midge and head bugs). In WCA, weeds are a very important constraint in the cereal-root crop-mixed and maize-mixed farming systems. In response to limited labor and mechanization, farmers are turning more and more towards the use of herbicides for weed control. This change in farmer behavior needs to be accompanied by participatory research and agronomic trials, as well as appropriate knowledge and extension to help farmers achieve the best results with herbicides, while at the same time minimize environmental and health risks. Downy mildew is the most important disease for pearl millet, and existing technologies such as seed treatment products and resistant varieties need to be combined and integrated with other practices to achieve IDM. Also important for pearl millet, but much more variable and epidemic in occurrence in time and space is millet head miner. Control options for millet head miner also exist (biological

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control and varietal tolerance/resistance) and need to be used in combination and undergo sitespecific fine-tuning.
Table 9. Crop management technologies for dryland cereals Technology Description

Water/moisture conservation Tied ridges Tied ridging is a type of surface configuration whereby the ridges are “tied” to each other at regular intervals by cross-dams, blocking the furrow and can be used when surface run-off is to be prevented. Pitting techniques, where shallow planting holes (< 35 cm deep) are dug for concentration of surface runoff and crop residue/manure. Found to be very effective especially in drier locations. Trash lines are constructed as a barrier for runoff, and soil erosion using maize, sorghum and teff straw/stalk Conservation tillage was developed to protect the soils from sealing rainfall, to achieve and maintain an open internal soil structure, to enhance biological processes in the soil, and to develop a means for safe disposal of any surface runoff that nevertheless will occur.

Pitting

Trash lines Conservation Agriculture

Pest and disease management IPM/IDM IPM is a sustainable approach to managing pests by combining host plant resistance, biological, cultural, physical and chemical tools in a way that minimizes economic, health, and environmental risks

Soil and crop management Microdosing Precision application of small amounts of fertilizer next to the emerged plant, from three to six weeks after the plant has emerged after weeding, and when there is adequate soil moisture. The rates, types and fertilizer application methods vary by location, and are determined through the use of crop simulation modeling and field validation. Giving crops a good start where good crop establishment is often the problem by minimizing the time required for seed germination and seedling emergence by soaking seeds in water before sowing

Seed priming

Sorghum and pearl millet in SA – Research on yield losses (Waddington et al., 2010) and the reasons for lack of adoption of improved varieties (Omanya et al., 2007; Siart, 2008) contribute to the identification of priorities. Monitoring production constraints with farmers during participatory research planning or evaluation sessions (van Mourik et al., 2011) have and continue to contribute to the revision of the key priorities. Interactions with key stakeholders in India through regular hybrid seed parent consortium and All-India Coordinated project meetings mainly drive this priority setting process. ICRISAT is focused on harsher environments in South Asia, where yields are low and there are large numbers of smallholders. The constraints for sorghum production in SA include: abiotic stresses, such as drought and moisture stress due to weed competition (32.5%), biotic stresses (12.5%), and unavailability of quality seed (10%) under rainfed mixed farming systems; they account 38%, 22% and 8%, respectively, under dry rainfed systems. In the rainy season, shoot fly grain mold and anthracnose are important and in the post-rainy season, temperature sensitivity, shoot fly, terminal drought stress, and charcoal rot are important. Thus, Strategic Objective 4 activities will largely be focused on research that will benefit the large post-rainy season sorghum area in SA. For pearl millet, important abiotic stresses are drought and high temperature. Downy mildew continues to be major biotic stress to pearl millet production that requires utmost attention followed by blast that has emerged serious problem in the recent past.
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Barley in CWANA – The CWANA region suffers from a shortage of food and is a major importer of strategic food commodities. Productivity growth is declining and there is potential for increased food prices. To address the present and foreseeable challenges to food security, the region has conducted various priority-setting activities for agriculture research and development. In 2002, ICARDA, in close collaboration with AARINENA and CAC forums, launched a region-wide initiative aimed at revisiting and refocusing CWANA research priorities through an innovative consultation mechanism relying on a bottom-up approach and broader participation of non-traditional stakeholders (Belaid et al., 2003). The research prioritization identified five researchable issues in the region in 2002. The first one was germplasm management, including germplasm improvement and biotechnology, genetic resources conservation, integrated pest management, and seed production. The second key issue was production and productivity of crops (wheat and barley, forages, vegetables, industrial crops, legumes, fruit trees, maize, potato) and forests. Shideed et al. (2008) reported the methodology used during brainstorming sessions, questionnaires, and regional as well as national consultations. The outcome indicated that the drylands were the most important agro-ecology (ranked first), followed by rangelands. On germplasm management, IPM was rated second after germplasm improvement and biotechnology. On germplasm, wheat and barley were highly rated (rated first) and on NRM, water and soils were ranked first. The latest priority setting initiative was done in preparation for the March 2010 conference on setting a regional research agenda (Samir El-Habbab et al., 2009). The purpose was to lay the foundation of a regional partnership that would facilitate consensus on the identification of common agricultural research priorities to be addressed within a regional framework, which would enhance synergies, efficiency, and impact. The basic premise being that such a regional process would strengthen partnerships among and between NARES and create opportunities for a more effective division of labor and more efficient use of other resources that would greatly enhance the likelihood of impact. Clearly, the effectiveness of regional research initiatives would greatly depend on the facility with which consensus on common problems and strategies among the partners are reached. A set of technical research priorities, both factor and commodity related, is generally well recognized and relevant to Strategic Objective 4, including:      Water management and water use efficiency; Land degradation and measures for its control; Management and sustainable use of salt-affected soils; Farming systems research; and Agroforestry research and natural resource management.

With respect to water scarcity, three key issues were identified:  Key Issue 1: Introduce crop varieties and management practices that result in better water productivity;  Key Issue 2: Improve management of water resources and conserving the quantity of this resource through water harvesting; and  Key Issue 3: Improve on-farm water-use efficiency and rationalizing the use of scarce water resources, especially through adapting new irrigation techniques and enhancing the uptake of improved irrigation technologies and practices in connection with irrigation scheduling. Other important avenues that could greatly influence crop management are the adoption of conservation agriculture and water harvesting and developed related technologies. Large barley areas are under unfavorable growing conditions and high stress from pests and diseases. In 2008, ICARDA began engaging in focused partnerships to both develop and deliver improved genetic material and technologies to resource-poor farm families. These networks have strengthened partners’ capabilities in addressing farmers’ needs. They have also resulted in new genetic

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advancement, seed delivery and crop management approaches that are more effective and relevant in resource-constrained environments. Thus, to summarize the research priorities for CWANA:     A crop focus on barley (together with wheat); Emphasis on effective water and soil management; Strong attention to integrated pest management strategies: and A sharp focus on integrated natural resource and germplasm management.

Impact Pathway The two primary outputs to be produced under Strategic Objective 4 (in close collaboration with Strategic Objective 1 and Strategic Objective 3) will yield several products that are focused on the key challenges faced by resource-poor smallholder farmers in dryland areas. These in turn will lead to research and development outcomes that will contribute to achieving key impacts (Figure 9). The work to be done under Strategic Objective 4 entails several gender dimensions (see Gender Strategy below), and gender disaggregated data and information (from Strategic Objective 1) will help shape field level work by DRYLAND CEREALS researchers and development specialists. Closing yield gaps and improving productivity under harsh environmental conditions is at the heart of this Objective, and iterative feedback and close working relationships with partners involved in developing improved varieties is essential for success. Key Partners Developing sustainable crop management options, whether targeted at biotic or abiotic constraints, is by nature a location specific activity, and solutions are normally local rather than regional or global. Partnerships with farmers who are the ultimate validators and adapters/adopters of these technologies are required. Strategic Objective 4 will therefore engage in many partnerships at local and regional levels with organizations competent to work directly with farmers and who are experienced in conveying knowledge intensive management processes to them (see Appendix 4 for details). In each of our regions, the initial DRYLAND CEREALS partners now work with many such organizations, especially on seed systems, fertilizer microdosing, and watershed management, and these links (as well as others to CRP 1.1 partners) will be strengthened. Partners who are involved in the generation of crop management technologies, including NARES and in some cases ARIs will also be key partners.

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Figu ure 9. Strateg gic Objective 4 impact pathway

Gender Strategy Gender a and crop ma anagement tasks – In mo ost parts of th he world, me en and wom en tend to work w at different tasks. Num merous time allocation a stu udies have examined e wh hich househo old members s perform m which farm tasks (Hirschmann and V Vaughan, 19 984; McSwee eney, 1979; P Pala, 1983). These T studies o often identif fy some tasks as men’s ta asks and others as wome en’s tasks. Fo or example, in i Kenya women reported tha at men were e responsible e for building g the granary y, and wome en were clear rly d digging, we eeding, harve esting, and transporting the crops (Pa ala, 1983). Although A responsible for hand many tasks may be viewed v as ex xclusively wo omen’s or me en’s, in pract tice the divis sions are blurred, and both h men and women w are in nvolved. Rela atively few ta asks are don ne only by me en or only by y women (Doss, 1999) ). That wome en througho out Africa ten nd to provide e more labor r for agricultu ure than men – and almost al lways provid de more tota l labor – has implications s for crop ma anagement technolo ogy adoption n. Even if the ey know they y can increas se productivity, women m may be unab ble to increase e the number of hours th hat they spen nd working on o the farm. Simple comp parisons of hours h worked do not captu ure issues related to the type of work being done e and the ene ergy expend ded. The

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value of time will vary by season and task; thus, people will be interested in saving the time that is the most costly (Levi, 1987). However, to the extent that the tasks vary by gender and the value of women’s time is lower, farmers may be more inclined to adopt technologies that save men’s time. This scenario will be examined under Strategic Objective 4, specifically related to crop management, and will be linked with relevant Strategic Objective 1 research activities. Gender and soil fertility management interventions – Soil fertility is a component of soil health, along with organic matter content. A critical entry point for improving soil productivity and reducing hunger is the adequate location-specific choice of crops and crop management practices. Women, especially if they are the main providers of staple foods crops, are particularly affected by declining soil fertility because they have limited access to external inputs such as chemical fertilizers. The use of animal manure, legumes, living mulch, crop rotations, soil and water management practices, the choice of suitable crops for the farming environment, composting, conservation agriculture and other technologies that enhance soil fertility is traditional in many farming systems (Uphoff, 2002). However, despite the recognized importance of low external input strategies, chemical fertilizer remains the basis of soil fertility management in many farming systems and most intensification trajectories. Resource-poor farmers cannot afford to apply fertilizer at high rates, and combining fertilizer use with other soil productivity management strategies could further improve the stability and resilience of dryland cropping systems. Involving women in soil fertility management innovations is a key approach for Strategic Objective 4 and gender-disaggregated data relative to this work – obtained in concert with Strategic Objectives 1 and 3 – will help reveal the impact of interventions from a gender perspective. Gender and crop protection interventions – Twenty to forty percent of the world’s potential crop production is lost annually to weeds, pests, and diseases (CropLife International, 2007). Decisions about crop protection strategies must rest on expected returns to investment, which varies considerably across environments. In our marginal target environments the generally small returns to expensive chemical inputs make them difficult for farmers to justify (IFAD, 2002). Pesticides can increase productivity, but when handled improperly, they can be toxic to people. The key gender issues are:  Gender and knowledge of pesticide risks – Compared to men, women are less informed about safe pesticide practices and the dangerous side effects of pesticide use; they also have difficulty in obtaining appropriate protective gear (London and Baillie 2001). Other gender issues include high costs of pesticides and render them prohibitive to women, and inconsistent benefits of alternative pest control technologies across socioeconomic groups.  Pesticide exposure – Women and children are often directly or indirectly involved in crop protection work, and their limited access to information about safe pesticide use imperils their health and poses an environmental hazard. Strategic Objective 4 will strive to create awareness about and minimize associated risks of pesticide use. Gender, knowledge and information differences – Men and women accumulate very distinct and rich sets of agricultural knowledge and skills as a result of gender divisions in the tasks they undertake, such as seed management and conservation and pest and disease management (Harwood et al., 2003). In making decisions about their livelihoods, men and women have different perceptions of what is important. They base their decisions on information from different sources. The unequal power relationships between men and women must be understood to achieve equitable development and the full participation of women. Interventions must be developed based on a comprehensive understanding of the needs that women and men identify to improve their situations. Thus the gender strategy for Strategic Objective 4 focuses on developing clear and sound pathways to enhance food security and income generation for poverty reduction. We propose to set up appropriate gender participation targets with our partners and invest in enhanced female leadership
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and capacity within local partner implementing agencies. Strategic Objective 4 will work with Strategic Objectives 1 and 3 to address gender-specific barriers to resources, opportunities, and benefits through various activities, including:  Gender-disaggregated analyses of livelihoods and access to key resources, including information and finance, among resource-poor farmers using standard gender analysis frameworks including the Harvard, and the World Bank tool kit and female empowerment frameworks;  Using gender-sensitive research questions in order to collect information about the differences between men’s and women’s activities, roles, and resources in an effort to identify their developmental needs;  Assessment of roles of men and women along the whole value chain by analyzing quantitative and qualitative information on all activities;  Establishing gender-related targets on partnerships for impact, as many local partner organizations tend to exclude women (e.g., farmer’s organizations);  Developing gender-specific monitoring and evaluation (M&E) indicators (such as women’s control of agricultural decision-making, and their participation in leadership positions in farmer organizations);  Obtaining gender-disaggregated data on participation of men and women in training in integrated pest and disease management; and  Identifying gender differences in workload as a result of introduced practices or new crop production technologies. Innovations Strategic Objective 4 will employ state-of-the-art approaches to research aimed at determining how to close yield gaps in harsh dryland environments, building on work done by others but often under less severe production conditions. For example:  Conservation agriculture has been thoroughly tested on crops other than dryland cereals; Strategic Objective 4 will evaluate the feasibility and effectiveness of using conservation agriculture practices with dryland cereals in different regions and farming systems:  Fertilizer microdosing will be evaluated for its effectiveness as a low input technology with our crops in different regions and farming systems;  Fertilizer use (microdosing) in combination with other soil productivity management strategies will be evaluated, including the use of mulches, composting techniques, cover crops, and intercropping to further improve the stability and resilience of the cropping system;  Fertilizer microdosing using water- and nutrient-efficient cultivars coming from Strategic Objective 3 partners will be combined in a single package and assessed;  New cropping systems using legume varieties from CRP 3.5 that fit short season windows will be assessed; and  Integrated approaches to biotic and abiotic stresses (Striga, downy mildew, headminer, stemborer) will be evaluated. ICARDA has been testing different barley genotypes under zero and conventional tillage conditions for the last three seasons under Mediterranean agricultural conditions where soil moisture is a critical problem. This technology may prove useful in countries like Ethiopia where plowing is done by oxen-drawn implements. When animal feed is in short supply, it is difficult for farmers to properly prepare their land. In this context, conservation agriculture has been identified to be very important for womenheaded rural households (Giller, et al., 2011).

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Outputs and Milestones for Strategic Objective 4 (further details are in Appendix 4) 4.1 Gender responsive crop management options to optimize crop productivity in smallholder farmer fields The primary purpose here is to provide technologies to farmers that are directly linked to maximizing the yield of existing cultivars and exploiting the genetic gains of new cultivars generated under Strategic Objective 3. Yield gap analysis clearly shows that yield and production of dryland cereals can be increased, even by smallholder farmers in harsh environments, often with existing technologies and at affordable prices. Milestones  Studies conducted to identify available crop cultivars and management options for each dryland cereals per region and per farming system and a brochure of the same published and made available (2012)  On-station and on-farm testing of different rates of micro-doses of fertilizers evaluated and optimum rates established and options for soil-water management demonstrated for each dryland cereals by region and farming system (2012)  Training needs for stakeholders identified and disaggregated by gender (2012)  Implementation of CBFFS for development and testing of integrated management of the main abiotic and biotic constraint(s) in 2 countries for 2 the two most important farming systems in each region (2013)  Protocols for testing integrated crop cultivar and management using participatory approaches developed and tested to determine 3 methods for scaling out to other areas with similar production systems (2013)  At least 3 best-bet crop management options identified using large-scale, gender-specific, farmer-participatory multi-location testing approaches for increasing hybrid productivity (grain and stover) in drought prone environments (2013)  Location-specific improved production technologies tested (crop cultivars and soil-waterfertility management) for productivity and weed management (2014)  Guidelines developed for optimization of soil fertility/organic matter management, including weeds, in at least 3 specific dryland cereal production systems, with varying levels of livestock integration (2014)  Management options identified on a barley cropping system to minimize the detrimental effects of salinity (2014) 4.2 Integrated Striga, disease, pest and weed management options to meet the social, environmental and ecological sensitivities of dryland cereals The use of improved varieties alone is not sufficient to achieve the productivity levels required to meet the food and income needs of smallholder farmers. Insect pests, Striga, diseases, non-parasitic weeds are serious constraints of dryland cereals productivity and production and utilization, and we will explore a number of crop management practices that can help control biotic and abiotic losses. Milestones  CBFFS for development and testing of integrated management of Striga and soil fertility in at least 2 countries for the two most important farming systems in each region (WCA and ESA) (2012)  Intensive training on IPM and IDM options conducted with special emphasis on bio-pesticide production and utilization for at least three crop pest/disease combinations in specific production ecologies (2012)

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 Integrated management of Russian wheat aphid on barley developed and tested in two countries for the CWANA and ESA each regions for the dryland cereals infested by striga (2012)  Integrated shoot fly management options fine tuned for various production areas (2013  Weed management options compared in at least 2 farming systems, disaggregated by gender needs, including monitoring health and environmental effects of increasing herbicide use in dryland cereal cultivation (2013)  200 farmers/country participate in Farmers Field Schools (FFS) on integrated Aphid management on barley in Ethiopia and Eritrea (2013)  Interaction of nutrients and bio-agents with host genotype studied to select combinations that elicit systemic resistance against the key pests in sorghum and pearl millet (2014)  Integrated Striga management options developed and tested in ESA and WCA, and shared with the NARS partners and integrated shoot fly management options fine tuned for various production areas (2014)  IPM/IDM systems for the management for at least three crop pest/disease combinations developed for specific production ecologies (2014)  Lessons learned and best practices for effective large-scale participatory integrated crop management practices published, and selected women and men farmers’ knowledge in assessing the cultivars and management practices enhanced (2014)

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STRATEGIC OBJECTIVE 5: ENHANCING EFFECTIVE SEED AND INFORMATION SYSTEMS FOR BETTER DELIVERY OF
IMPROVED TECHNOLOGY PACKAGES TO SMALLHOLDER FARMERS

Rationale and Description Strategic Objective 5 focuses on enhancing a more effective and efficient seed and information delivery systems that will enhance the availability of improved technologies to smallholder farmers in Africa and Asia. Weak seed delivery systems, coupled with high prices for and poor availability of fertilizers, as well as limited state support and extension services for dryland farming, remain major constraints for realizing the benefits of international and national research in farmers’ fields in many developing countries. It is estimated that improved varieties are planted on approximately on 34% and 23% of the total area of millet and sorghum in SSA, respectively. However, studies found that sorghum and millet varietal adoption is dismal in western Africa (Ndjeunga, 2002; Diakité et al., 2008) and eastern Africa (Mekbib, 2006; Alemu, 2010) and as low as < 3% in Ethiopia (McGuire, 2007), a major regional sorghum producer. Similarly adoption of improved barley varieties still remains low in the CWANA region (Bishaw, 2004; Aw Hassan et al., 2008). While availability of hybrid seeds of sorghum and millets through the private sector may hold promise in India (Matuschke and Qaim, 2008), elsewhere most dryland cereals research and seed delivery is dominated by the public sector. To date, neither the public sector nor the emerging private sector have effective delivery strategies for getting seed of improved varieties to smallholder farmers in less favorable areas and remote regions where dryland cereals are grown. For example, the formal seed sector provides less than 6% for barley producing countries in CWANA (Bishaw, 2004), for sorghum and millets in western Africa (Ndjeunga. 2002; Diakité et al., 2008) and for sorghum in eastern Africa (McGuire, 2007). Governments must create an enabling policy environment to improve the efficiency of national seed systems and promote diverse forms of delivery systems, including the public and private seed sectors and innovative ways of decentralized farmer-based seed production and marketing, which involve farmer groups/communities and NGOs operating in the country. Equally important are institutional innovations for improving farmers’ efficient and timely access to dryland cereal technologies, input markets and services. Most farmers in the dry areas of the developing world still do not benefit fully from the information and knowledge generated by international centers and NARES partners due to weak transfer of agricultural technologies. Hence the availability of new dryland cereal variety and seed should be accompanied by associated agro-inputs and crop management technologies to realize their full potential during crop production. Farmers (women and men) should be aware of and have access to new varieties and associated agronomic practices, agricultural inputs, and post-harvest technologies and be able to use them. Lack of inputs and accurate and up-to-date information on new agricultural technologies continues to be one of the major constraints to agricultural productivity and production of dryland cereals. McMullen (1987), for example, suggested that extension must create linkages between plant breeders and farmers through seed producer demonstration plots. Lessons Learned Several key lessons have been learned from past efforts to improve the delivery of seed and information to smallholder farmers:  Participatory plant breeding is able to identify farmer’s preferred traits and selection criteria, which increased adoption of barley varieties in dryland areas (Ceccarelli and Grando, 2007);  Local seed production through village-based seed enterprises has been successful in introducing new crop varieties to farmers, in producing quality seed at the local level, and has proven profitable and sustainable (Srinivas et al., 2010);

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 Initial assessment of seed diffusion in Mali confirmed that sorghum varieties are primarily being adopted, not through commercialization efforts, but rather through mini-kit trials, with diffusion to other households occurring through social networks. In southern Mali, for example, significantly more improved varieties are used by farmers living in villages were variety testing activities are carried out (Somé, 2011);  Women are mostly excluded from informal seed exchange, and information regarding new varieties does not reach many farmers, both women and men. Studies showed that 30-70% of women farmers get seed from their husbands and from their own harvest (Somé, 2011; Ehret 2010; Siart, 2008). Less than 10% of women get their varieties from a farmer organization or from seed cooperatives (Somé, 2011);  Rural radio appears to be an effective means for information diffusion. For example, in Niger 50-90% of seed sales are due to radio messages (Dr Ignatius Angarawai, pers. comm.). Better quality reporting about improved varieties, specifically for hybrids, is needed;  Using mini-kit trials to increase awareness and diffusion of improved sorghum and millet varieties in WCA seems to be effective in reaching famers in a range of production systems and from a variety of social backgrounds;  Links between seed producers and agro-dealers are strengthened through sale of mini-packs in input shops; and  Adoption of new sorghum varieties also increased because of improved stover quality (Falconnier, 2009). Key Partners A number of regional and international organizations with a strong interest in seed value chains for dryland cereals will partner in research relating to the delivery of inputs and relevant information (Appendix 4). Many public-private research partnerships for seed sector development have been emerging in recent years. Partnerships are being forged between: multinational companies and domestic seed companies; CG centers and national seed companies or with NGOS promoting specific value chains or seed initiatives/access to inputs: public NARES and small private seed companies; and between donors and international/public research. Such partnerships include germplasm development and exchange, accessing new technologies (including biotechnology), and/or technology transfer through exclusive license to multiply and commercialize varieties resulting from the partnership, subject to royalties or exemptions. Depending on the specific partners involved, different modalities of public-private partnership will be used and the lessons learned in each case and from others will be applied. Priority Setting The seed system research proposed here focuses primarily on the WCA, ESA and CWANA regions. They collectively represent the major dryland cereals production regions dominated by small-scale producers where adoption of new crop varieties is low, formal seed supply systems are largely nonexistent, and the use of agricultural inputs is minimal. Moreover, with the failure of the formal sector (public and private) alternative approaches are being tested, from varietal development to agricultural technology transfer to seed production and marketing to agro-input supply working with farming communities. The overall objective is to increase availability of, access to, and use of adapted improved crop varieties and associated technologies and agro-inputs. This requires an understanding of existing situations through comparative analysis and country case studies along the seed value chain and the design of alternative options to create a diverse and competitive seed system. Periodic monitoring and evaluation is necessary to measure the performance of formal (public and private sector) and informal (farmer/community) systems in ensuring varietal diffusion and adoption, and access to quality seed and other agro-inputs by farming communities:

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 Comparative analysis and country case studies would be conducted for barley seed systems in Central and West Asia and North Africa region, including Ethiopia in East Africa, where barley is a major crop with serious constraint in seed delivery system;  Improve women (and men) farmers’ access to seed of new sorghum and pearl millet varieties in targeted regions of West Africa (Niger, Burkina Faso and Mali) using different strategies, such as a large number of mini-kit variety tests, participatory variety trials, mini-pack diffusion, seed production, and commercialization activities;  Monitor and enhance variety adoption processes in the target zones in order to assess effectiveness of the different activities to enhance seed availability and knowledge about the new varieties. Focus on variety changes, target groups, seed systems (formal, informal) in Mali, Burkina, Niger;  Support emerging farmer-based seed enterprises through training in seed production technology, marketing and promotion, and financial and seed business management;  Support the development of harmonized seed policies and regulatory frameworks by regional economic blocs (ECOWAS, SADC, COMESA, etc.) and regional seed alliances (e.g., the West Africa Seed Alliance); and  Develop and improve information pathways for effective diffusion of information and knowledge on new technologies, including new varieties, agronomic practices, and agroinputs. Impact Pathway There is strong interface between agricultural research and seed delivery (Figure 10). New crop varieties are defined outputs of collaborative research, with NARES one of the key pathways for delivering the technology and realizing the impacts of investment in national and international agricultural research. Strengthening the seed systems addresses one of the key constraints in technology delivery by enhancing the efficiency of the formal public seed sector and encouraging private sector participation, as well as improving the performance of the informal sector through innovative decentralized farmer-based seed enterprises. Availability and access to seed of adapted dryland cereal varieties is critical in increasing agricultural production and productivity and thus contributing to better food security, reduction of poverty and improving rural livelihoods. This is particularly relevant for the majority of smallholder resource-poor farmers in the dry areas who are entirely dependent on agriculture for their livelihoods. The seed value chain approach will play a catalytic role by creating functional linkages among: international and national research centers that provide the new germplasm; seed producers and suppliers that deliver inputs; the “seed-using” farmers producing surpluses for markets; agroprocessors that produce value-added products; and consumers that have better choices. This allows improved flow of technology and information along the production-to-market value chain, which in turn should lead to greater impacts. New crop varieties and associated technologies of dryland cereals would be developed through both conventional and participatory approaches in target regions. These new varieties and technologies would be popularized and demonstrated through effective extension services (or farmer organizations and NGOs as in West Africa where the extension service has strong operational limits) to create awareness among farming communities. The agro-input-providers would make available required inputs. The varieties and seeds move from research centers through formal and informal channels making available quality seed to farming communities (Figure 11). It is expected that liberalization and commercialization of the formal sector would create a competitive public and private industry whereas on the other hand farmers are mobilized to form decentralized farmerbased seed enterprises that can produce and market seed locally and compliment the formal sector.

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Figure 10. Strateg gic Objective 5 impact path hway

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Fig gure 11. Move ement of imp roved seed fr rom national research cent ters through h formal and informal chan nnels to reach h smallholder farming comm munities

Innovations Develop ping sustainable seed and d input delive ery should combine rese earch compo onents to add dress seed/inp put system constraints, c and a developm ment compo onents to fac cilitate techn nology transf fer, its adoption n and diffusion through provision p of improved va arieties, seed ds and inputs s. Seed sys stem innovat tion along th he seed value e chain will include:  R Recognizing the t roles of formal f and in nformal sectors and build ding on their r comparativ ve a advantages, synergies s and compleme entarities to promote div versified seed d systems tailored to specific country situations. To date, fo or example, members of f WCA farme er organizatio ons are p producing certified seed alongside a go overnment organizations and seed en nterprises.  E Emphasis on commercialization and m market orien ntation of the e public seed d sector. A clear u understandin ng of effectiv ve demand fo or seed of im mproved varieties is need ded in order to m measure the size of the seed market.  P Promotion of f private sect tor seed deliivery. Introduction of hyb brid varieties s (sorghum, millet) vate sector, w with better yields, particu ularly in Afric ca, would en ncourage ent try of the priv c compared to OPVs where e the informa al sector pre edominates.  P Promotion of f farmer-based seed prod duction and marketing enterprises. A multi-stake eholder p process is nee eded for org ganizing and supporting local-level se eed productio on and defin ning relative roles and respons sibilities to e ensure sustai inability. Seed marketi ing in mini-packs. Genera ally seed is marketed m in larger quantiities that do not fit  S fa armers’ need ds. We will encourage e fa armer experimentation with w new variieties and with “seed p purchasing,” including ag gro-dealers in n the sale of mini-packs for f crops.  L Linking partic cipatory varie ety developm ment to seed d initiatives by b collaborat ting with d development t agencies an nd NGOs in la arge-scale va ariety testing g (test-kits) a and assuring seed a availability of f preferred varieties v by s upporting an nd creating local seed iniitiatives, crea ating d demand and assuring sus stainable ava ailability.  R Rationalizing and/or harm monizing reg ulations and d procedures. While prog gress is at dif fferent le evels in diffe erent regions s, DRYLAND C CEREALS will l provide a platform for r regional approaches to technology y generation n, facilitate th he flow of ge ermplasm an nd varieties a across borders, and e encourage pr rivate sector investment. . techniques, such as radio  U Using new co ommunicatio on tools and t o, TV, video messages, le eaflets, b brochures, fa armer field sc chools, and f farmer visits. Women far rmers will be e a particular rly im mportant tar rget for this work. Capacity y Strengthen ning Strength hening NARE ES capacity along the see d value chain remains cr ritical. The fo ocus should be b on improvin ng physical facilities f and human reso ources to imp part knowled dge and to en nhance the perform mance of deliv very systems s. For examp ple, NARES re equire critica al facilities an nd equipmen nt to

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establish functional seed units responsible for early generation seed production to ensure availability of breeder and foundation seed of newly released varieties. Whereas the public seed enterprises suffer from dilapidated processing and storage facilities, the emerging private sector entities lack capital and credit to establish adequate facilities for quality seed production and marketing. A critical assessment of infrastructure needs in target countries will be made and avenues for provision sought in partnership with development partners. Strengthening the capacity of human resources is the best strategy to transfer knowledge about available agricultural technologies. Short-term technical courses on seed technology, post-graduate studies, and workshops/seminars should focus on the formal (public and private) and informal seed sectors. These courses should to be module-based, target technical managers, and include themes on seed production, processing and quality assurance, as well as seed enterprise development and management. Moreover, post-graduate studies need to be explored to develop a cadre of young generation of seed technologists who will manage and lead the national programs in understanding and developing dryland cereals seed systems. These should be complemented by workshops and seminars targeting policy makers and senior managers to create awareness and advocacy to support the dryland cereal seed sector. Training is also needed to instruct and advise private seed initiatives (seed companies, farmer-based seed enterprises) in the application of seed policies. Drastic seed law changes are often difficult to adapt to local farming system situations (e.g. the recent changes in West Africa requiring a minimum of 3 hectare fields, high prices for registration and certification, etc.). Gender Strategy Women tend to be the seed guardians in rural communities and households, and play a critical role in agricultural development. The traditional role of women as seed selectors and preservers is widely recognized. The local seed system analysis provided highlights of gender roles in on-farm seed production and management, and place women in key position for participatory variety selection and seed production. In most rural communities, women participate extensively in crop production and agricultural wage labor. A significant proportion of female-headed households are also engaged in agricultural production in many developing countries. Despite their significant role, however, women are confronted with such constraints as lack of access to land, capital, credit and other resources that limits their adoption of new technologies. Women have been found to be owners of local seed enterprises, and demonstrate greater responsibility in the management of their businesses (David, 2004). Women farmers will be targeted for accessing seed of new dryland cereal varieties and women entrepreneurs encouraged to form alternative farmer-based seed production and marketing enterprises envisaged within the seed initiative. This could be linked to on-farm processing and value addition of dryland cereals food products operated by women. In Mali, sorghum, although traditionally considered a “men’s” crop, is actually cultivated by women and is frequently used to assure food for their young children. Thus access to quality seed, specifically to bio-fortified varieties (zinc, iron), would be crucial for family health. Outputs and Milestones for Strategic Objective 5 (Appendix 4) 5.1 Integrated crop and management technology packages for dryland cereals In order to increase adoption and yield in farmer’s fields, varieties need to be packaged together with appropriate crop management practices that fit farmers’ production systems. Such technology packages need to be tailored to differing socio-economic conditions in each region and they must respond to gender differences.

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Milestones  Variety and hybrid demonstrations linked to input suppliers in SSA (2012)  Integrated technology packages tested in three regions tested (2014).  At least one technology package specifically adapted to meet women farmers’ needs in each region developed (2014)  Economic evaluation for integrated technology packages (2014)  Impact assessment for one cereal crop in each region conducted (2014) 5.2 Innovations to strengthen seed and input delivery systems for smallholder farmers Past efforts to strengthen public agricultural research and seed delivery along the “seed chain” have had limited success. A lack of market-orientation, coupled with weak institutional linkages along the chain, impedes progress. The dryland cereals seed sector is at different stages of development in different countries, and within and among regions. Understanding these seed markets is essential for developing new options for improving them. Similarly, input delivery systems will be assessed in terms of policies, institutional arrangements, and marketing services. Milestones  Review of existing alternative seed delivery models conducted and results made available; and technically and economically viable pilot farmer-based seed production and marketing enterprises established and their sustainability evaluated in at least one country in each region (2012-13)  In-depth analysis of national seed system for dryland cereals completed in at least one country in each region and lessons drawn and recommendations made to national governments (2013-14)  Review of early generation seed production completed and functional seed units and procedures established in at least one country in each region to ensure availability and access to foundation seed working with public sector, seed cooperatives and private sector (201213).  Review of infrastructure and equipment needs completed in at least one country in each region and critical needs addressed in partnership with development partners and personnel trained in seed science and technology (2013-14)  National studies on the technical efficiency of public- and private-sector dryland cereals seed production completed in at least one country in each region including seed cooperatives in Mali, Burkina Faso in WA (2012-14)  Support to harmonized regulatory framework on variety release, seed certification, phytosanitary measures, etc. within regional economic blocks (COMESA, ECOWAS, SADC, etc.) implemented (2014-15)  Existing agricultural input supply systems (fertilizers, etc.) is conducted, results become available and systems strengthened to increase farmer access to inputs for dryland cereals in Mali, Niger, Burkina (2013)  Assess the efficiency of diffusion schemes targeted on women (2012) 5.3 Better communication and knowledge sharing options for improved awareness and use of dryland cereal technologies A large number of smallholder farmers do not benefit from the information and knowledge generated by research, in part because of poor agricultural extension systems and limited, uncoordinated international and national support for knowledge dissemination, but also because of the limited capacity of national programs to take full advantage of new information and communication technologies. Options for overcoming these obstacles in remote dryland areas are needed, and will be a primary output of Strategic Objective 5.
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Milestones  Agricultural extension systems reviewed, key gaps identified and recommendation made to NARS (2012-13)  ICM policies and strategies for agriculture and rural development sector formulated and implemented (2012-13)  Web-based information repository on seed sector including variety catalogues, field and seed standards, directory of key seed sector stakeholders, etc. initiated along coupled with newsletter for sharing information and creating awareness across the regions (2014)  Develop web-based information repository on agricultural technologies for dryland cereal production and shared on open and collaborative mode (2014)  Market information system for agricultural inputs developed including fertilizer providers, etc. (2014)  Market information system for agricultural products developed including dryland cereals products, agro-processors, etc. (2014)  Train farmer organizations, NGOs and NARES in developing and producing radio and video messages

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STRATEGIC OBJECTIVE 6: ADDING POST-HARVEST VALUE AND IMPROVING MARKET ACCESS OF DRYLAND CEREALS TO PROVIDE SMALLHOLDER FARMERS MORE BENEFITS FROM DRYLAND CEREALS Rationale and Description Strategic Objective 6 targets value-added products and the necessary research to ensure that smallholder farmers can benefit from added value, increased market demand, and more readily accessible information on production technologies and options for accessing them. The first and most widespread opportunities derive from focusing on the integration of food with fodder, and possibly feed production. Fodder and feed can be marketable surplus, if it has the desired qualities, and is available when demand is high. Processing options (pre-treatments) that render the dryland cereals amenable for use in the food processing industry, to develop different value-added products, needs to be identified, in close collaboration with Strategic Objectives 2-4. These products should be competitive with other processed staples and value-added products, such as from rice, wheat, maize grits, pasta or cassava flour. Research, done in close collaboration with Strategic Objectives 2-5 is required for the development of such products, and their subsequent marketing, including the necessary business development activities to ensure availability of such marketable products in areas where potential buyers can be targeted and thus providing them access to these value-added products. Appropriate strategy and business models need to be adapted for marketing and promotion of these newly developed food products with the food industry (models identified under CRP 2 could be tapped for this). Special attention needs to be given to also adapt suitable value chains for providing quality and consistent supply of grains to the food industry at a competitive price. Such research and business activity is long-term in nature, and requires collaboration with the academia and the private sector in various domains. Women will benefit by reducing the time required for and drudgery of post-harvest processing, and from new business opportunities for producing and marketing value-added products based on dryland cereals. However, smallholder farmers, especially women, will benefit from such market opportunities, only if specifically targeted measures are taken. Many of the target countries are among the poorest in the world, with the lowest human development indices; poor infrastructure, especially in rural areas; low literacy rates; and aging NARES, with decreasing numbers of qualified staff. Strengthening capacity locally to encourage innovation, managing change and effective communication thus presents a major challenge. Engineering and food processing research and manufacturing are poorly developed in most of our target countries. Innovations that improve farmers’ chances to derive benefit from these markets will impact a very large number of producers. This component will be oriented towards improving famers’ skills at benefiting from these markets, by improving their capacity to produce surplus with better production technologies, mainly developed under Strategic Objectives 2-5, by improving their understanding of the functioning of these markets, improving access to market information, as well their capacity to store grain successfully, possibly with the option to benefit from inventory credits, to facilitate improved access to input markets as well. To tap these demand-led opportunities, farmers in the drylands need access to new cereal varieties specifically developed with appropriate combinations of food, feed and fodder traits under Strategic Objectives 2-5 for use in crop-livestock systems, which will increase farmers’ access to markets and income from the sale of grain, feed and fodder. Lessons Learned Several key lessons will guide the development and implementation of Strategic Objective 6:  Communication and trust is an important element of successful linkages between farmers and industry both in formal (written agreements) and informal (verbal) contracts.  Innovation is possible when all stakeholders in the value chain are fully aware of the implications of new technologies and products in a clear and transparent manner, i.e., not couched in scientific jargon.
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 Knowledge regarding processing options exists in some local communities where respective dryland cereals are grown (e.g. for finger millet snacks in Western Kenya). However, knowledge about the preparation of such products is not yet documented and distributed, and processing only takes place occasionally on a small-scale. Moreover, processing options still need to be optimized, especially in regard to a longer shelf life for these products.  Although processors in, for example, Northern Tanzania, have specific quality requirements for dryland cereals, farmers in Central Tanzania are not aware of those. Suitable value chains need to be developed to ensure that information flows between processors, intermediaries, and farmers.  The nutritional value of finger millet, pearl millet and sorghum is increasingly recognized in several countries in ESA and India. However, it is often only a certain group of consumers (elderly persons, sick persons) who value and consume these products, though that appears to be changing, especially in SA. Strategies to promote the consumption of dryland cereals to a broader spectrum of consumers are still needed. Priority Setting Strategic Objective 6 will place its initial priority on decreasing post-harvest losses due to improper drying, handling and storage. Improving the long-term storability and maintaining quality for the harvest is crucial if farmers are to increase quality food availability and to potentially enter into market opportunities. Priorities for crops, regions and specific interventions will be based on knowledge gained from Strategic Objective 1, as well as priorities established by NARES in the target countries. As regions and countries are determined to have adequate post-harvest capacities, attention can be focused more on developing possible market linkages. Again, outputs from Strategic Objective 1 will help guide the focus for potential novel dryland cereal-based products. Setting priorities will require discussions not only with NARS, but also with potential food and feed industries in each target region. As markets are identified, efforts will be undertaken to research appropriate products and to develop required linkages to such markets. We believe that this area will be extremely dynamic and require constant attention to opportunities and setting priorities. Effective communication across the CRP will be critical for proper research to be prioritized – a critical role for the RMT. Impact Pathway The activities under Strategic Objective 6 will produce a range of outputs: processing technologies, new improved grain and fodder products, and more nutritious products that can lead to useful impacts (Figure 12). They will be demand driven, and derived in participatory ways with smallholder farmers, development partners and others. Our development partners are the primary “delivery mechanism” to improve smallholder farming operations and related processing and marketing activities. In order to have maximum impact, we help create an environment in which smallholder farmers can produce marketable surpluses and in which they can gain access to more efficient and effective markets, access that can transform surpluses into additional income and open opportunities for establishing commercially viable SMEs and/or link directly with agro-industries. Beyond that, we must work through development organizations, educational institutions and governments to further educate consumers about the nutritional value of these crops, an “awareness trend” that is picking up speed in South Asia and holds similar promise in Africa, both in rural and urban areas. As consumers increasingly partake of coarse grains, whether in the form of traditional foods or as new, timesaving processed food products, the demand for additional surplus production will continue to increase. We also need to know how to create market opportunities that can benefit women, opportunities that lead to empowerment and improved livelihoods. Outputs relating to nutrition and food security are particularly relevant to women, as are those relating to improving feed and fodder quantity and quality since women often care for household livestock. Improved processing technologies that

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make it easier for wo omen to pro ocess food fo or home cons sumption, an nd to process s it in larger quantitie es for storag ge, can help reduce r drudg gery and the e workload handled by w women. DRYLAND CEREALS partners p mus st consider t he whole value chain to make sure d different outc comes e desired beh havioral imp pacts on diffe erent actors. As noted ea arlier, we rea alize that par rticipants have the along th he value chain interact in a number o f ways and that there is a multiplicity y of feedback loops not show wn here. The e role of gove ernments in creating ena abling enviro onments is a lso critical, as a are gender c considerations and capac city strength hening.

Figure 12. Strateg gic Objective 6 impact path hway

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Key Partners and Their Roles A wide array of both traditional and entirely new partnerships is envisioned under the auspices of DRYLAND CEREALS. Relative to this strategic objective, some of our key partners will come from both the public and private sectors, and range from advanced research organizations, to applied research and development organizations, to well-established and emerging businesses (see Appendix 4 for details). Private sector companies in the dryland cereal processing sectors, as well as in the seed sector, will be key partners, not only for creating research outputs, but also for facilitating largescale outcomes. Moreover, in any particular value chain context it will be essential to involve key actors, such as input suppliers, extension services, development actors, credit institutes, and possibly consumer organizations. Success in creating significant new opportunities for market integration of smallholder dryland cereal farmers, specifically women, will rest on developing an array of new, non-traditional partnerships. Gender Strategy While dryland cereal crops tend to be considered food staples in most situations, and not cash crops, it is often women who generate income from marketing products processed or derived from them: traditional malted products, small ruminants or poultry fed on dryland cereal byproducts – straw, bran etc., or processed local foods, e.g. “fura” in Nigeria. Improving these value chains will help increase women’s income. Women dominate the processing sector for dryland cereals, both in the home, and for traditional food marketing. However this “informal” sector could benefit from technologies that enhance quality, business management skills, capacity for achieving economies of scale, and effective marketing. Thus we will investigate business models for spreading the use of threshers, mechanical “dehullers” or decorticators, as well as small-scale flour mills, in a manner that women can benefit from new business opportunities, not only from the reduction of drudgery. Improving the availability of processed dryland cereal products in cities will also benefit poor urban women, who spend a lot of time preparing food for the family. Indeed, the labor for processing cereals into food for household consumption tends to be fully women’s responsibility. The long-term health effects of malnutrition are most serious for young children and for expecting and nursing mothers. Strategic Objective 6 will therefore focus much of its attention on these vulnerable groups, but will also address the general nutrition needs of others. To this end, we will adopt gender analysis and participatory methodologies that reveal the needs and preferences of women and men (differentiated by age) in relation to nutritionally enhanced varieties. Women and men have different nutritional needs at different stages in life, and these need to be taken into account to effectively enhance nutritional health in the households. Malnutrition is related to food availability, access and distribution. Understanding the social dynamics regulating the access of different individuals to food (at the community and intrahousehold levels), or to the resources needed to purchase it, can support a more equal distribution of healthy and nutritious food. Social and gender analysis can provide insights into these community and intra-household dynamics through in-depth qualitative research. Given their roles as food providers, women (both in rural and urban areas) will be involved in initiatives to increase awareness about the nutritional value of specific crops, and best methods for improving cereal storage and for preserving or improving nutritional properties while cooking. Men will be involved along with the women in these initiatives to ensure agreement at household level regarding food patterns and priorities. Men and women will be sensitized about the existence of value-added traditional and alternative food products. Capacity Strengthening To implement the technology options listed in the priority setting section for this Strategic Objective, capacity building for resource-poor farmers and communities will be crucial. Training activities will

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need to be focused on community needs, and methodologies will take into consideration the indigenous knowledge and local competences, thus amplifying stakeholders’ interactions and exchange in efficient community setups, such as farm field schools, participatory group learning, etc. Capacity building in the form of training and entrepreneur development programs (EDPs) for service providers (individual entrepreneurs, farmer organizations, small- and medium-scale entrepreneurs, food processing industries etc.) to deliver information on innovations, marketing and technology targeting will be important activities. Post-harvest issues and agro-enterprise development will be key, and emphasis will be placed on promoting women entrepreneurs. Such training will focus on both pre- and post-harvest operations, as well as on activities related to value addition and commercialization. Skills required for developing value added products will also be enhanced through appropriate training programs and workshops. Innovations Improving shelf life of dryland cereal products – Rapid rancidification of pearl millet flour (within 710 days after milling) is a major barrier in the commercialization of pearl millet flour-based products (Nantanga et al., 2008). This is relatively less of a problem in barley and sorghum, and there appear to be no studies on finger millet. Fortunately, there are processing technologies under development that can enhance the shelf life to several months. A new method that involves moist heating of the grain followed by drying to about 10-12% moisture and decortication appears to increase the shelf life of sorghum flour for up to 8-10 months, and pearl millet flour for up to 3-4 months. This technology could produce a breakthrough in the commercialization if it proves feasible for largescale application. Furthermore, research suggests that there is genetic variation for rancidityassociated traits and for the tolerance of pearl millet flour to storage (Chugh and Kumar, 2004). Thus, opportunities exist to make improvements in shelf life from an approach that explores a crop improvement (SO2, SO3) angle in combination with an assessment of processing technologies. Linking farmers to industrial users – A coalition approach would be used for linking farmers to markets. The innovation systems model (Coalition Approach) recognizes a more diverse set of actors and relationships, e.g., farmers, scientists, public and private sector players, NGOs, research managers, line departments, and policymakers – each player contributing to achieve an overall purpose or goal. It is a model to link different institutional players for speedier and sustainable dissemination of technology for small-scale producers. The process in which distinct and/or independent entities and institutions work together as a single unit for the common goal with synergistic effect while keeping their identity [Gurava Reddy et al., 2007; Parthasarathy Rao et al., 2004; Ravinder Reddy et al., 2009 (2)]. The Coalition Approach provides an opportunity for the members to:       Contribute knowledge in their respective fields; Work towards a common goal with clearly defined roles and responsibilities; Exploit the synergies of working in groups; Share the lessons learned; Respond to users expectations (especially for scientists to respond); Experience new strengths (i.e. farmers) in bargaining with industry, and for both to foresee additional complementary benefits.

Outputs and Milestones for Strategic Objective 6 (Appendix 4) 6.1 Improved storage and processing technologies to reduce post-harvest losses in quantity and quality Effective and affordable drying, storage and processing technologies and practices will be identified through research under Strategic Objective 6 that can increase efficiency, reduce drudgery, and reduce post-harvest losses incurred by smallholder farmers in dryland areas.

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Milestones  Loss assessment due to storage pests and technology gap analysis in post-harvest management and storage completed for each crop and region (2012)  Available drying technologies evaluated and compared with new innovative technologies and appropriate technology shortlisted based on cost-benefit analysis and implemented for each crop and region (2013)  Appropriate equipment for threshing, winnowing, grading and decortication of each crop in each region identified and shortlisted, based on cost-benefit analysis of newly developed prototypes and comparison with existing technologies (2014).  Varieties with resistance to storage pets in each crop identified, and other options for the management of storage pests evaluated (2014)  Storage technologies for primary and secondary storage of grains evaluated and at least one technology implemented in each region for each crop and training in grain protection technologies and pest management practices imparted to farmers in the selected regions (2014) 6.2 Novel and diverse dryland cereal-based products to stimulate demand for grain The use of dryland cereals in the food and feed industries can be increased by various processing treatments, including blanching, malting, dry heating and acid treatment, that can improve their shelf-life, nutritive value, sensory qualities, and other characteristics, and make them more amenable for development of value-added food products. Research aimed at identifying new options and potential products will thus be a feature of Strategic Objective 6. Milestones  Pre-treatment and packaging options optimized, using suitable varieties of sorghum and millets having desirable nutritive and processing traits, leading to shelf-stable sorghum and millets flour (2012)  Pre-treatment and food preparation methods that maintain the nutritional value, improve digestibility and reduce anti-nutritional factors optimized and at least two value added products, targeting women and children (weaning foods etc.) from each cereal developed using these optimized methods in each region (2013)  At least five different processing technologies evaluated resulting in the standardization of at least two value added food products each from sorghum and millets involving formulation optimization, nutritional and sensory profiling (2014)  Packaging technologies and labeling protocols developed for commercialization of sorghum and pearl millet based food products (2014)  At least two value-added food products based on sorghum and millets formulated and validated for retention of activity of their bioactive components, under optimized processing conditions (2014) 6.3 Institutional innovations to improve linkages between smallholder farmers and markets Growing demand for high-value and ready-to-cook food is opening up opportunities for smallholder dryland cereal farmers to participate in different value chains, and the derived demand for coarse cereals is also increasing because of rapid growth in the livestock/poultry sector, as well as in the malting and biofuels sectors. There are apprehensions, however, about the capability of smallholders to participate in market-oriented production for high-value commodities and coarse cereals. Institutional innovations in marketing are needed not only to improve market access, but also the quality inputs, technology, information and services. Identifying such innovations will be an important output of Strategic Objective 6.

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Milestones  Existing institutional arrangements linking small holder farmers to grain and fodder markets identified and documented in each region, with special attention to women farmers/ processors (2012)  At least two crop/region specific models for grain and fodder linking farmers to markets tested and evaluated on equity, social and efficiency parameters (2013)  Establish at least two crop/region/commodity specific communication platform that allows the flow of information among the diverse stakeholders (2013)  Capacity building activities regarding the functioning and up-scaling of alternative institutional innovations carried out among all stakeholders (2014)

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PARTNERS (INTERNAT IONAL, NAT TIONAL AND REGIONAL)
The initial R4D partn ners in DRYLA AND CEREAL LS (ICRISAT, ICARDA, the Generation C Challenge Pr rogram, ICAR, AR REEO, IRD, CIRAD, INTSORMIL – see A Appendix 5 for background informatiion) believe that organizing their wor rk under a sin ngle, global C CRP will prov vide numerous benefits, and help to resolve roadbloc cks that they y are unable to resolve in ndividually. These T organizations are c currently eng gaged in a numbe er of partner rships spread d across the four regions s targeted by y this CRP (Fig gure 13). They also recogniz ze that there e are many unknowns an d that struct tural and ope erational issu ues will certa ainly require attention as DRYLAND CEREALS is im mplemented. A streamline ed managem ment structure for s that such issues can be b quickly addressed, and d so that the e CRP can the CRP is proposed (Figure 14) so respond d efficiently to t changing circumstance c es and new opportunitie o s, and make mid-course correctio ons in a time ely fashion. Overall O gover rnance, man nagement and coordinatiion of the CR RP are describe ed in detail la ater in the do ocument (se ee Governanc ce and Mana agement sect ction). A numbe er of both tr raditional and d entirely ne ew partnersh hips are envis sioned unde er the auspice es of DRYLAND CEREALS, but business s not as usua al is a critical partnership principal. In n general terms, partners s in this vent ture will inclu ude: Nationa al Agricultura al Research and a Extensio on Systems (N NARES); Advance ed Research Institutions (ARIs) in dev veloping and developed countries; c ag gricultural development NGOs and CSOs; su ub-regional a and regional organizations; local, nat tional and internat tional private e sector agric cultural R4D entities; and d not least, smallholder s f famers and wellw establish hed farmers’ ’ associations in key loca tions (Tables s 10 and 11).

Figure e 13. Current DRYLAND CEREALS partne erships

Partners s will be brou ught in based d on their co omparative advantages, a not n because it will be “po olitically correct” ” to do so. Ea ach will bring g resources t to the CRP – in many case es on an “in-kind” basis – as well as specia alized expert tise and their links to net tworks of other research h and develo pment organ nizations

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that may contribute indirectly (and on occasion, directly) to our work. When necessary to help ensure the success of DRYLAND CEREALS, partners will be supported with resources from the CRP, and many will participate in capacity strengthening activities carried out as part of individual objectives. The ability to deliver promised outputs in a timely fashion will be a key consideration in the selection of partners (and in their continued participation over time). Partners will operate on an equal footing with one another, must be willing to share information, and will come and go depending on the interests and needs of the partners themselves, and of the CRP. Partners and their roles were introduced under each Strategic Objective and more details regarding each partner and the specific activities they will undertake in accomplishing each Output are provided in Appendix 4.

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Table 10. Role of partners in DRYLAND CEREALS
Output NARES in Africa & Asia ARIs Private Sector NGOs, CSOs, Farmers Organizations CGIAR Centers

Strategic Objective 1 – Better targeting of opportunities for technology development and delivery of dryland cereals to smallholder farmers in Africa and Asia Output 1.1 Knowledge and priorities for R4D opportunities along the dryland cereals value chain to increase benefits to smallholder farmers, especially women Output 1.2 Knowledge of trade-offs between food and non-food uses of dryland cereal multipurpose varieties and hybrids Output 1.3 Evidence for policy and regulations to increase demand and supply of dryland cereal grain and processed products Conduct data collection for priorities, participate in priority setting, and help identify new opportunities. Contribute existing databases, based on ongoing and previous project in the target regions. Help in capacity building Use information to guide new areas of activity. Provide feedback on targets. Contribute to data collection, and the identification of priorities for crop improvement research Facilitate data collection and storage/analysis for priorities, participate in priority setting, identify policy changes required

Conduct data collection for key non-food uses and sub-sector analyses, and help identify opportunities. Conduct data collection for the development of policy briefs and outlook reports. Provide ground-level information.

Contribute know-how, data, and analytical tools.

Research into non-food uses of dryland cereals; contribute efforts towards establishing market outlets. Use analysis to guide policy decisions and investment focus.

Contribute to data collection and promotion of non-food uses of dryland cereals.

Investigate non-food uses for cereals and facilitate data collection and storage/analysis.

Provide improved analytical tools and models for ex ante analysis.

Contribute to data collection and information on policy and regulation needs.

Facilitate data collection and storage/analysis to help guide policy decisions.

Strategic Objective 2 – Enhancing the availability and use of genetic diversity, genomics and informatics to enhance the efficiency of dryland cereal improvement Output 2.1 Dynamic dryland cereal germplasm conservation, exchange and utilization Identify missing genetic resources and conduct collection missions, and establish phenotyping facilities. Identify missing genetic resources, support the establishment of phenotyping facilities and integrated breeding platforms, develop genomic tools Develop new tools, methods and approaches to identify trait specific germplasm, mechanisms and component traits; assist in capacity building Capacity strengthening of breeders interested to develop hybrids (Private Seed companies) Contribute skills and field facilities for variety and germplasm evaluation Identify missing genetic resources and conduct collection missions, establish phenotyping facilities and integrated breeding platform, develop genomic tools Development of germplasm sub sets, precise characterization and evaluation of the germplasm collections, documentation, and knowledge sharing

Output 2.2. Characterized dryland cereal genetic resources for key traits and future use

Evaluate germplasm sets (core, mini core, reference, TILLING population and FIGS subsets) for key traits in hot spot areas and select useful lines.

Use new tools/techniques, and selected germplasm for developing high yielding cultivars with wide adaptation

On farm testing and adoption of selected germplasm and high yielding broad based cultivars

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Output Output 2.3. Modern genomic and information-based platform for more efficient and integrated breeding

NARES in Africa & Asia Participate in the implementation of integrated data management systems with a focus on breeding and develop genomic tools (especially for pearl and finger millet)

ARIs Technological support for developing new tools and training in development and use of modern technologies

Private Sector Provide/co-develop costeffective and high-throughput genomics technologies for the R4D community; utilizing new tools and technologies for product development

NGOs, CSOs, Farmers Organizations Promoting and enhancing adoption of products resulting from the use of new tools.

CGIAR Centers Identification/development and use of new genetic and genomic resources, , molecular markers ,and modern breeding methodologies to broaden the genetic base for crop improvement and capacity building of partners

Strategic Objective 3 – Developing improved dryland cereal varieties and hybrids for increased yield, quality and adaptation in smallholder farmers’ fields Output 3.1. High grain and fodder yielding varieties and hybrids with desired end-user quality attributes Output 3.2. Varieties and hybrids with better tolerance to heat, drought, salinity and low soil fertility Participate in the development, evaluate and disseminate high yielding varieties and hybrids in various production systems Development, testing, evaluation and selection of improved varieties under key abiotic stresses Capacity building (including graduate students) in use of modern breeding methodologies Sources of Striga resistance Assistance in developing and capacity building of highthroughput phenotyping and genotyping platforms. Provide capacity building. Development and commercialization of superior cultivars and hybrids Promotion of superior varieties and hybrids. Development of improved varieties with a broad genetic base for different production systems; capacity building for partners. Conduct breeding to combine multiple traits into widelyadaptable germplasm. Development of improved germplasm with a broad genetic base, and sharing testing sites for the key abiotic stresses. Conduct breeding to combine multiple traits into widelyadaptable germplasm. Development of improved germplasm with a broad genetic base, and sharing testing sites for the key biotic stresses.

Testing and evaluation sites, feedback from using specific sources of germplasm. Commercialization of the proven technologies and superior resilient varieties with yield stabilizing traits Testing sites, feedback from using specific sources of germplasm. Commercialization of the proven technologies and superior resilient varieties with yield stabilizing traits

Testing of varieties, feedback on usefulness of specific sources of germplasm. Promotion and adoption of resilient varieties.

Output 3.3. Varieties and hybrids with improved resistance to diseases and pests

Development, evaluation, testing, and selection of improved varieties under key biotic stresses

Assistance in developing and capacity building of highthroughput phenotyping and genotyping platforms. Provide capacity building.

Variety evaluations, feedback on usefulness of specific sources of germplasm. Promotion and adoption of resilient varieties.

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Output Output 3.4. Varieties and hybrids with enhanced green forage, stover and straw varieties for fodder and other uses Output 3.5. Varieties and hybrids with enhanced grain qualities for food, feed and industrial uses

NARES in Africa & Asia Evaluate, select and adopt elite lines and/or varieties with enhanced green forage, stover and straw quality and other in target environments Evaluate, select and adopt elite lines and/or varieties with enhanced grain quality and industrial uses.

ARIs Assistance in developing highthroughput phenotyping platforms for breeding purpose. Generate information on nutritional quality, effect on chronic diseases, and antinutritional and toxic factors.

Private Sector Testing sites, feedback from using specific sources of germplasm. Development and commercialization of varieties Testing sites, feedback from using specific sources of germplasm. Development and commercialization of varieties

NGOs, CSOs, Farmers Organizations Promoting varieties in the relevant target environments.

CGIAR Centers Conduct breeding to combine multiple traits into widelyadaptable germplasm

Promoting varieties in the relevant target environments.

Conduct breeding to combine multiple traits into widelyadaptable germplasm

Strategic Objective 4 – Developing sustainable crop, pest and disease management options to capture genetic gains from improved dryland cereal varieties and hybrids Output 4.1. Gender responsive crop management options to optimize crop productivity in smallholder farmer fields Output 4.2. Integrated Striga, disease, pest and weed management options to meet the social, environmental and ecological sensitivities of dryland cereals Evaluation and dissemination of gender-responsive sustainable management strategies Identify and prioritize various constraints for developing integrated crop management practices and identify access channels. Development of new crop management options. Provide capacity building Development of new s integrated Striga, disease, pest and weed management options. Commercialization of products and services to enhance crop protection and crop production Commercialization of products and services to enhance crop protection and crop production Encourage and promote optimal technologies Develop, evaluate, and share best bet integrated crop management technologies. Develop, evaluate, and optimal integrated crop management technologies.

Encourage and promote optimal technologies

Strategic Objective 5 – Enhancing effective seed and information systems for better delivery of improved technology packages to smallholder farmers Output 5.1. Integrated crop and management technology packages for dryland cereals Participate in the development, evaluation and dissemination of integrated crop and management technology packages and the identification of access channels. Development of new technologies and technology packages. Commercialization of products and services to enhance crop management. Develop options for providing production credit to smallholder dryland cereal farmers Promote the adoption of optimal technology packages. Develop, evaluate, and share optimal Integrated crop and management technology packages, assess opportunities for using new communication tools

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Output Output 5.2. Innovations to strengthen seed and input delivery systems for smallholder farmers

NARES in Africa & Asia Support local, communitybased and commercial seed system developments, identify appropriate input dealers

ARIs Develop seed and input supply options, assist in establishing local seed and input systems, facilitate local private-sector seed systems

Private Sector Build up capacity for dryland cereal seed distribution, and possibly production. Develop options for providing production credit to smallholder dryland cereal farmers Technology platforms to disseminate knowledge of the identified technologies

NGOs, CSOs, Farmers Organizations Establish capacity for quality seed production, and linkages o seed markets, local seed distribution systems, linking to traditional informal seed systems Create awareness among farmers about various knowledge sharing platforms available, and facilitate implementation of appropriate knowledge sharing technologies

CGIAR Centers Develop seed and input supply options, assist in establishing local seed and input systems, facilitate local private-sector seed systems

Output 5.3. Better communication and knowledge sharing options for improved awareness and use of dryland cereal technologies

Identify technologies, and partners, and domains for developing various knowledge sharing platforms for implementation

Develop and provide crop and other domain-specific knowledge/information

Anchor various knowledge sharing platforms, validate information, content and promote technologies across geographies

Strategic Objective 6 – Adding post-harvest value and improving market access of dryland cereals to provide smallholder farmers more benefits from dryland cereals Output 6.1. Improved storage and processing technologies to reduce post-harvest losses in quantity and quality Develop capacity for processing business incubation; conduct grain quality evaluations Food processing research, Engineering research Contribute experience in processing technology and postharvest handling of dryland cereals. Organize producers groups of small holder to access better storage and processing technologies. Test business models for small and medium rural and urban grain processing enterprises Organize producers groups of small holder farmers for market access and increased profitability of production Test business models for small and medium rural and urban grain processing enterprises Facilitate collaboration across the wide range of actors; set priorities for specific initiatives, and the monitoring; conduct research on storability, and possibly post-harvest handling of grain Facilitate collaboration across the wide range of actors. Conduct research on novel uses of dryland cereals.

Output 6.2. Novel and diverse dryland cereal-based products to stimulate demand for grain

Develop technological interventions to produce various dryland cereal-based food products.

Food processing research, Engineering research

Contribute experience on marketable processed food products from dryland cereals. Contribute efforts towards facilitating purchase form small-holder farmers, based on value chain analyses

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Output Output 6.3. Institutional innovations to improve linkages between smallholder farmers and markets

NARES in Africa & Asia Evaluate, advocate and adopt sustainable policies to promote cereal products, and benefit stakeholders

ARIs Assist with policy formulation, and capacity building

Private Sector Promote value chain based agribusiness ventures. Develop options for providing production credit to smallholder dryland cereal farmers

NGOs, CSOs, Farmers Organizations Organize producers groups of small holder farmers for market access and increased profitability of production; train producer groups for increased production, improved profitability and use of modern market information options. Promotion and adoption of inclusive market oriented systems

CGIAR Centers Develop appropriate innovations and practices for sustainable institutional systems

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Table 11. Specific initial DRYLAND CEREALS partners, by region and target country
Target Country West and Central Africa Burkina Faso (pm, so) Institut National de l’Environnement et Recherche Agricole (INERA): Technology development INRAB: CREAF: IRSAT: Grain processing CIRAD: Sorghum genetics and variety development INTSORMIL (USA): Capacity building Wageningen University: Food processing and nutrition IRD: Food processing and nutrition aWhere (USA): Data management and information systems AGRA: Capacity building, seed systems IFAD-PDRD: P4P (WFP): Grain purchase Association Minim Sông Pânga (AMSP) Union de Groupement pour la commercialisation des Produits Agricole Boucle du Mouhoun (UGCPA/BM): Technology assessment, market linkages Village level womens’ organizations in Upper West region NARES ARIs Private Sector NGOs, CSOs, Farmers Organizations

Ghana (so)

Mali (pm, so)

Ghana Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR): Technology development and testing, research and policy facilitation. Savannah Agricultural Research Institute: technology development, evaluation and assessment Institut d'Economie Rurale (IER): Technology development Institut Polytechnique Rural: Universite de Bamako: Capacity building

INTSORMIL (USA): Capacity building

Pannar Seed: seed production and dissemination Guinness Breweries: Grain purchase

CIRAD: Sorghum genetics, breeding, social science, seed system development INTSORMIL (USA): Capacity building, developing technologies EMBRAPA (Brazil): Developing technologies University of Hohenheim: Capacity building, developing technologies Cornell University: Association studies

aWhere (USA): Data management and information systems Faso Kaba: Seed production and dissemination Mali-Biocarburant: Biodiesel, and other biofuels

AGRA: Capacity building, seed systems FTF (USAID): Capacity building P4P (WFP): Grain purchase Association des Organisations Professionnelles Paysannes (AOPP): Technology assessment, market linkages, seed production Union Locale des Producteurs de Cereales (ULPC): Technology assessment, market linkages, seed production ASEDES: Technology assessment, market linkages, seed production AOPP: Technology assessment, market linkages, seed production Aga Khan Foundation: Technology assessment, market linkages, seed production World Vision: Technology assessment, dissemination

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Target Country Niger (pm, so)

NARES Institut National de Recherches Agronomiques du Niger (INRAN): Technology development, capacity building CERRA: Technology development, capacity building Universite de Niamey:

ARIs INTSORMIL (USA): Capacity building, developing technologies University of Hohenheim: Capacity building, developing technologies IRD: Capacity building, developing technologies

Private Sector aWhere (USA): Data management and information systems Alheri: Seed production and marketing Ainom: Seed production and marketing

Nigeria (pm, so)

Senegal (pm)

Lake Chad Research Station: Technology development; capacity building University of Maiduguri: Capacity building Institut of Agricultural Research: Capacity building, technology development and dissemination Sorghum Initiative of the central government Institut Sénégalais de Recherche Agricole (ISRA): Technology development, capacity building ITA EISMV Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research (EIAR): Technology development, disease screening, variety testing Hawassa University: Capacity building Haramava University: Capacity building Alemaya University: Capacity building Axum University: Capacity building ARARI: Evaluating lines/hybrids OROMIA: Evaluating lines/hybrids

INTSORMIL (USA)

ABA Malting Plant, Nigeria: Grain purchase Seed Companies: Seed production aWhere (USA): Data management and information systems

NGOs, CSOs, Farmers Organizations ACH: Seed production AGRA: Capacity building, seed systems Fuma Gaskya, Niger: Technology assessment, market linkages, seed production IFAD-PPILDA, Niger: Technology assessment, market linkages, seed production P4P (WFP): Grain purchases Mooriben: Technology accessment, market linkages, seed production Catholic Relief Services: Seed purchase AGRA: Capacity building, seed systems IFAD-CBARDP, Nigeria: Technology assessment, market linkages USAID

INTSORMIL (USA) University of Hohenheim: Capacity building, developing technologies

FTF (USAID): Extension P4P (WFP): Grain purchases

East and Southern Africa Ethiopia (b, fm, so) INTSORMIL (USA): Capacity building, technology development Ethiopian Breweries: Purchase of grain and seed, quality testing aWhere (USA): Data management and information systems AGRA: Capacity building; FTF (USAID): Capacity building P4P (WFP): Grain purchases

Sudan (pm, so)

aWhere (USA): Data management and information systems

P4P (WFP): Grain purchases

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Target Country Tanzania (fm, so)

NARES Sokoine University of Agriculture: Capacity building Hombolo Research Station: Screening germplasm, evaluating lines Department of Research and Development: Technology development NARO: Technology development NAADS: Technology transfer Makerere University: Capacity building Gulu University: Capacity building Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, Extension Dept: Technology transfer

ARIs INTSORMIL (USA): Capacity building, developing technologies University of Georgia: Capacity building, germplasm screening

Private Sector aWhere (USA): Data management and information systems Tanzania Seed Association: Seed production Suba Agro: Seed production; Namburi Seed Company: Seed production Tanzania Breweries Ltd: Grain purchases aWhere (USA): Data management and information systems Victoria Seed: Seed production and marketing Maganjo Millers: Grain processing Family Diet: Food processing Naseco Seeds: Seed production and marketing

NGOs, CSOs, Farmers Organizations AGRA: Capacity building FTF (USAID): Capacity building P4P (WFP): Grain purchases

Uganda (fm)

University of Bedfordshire: Capacity building University of Georgia (UG): Capacity building, germplasm screening University of Warwick: Capacity building , germplasm screening

AGRA: Capacity building FTF (USAID): Capacity building P4P (WFP): Grain purchases ActionAid: Seed purchase Catholic Relief Services: Seed purchase

West Asia Turkey (b) Iran (b) Diyarbakir ARI: Multi location experiments AREEO: Variety testing Seed & Plant Improvement Institute (SPII): Varietal testing Dryland Agricultural Research Institute (DARI): Varietal testing General Commission for Scientific Agricultural Research (GCSAR): Conduct testing experiments, variety releases State Board of Agricultural Research: Variety testing, conservation agriculture experiments Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique (INRA): Breeding, disease screening

P4P (WFP): Grain purchases

Syria (b)

Al-Shark Brewing Company: Seed purchases, quality testing

P4P (WFP): Grain purchases

Iraq (b) North Africa Morocco (b)

P4P (WFP): Grain purchases

Algeria (b) Central Asia Kazakhstan (b) Research Institute of Livestock and Plant Industry: Variety testing

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Target Country South Asia India (b, fm, pm, so)

NARES All India Coordinated Pearl Millet Improvement Project (ICAR): Germplasm exchange & screening, evaluating breeding material, seed systems development, capacity building, technology development Directorate of Sorghum Research (DSR), Hyderabad: Germplasm exchange & screening, evaluating breeding material, seed systems development, capacity building, technology development Indian Institute of Chemical Technology (IICT), Hyderabad: Technology development, screening & characterization of breeding materials, capacity building Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University (JNTU), Hyderabad: Technology development, screening & characterization of breeding materials, capacity building Acharya NG Ranga Agricultural University (ANGRAU): Germplasm exchange & screening, evaluating breeding material, seed production, capacity building, technology development Sri Venkateswara Veterinary University (SVVU): Evaluating breeding material, technology development, capacity building Dept. of Agriculture: Seed production, seed purchase, capacity building, collecting data for priority setting

ARIs

Private Sector aWhere (USA): Data management and information systems CERES Energy Ltd (USA): Evaluating breeding material, seed production, seed purchase, technology development KWS (Germany): Evaluating breeding material, seed production, seed purchase, technology development

NGOs, CSOs, Farmers Organizations Aakruti Agricultural Associates: Seed production, seed purchase, capacity building Consortium of Indian Farmers' Associations (CIFA): Seed production, seed purchase, capacity building

India (Selected States) Andhra Pradesh (so) Sorghum Hybrid Parents Research Consortium (India): Evaluating lines/hybrids, seed production and distribution

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Target Country Haryana (pm)

NARES Chaudhary Charan Singh Haryana Agricultural University (CCSHAU), Hisar: Evaluating lines/ hybrids, capacity building All India Coordinated Barley Improvement Project (ICAR): Variety release, testing, disease screening Sardar Krushinagar Dantiwada Agricultural University (SDAU), SK Nagar Junagarh Agricultural University (JAU), Junagarh: Evaluating lines/ hybrids, capacity building Gujarat Agricultural University: Germplasm exchange & screening, evaluating breeding material, seed production, capacity building, technology development University of Agricultural Sciences: Germplasm exchange & screening, evaluating breeding material, seed production, capacity building, technology development Marathwada Agricultural University (MAU): Germplasm exchange & screening, evaluating breeding material, seed production, capacity building, technology development Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth (MPKV), Rahuri: Evaluating lines/ hybrids, capacity building Panjabrao Deshmukh Krishi Vidyapeeth (PDKV): Germplasm exchange & screening, evaluating breeding material, seed production, capacity building, technology development

ARIs

Private Sector Pearl Millet Hybrid Parents Research Consortium (India): Evaluating lines/hybrids, seed production and distribution

NGOs, CSOs, Farmers Organizations

Gujarat (pm, so)

Pearl Millet Hybrid Parents Research Consortium (India): Evaluating lines/hybrids, seed production and distribution Sorghum Hybrid Parents Research Consortium (India): Evaluating lines/hybrids, seed production and distribution

Karnataka (fm, so)

Sorghum Hybrid Parents Research Consortium (India): Evaluating lines/hybrids, seed production and distribution Praj Industries: Evaluating breeding material, seed production, seed purchase, capacity building, technology development Pearl Millet Hybrid Parents Research Consortium (India): Evaluating lines/hybrids, seed production and distribution Sorghum Hybrid Parents Research Consortium (India): Evaluating lines/hybrids, seed production and distribution

Maharashtra (pm, so)

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Target Country Madhya Pradesh (so)

NARES Rajmata Vijayraje Scindia krushi visawavidyalay (RVSKVV): Germplasm exchange & screening, evaluating breeding material, seed production, capacity building, technology development Jawaharlal Nehru Krushi viswavidyalay (JNKVV): Germplasm exchange & screening, evaluating breeding material, seed production, capacity building, technology development Swami Keshwanand Rajasthan Agricultural University (SKRAU), Bikaner: Field evaluation of lines, impact assessment, pathogen collections Central Arid Zone Research Institute (CAZRI), Jodhpur: Evaluating lines/ hybrids, capacity building Maharana Pratap University of Agriculture and Technology: Germplasm exchange & screening, evaluating breeding material, seed production, capacity building, technology development Tamilnadu Agricultural University (TNAU): Germplasm exchange & screening, evaluating breeding material, seed production, capacity building, technology development Sugarcane Breeding Institute (SBI): Technology development, capacity building Indian Institute of Sugarcane Research (IISR), Lucknow

ARIs

Private Sector Sorghum Hybrid Parents Research Consortium (India): Evaluating lines/hybrids, seed production and distribution

NGOs, CSOs, Farmers Organizations

Rajasthan (b, pm, so)

Pearl Millet Hybrid Parents Research Consortium (India): Evaluating lines/hybrids, seed production and distribution Sorghum Hybrid Parents Research Consortium (India): Evaluating lines/hybrids, seed production and distribution

GRAVIS (Gramin Vikas Vigyan Samiti), Jodhpur: Develop Self Help Groups, market linkages, seed distribution

Tamil Nadu (so)

Sorghum Hybrid Parents Research Consortium (India): Evaluating lines/hybrids, seed production and distribution

Uttar Pradesh (b, pm)

Pearl Millet Hybrid Parents Research Consortium (India): Evaluating lines/hybrids, seed production and distribution

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GENDER STRATEGY
Women produce over half the food in many developing countries, bear most responsibility for household food security, and contribute to household wellbeing through their income generating activities. Women play a critical role in agriculture, accounting for about 70-80% of household food production in sub-Saharan Africa and 65% in Asia (FAO, 1994). Yet, women usually have more limited access to resources and opportunities and their productivity remains low relative to their potential. Programs and projects that ignore gender specific barriers to resources, opportunities, and benefits have a risk of excluding a large proportion of farmers (who are women) and the farming community. Analyzing quantitative and qualitative information during the implementation of DRYLAND CEREALS will improve our understanding of the specific roles of men and women in dryland farming systems, especially mixed crop-livestock systems. Building on the guidelines developed by the Program on Participatory Research and Gender Analysis (PRGA) and the Mainstreaming Framework from the Gender Scoping Study done by ICRW, the scientists involved in DRYLAND CEREALS will work collectively to ensure that all objectives, activities and outputs are gender responsive. Key considerations will include recognition of the role of gender in maintaining and utilizing dryland cereal crops, women farmer-led research and the need for participatory and gender-responsive approaches to the problems of poverty, food security and sustainability. As a crosscutting issue, gender will be integrated in each of our Strategic Objectives and at all stages of the project cycle. Gender analyses will be guided by standard gender analysis frameworks, including the Harvard and the World Bank tool kit (Feldstein et al., 1994), and by female empowerment frameworks. These will be based on analysis and understanding of gender roles along the whole value chain, using and generating new gender-disaggregated data that will inform the future directions of DRYLAND CEREALS. Women in dryland areas tend to be disadvantaged economically, less empowered in decisionmaking, and more prone to malnutrition than men. These disadvantages impact their children as well. Thus women, and through them the young children that depend on them, will receive special attention. Women’s traditional roles in dryland cereal cultivation differ across countries and ethnic groups. In many cultures, women’s responsibilities are primarily post-harvest management (transport, threshing, cleaning and storage) and processing, for both home consumption and local marketing. In some areas, particularly in WCA, women are also deeply involved in the production segment of the value chain. They manage their own production fields, providing both incomes for themselves and a food security reserve for their children. They are often active in farmer organizations. Specific efforts will be made to identify channels and mechanisms for reaching women to share modern technologies and build their capacities. As DRYLAND CEREALS is implemented, gender disaggregated roles will be explicitly addressed in all Objectives, especially on the following:  Gender-differentiated data collection, including for baselines and impact assessments, will take into account gender issues to capture differing roles and benefits for men and women;  Capacity strengthening and technical training that includes women in equitable numbers will capture gender needs, targets, achievements, and participation (e.g. in farmer field days, training of trainers, and workshops); and  Technologies will be developed that deliver particular benefits to women (e.g. reducing drudgery, but even more importantly opening opportunities for value-adding post-harvest processing and food preparation operations that are typically carried out by women).

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At its simplest, our gender analysis will be asking questions about the differences between men’s and women’s activities, roles, and resources to identify their developmental needs. Assessing these differences makes it possible to determine men’s and women’s constraints and opportunities within the dryland cereals farming systems. This will ensure the provision of agricultural products and services that are needed by men and women farmers and are appropriate to their circumstances. Gender and Strategic Objective 1 Because women and men farmers usually have different and complementary roles in crop management, from production to consumption, they have different needs, priorities and knowledge related to traits and crops that are taken into account by the households when adopting new technologies. To increase adoption rates of improved varieties, it is important that the genderdifferentiated needs of all farmers involved along the food chain inform breeding strategies. Strategic Objective 1 will thus mainstream gender-disaggregated data collection and analyses on the roles of women and men in dryland cereal value chains. Gender-sensitive data collection methods like women enumerators will be employed to elicit information on gender sensitive issues. Special training programs in the area of skill enhancement, processing, value addition, and small agribusiness entrepreneurship will be conducted for women empowerment. Gender perceptions on the quality attributes of the grain and fodder and tradeoff between food and non-food uses of the grain will be assessed. The institutional arrangement for active participation of women groups from seed to final product in the value chain will be analyzed. The economic viability of different options of formal linking of smallholder women groups to various service providers will be analyzed. Welfare implications of drudgery reduction technologies will be evaluated for scaling up. Gender and Strategic Objective 2 Strategic Objective 2 will focus on improving the range of genetic variation and the selection protocols used by DRYLAND CEREAL breeding programs to develop improved cultivars that can create market opportunities to benefit women, particularly opportunities that lead to empowerment and improved livelihoods. Target traits relating to nutrition and food security are particularly relevant to women, as are those relating to improving feed and fodder quantity and quality, because women often care for household livestock. Improved processing technologies that make it easier for women to process food for home consumption, and to process it in larger quantities for storage and the market, can help reduce drudgery and the workload handled by women. Therefore, in large part trait-specific research in this CRP will focus on:  Traits that are critical to food security, improved nutrition and reduced drudgery for women and children;  Abiotic stress tolerance and biotic stress resistance that enhance food security by improving stability of production;  Improved crop establishment characteristics that enhance food security; and  Enhanced food processing and storage characteristics and nutritional quality. Gender and Strategic Objective 3 Focusing on increasing “whole plant value” for primary producers of these crops, this Strategic Objective will assess crop value for the entire farm family, especially in situations where the crop serves as a staple food for much of the year, and where family labor is a the key source of labor for cultivation and processing. Achieving such a balance of criteria for evaluating, creating and disseminating new varieties of dryland cereals requires:  Improvements in the gender knowledge and analysis skills of the scientists and other partners involved;  Commitment of partners along the research continuum to act on gender-specific client needs, and to develop technology options with benefits to the entire farm family;

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 Commitment of research and development partners to communicate successes and failures of specific actions in this direction; and  Effective increases in whole plant value and/or productivity of dryland cereals. To facilitate these changes, cereal improvement teams in the different regions are committed to:  Including women farmers as members of the steering committees of projects;  Assessing the roles of women in various crop management and processing operations in target regions;  Supporting women self-help groups in target regions, especially in the context of cereal processing and commercialization;  Inclusion of women in decision making, especially on the choice of varieties;  Establish specific variety trials for women, adapted to enable women’s participation;  Communication and training targeted specifically for women and women’s associations, avoiding pitfalls of indirect communication through husbands and giving less attention to women’s specific conditions;  Feedback sessions, specifically for and with women, in which results of experimentation are discussed;  Training women farmer groups to adopt mechanization to reduce drudgery and labor in agricultural operations and enterprise skills development; and  Making information on nutritional advantages and innovations readily available to all members of households. Gender and Strategic Objective 4 Gender and crop management tasks – In most parts of the world, men and women tend to work at different tasks. Although many tasks may be viewed as exclusively women’s or men’s, in practice the divisions are blurred, and both men and women are involved. That women throughout Africa tend to provide more labor for agriculture than men – and almost always provide more total labor – has implications for technology adoption. To the extent that tasks vary by gender and the value placed on women’s time often lower, farmers may be more inclined to adopt technologies that save men’s time. This dynamic will be analyzed as part of this Objective, in collaboration with Strategic Objective 1. Gender and soil fertility management – Women, especially if they are the main providers of staple foods crops, are particularly affected by declining soil fertility. They often have limited or no access to chemical fertilizers, but many alternatives to inorganic fertilizers are available (animal manure, legumes, living mulch, crop rotations, and conservation tillage to name a few). Involving women in soil fertility management innovations is a key approach under this Objective and collection of gender-disaggregated data for targeting promotion activities on fertilizer will facilitate the impact of interventions from a gender perspective. Gender and crop protection interventions – Twenty to forty percent of the world’s potential crop production is lost annually to weeds, pests, and diseases and crop protection strategies have changed with the intensification of agriculture. Pesticides can increase agricultural productivity, but when handled improperly, they can be toxic to human. Key gender-related issues include:  Gender and knowledge of pesticide risks – Compared to men, women are less informed about safe pesticide practices and dangerous side effects, and have greater difficulty in obtaining protective gear.  Pesticide exposure – The limited access to information about safe pesticide use imperils human health and poses environmental hazard, and given that women and children are often

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involved in applying pesticides when they are used, special efforts must be made to create awareness and minimize associated risks. Gender, knowledge and information differences – Men and women can accumulate very distinct and rich sets of agricultural knowledge and skills as a result of gender divisions in the tasks they undertake, such as seed management and conservation and pest and disease management. In making decisions about their livelihoods, men and women have different perceptions of what is important. Men and women base their decisions on information from different sources. The unequal power relationships between rich and poor, men and women, must be understood to achieve equitable development and full participation of women. Crop management interventions must therefore be developed based on a comprehensive understanding of the differing needs that women and men have relative to improving their situations. Thus, a number of gender-specific activities will be undertaken relative to crop management interventions. Appropriate gender participation targets will be established with our partners and we will invest in enhanced female leadership and capacity within local partner implementing agencies. Gender and Strategic Objective 5 Women are often the seed guardians in rural communities and households, and play a critical role in agricultural development. The traditional role of women as seed selectors and preservers is widely recognized. The local seed system analysis provided highlights of gender roles in on-farm seed production and management, and place women in a key position for participatory variety selection and seed production. Women farmers will be targeted for accessing seed of new dryland cereal varieties and women entrepreneurs encouraged to form alternative farmer-based seed production and marketing enterprises envisaged within the seed initiative. This could be linked to on-farm processing and value addition of dryland cereals food products operated by women. Gender and Strategic Objective 6 While dryland cereal crops tend to be considered food staples in most situations, and not cash crops, it is often women who generate income from marketing products processed or derived from them: traditional malted products, small ruminants or poultry fed on dryland cereal by-products – straw, bran etc., or processed local foods, e.g. “fura” in Nigeria. Identifying opportunities for improving these value chains will help increase women’s income. Women dominate the processing sector for dryland cereals, both in the home, and for traditional food marketing. However this “informal” sector could benefit from technologies that enhance quality, business management skills, capacity for achieving economies of scale, and effective marketing. Thus, we will investigate business models for spreading the use of threshers, mechanical “dehullers” or decorticators, as well as small-scale flour mills, in a manner that women can benefit from new business opportunities, not only from the reduction of drudgery. Improving the availability of processed dryland cereal products in cities will also benefit poor urban women, who spend a lot of time preparing food for the family. Indeed, the labor for processing cereals into food for household consumption tends to be fully women’s responsibility. The long-term health effects of malnutrition are most serious for young children and for expecting and nursing mothers. Strategic Objective 6 will therefore focus much of its attention on these vulnerable groups, but will also address the general nutrition needs of others. To this end, we will adopt gender analysis and participatory methodologies that reveal the needs and preferences of women and men (differentiated by age) in relation to nutritionally enhanced varieties. Women and men have different nutritional needs at different stages in life, and these need to be taken into account to effectively enhance nutritional health in the households. Malnutrition is related to food availability, access and distribution. Understanding the social dynamics regulating the access of different individuals to food (at the community and intrahousehold levels), or to the resources needed to purchase it, can support a more equal distribution of healthy and nutritious food. Social and gender analysis can provide insights into these community
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and intra-household dynamics through in-depth qualitative research. Given their roles as food providers, women (both in rural and urban areas) will be involved in initiatives to increase awareness about the nutritional value of specific crops, and best methods for improving cereal storage and for preserving or improving nutritional properties while cooking. Men will be involved along with the women in these initiatives to ensure agreement at household level regarding food patterns and priorities. Men and women will be sensitized about the existence of value-added traditional and alternative food products.

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PROGRAM INNOVATIONS
In addition to doing business differently, the business we will be doing is itself different. We believe that by combining the creative talents of a wider range of partners oriented towards a shared vision and set of strategic objectives will lead to new innovations in DRYLAND CEREALS R4D. We believe one major innovation is inherent in the CRP idea itself – that we will be more effective in supporting smallholder dryland cereal farmers by approaching them as a cohesive entity, with a common message and new ways of working together. We will be able to present a unified front regarding the importance of dryland crops and speak with a much stronger voice to policymakers in developing countries, and negotiate more successfully with possible investors. We will also be able to more effectively capitalize on new tools and methods for improving the efficiency of research done on behalf of the world’s poorest and most vulnerable smallholder producers and urban dwellers – those living in dryland areas. Some specific examples of what we believe to be the major innovations include the following. Whole genome sequencing of the dryland cereals The state of knowledge and genomic resource development in the dryland cereals is/has been uneven, and the work done in this area going forward will necessarily vary. Because of its relatively small genome, tremendous genetic diversity, and the availability of a powerful suite of analytical tools, sorghum has become an important species for comparative grass genomics and a source of beneficial genes for agriculture. Chief among all public resources for sorghum functional genomics is the aligned sorghum genome sequence, which has approximately 30,000 genes (Paterson et al., 2009). With this resource at hand, rapid fine-mapping to identify the genes underlying Quantitative Trait Loci (QTLs) is rapidly becoming possible. Although inconceivable a few years back, cost effective and highly efficient next generation sequencing (NGS) technologies, coupled with the availability of a reference genome sequence of sorghum, is paving the way for “genotyping-by-sequencing” platforms and, more importantly, producing aligned genomic sequence of global germplasm collections. New Generation Sequencing (NGS) will also permit genome-wide scanning for association mapping of all genomic regions contributing to control of economically important traits, overcoming the inherent limitations of current “candidate-gene” approaches, and permit genome-wide selection to reduce the time required per unit of genetic gain from breeding programs. The advent of NGS technologies is also accelerating the development of genomics resources in other dryland cereals and their relatives. The International Barley Sequencing Consortium is working to physically map and sequence the barley gene space, with the near-term need being the identification of all genes, including their regulatory regions, and the longer-term goal of an ordered and anchored physical map to accelerate crop improvement and pave the way for whole genome sequencing (Schulte et al. 2009). Developments and innovation in DNA sequencing technology and bioinformatics are changing the landscape both in terms of cost and efficiency. A very exciting development in this arena is singlemolecule real-time DNA sequencing (www.pacificbiosciences.com). Proponents of this approach suggest that a genome as big as our own could be sequenced in under an hour at the cost of hundreds of dollars rather than millions. Thus, proposing to sequence all dryland cereals and their accessions in germplasm collections is not beyond the realm of possibility today. Clearly, partnering with ARIs and the private sector will be a key to this endeavor. Genetic resources, phenotypic databases, and geospatial information Large numbers of accessions are present in different gene banks for dryland cereals, so NGS technologies should enable re-sequencing of thousands of accessions for a given species. Discussions are underway for re-sequencing numerous barley accessions in the genebank at IPK-Gatersleben,

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Germany. In the case of sorghum, several hundred genotypes are being re-sequenced in the USA. Re-sequencing of accessions should provide a better overview on genome variation present in germplasm collections that will maximize the use of natural variation in crop breeding. To fully capitalize on these extraordinary genomics resources, germplasm collections will need to be more systematically and precisely phenotyped. Logically, traits that are key to crop adaptation to the abiotic and biotic constraints prevailing in dryland farming systems will be given high priority, as will those useful in defining and promoting the most sustainable modes of utilization of these crops in the major dryland agro-ecological/market environments. Ideally, phenotypic data should be stored in databases that also contain passport and characterization data that are actively curated. Crosscompatibility across species would be desirable, especially for the orphan crops where comparative genomics will continue to be the most readily available option for at least the medium term. Bioversity has recently developed more detailed lists of characterization data sets for ex-situ germplasm collections (e.g. for sorghum, pearl millet and finger millet). The analysis of dryland traits – drought, heat, and salinity tolerance – in these very tolerant crops is a key research domain that will also have implications for the improvement of these traits in the other cereals. Biotechnological tools such as high throughput QTL mapping, association mapping, and marker-assisted backcrossing to developed near-isogenic stocks coupled with physiological trait dissection (a thorough dissection and understanding of critical mechanisms) will allow the study of the tolerance factors across these dryland cereal species. Traits analyzed and understood in one species (e.g. stay green in sorghum) will also be analyzed in the other dryland species. Still another opportunity that should be seized is the implementation of large-scale phenomics platforms to match the power of genomic level genotypes to address the genotype to phenotype connection at the level of crop breeding and collection germplasm. Crop simulation modeling to predict the value of a given trait on yield across locations and years, which in turn, provides guidance on promising breeding targets will also be explored. This approach would allow more targeted breeding and turn the adversity of GxE interaction into a great opportunity to better understand the interaction of specific plant development mechanisms and the environment. There is an exciting opportunity to enlist eco-physiology to fit particular genotypes to particular environments. Integrating breeding and marker-based technologies The use of molecular markers in the breeding process is now well established and has proven its effectiveness and efficiency on major species, especially in the private sector (Collard and Mackill, 2008; Tester and Langridge, 2010). Marker-based quality control at the key steps of a breeding scheme is critical as it allows certification of the material that is being characterized for several years and to make the most of the resources allocated to a breeding program. Marker-assisted backcrossing of monogenic traits is one of the simplest applications of molecular markers and has an immediate and unquestionable added value in terms of time efficiency and the quality of the final product/variety. With the development of cost effective and high-throughput genotyping and novel statistical tools, it is now becoming feasible to model and predict phenotypes based on an individual’s whole-genome genotype. Plant selection based solely on whole-genome genotypes rather than phenotypes – a process termed “genomic selection” (GS) – allows breeders to significantly increase genetic gains per unit of time. Other designs, such as marker-assisted recurrent selection, also allow increased genetic gains by enabling a deeper exploration of allelic combinations provided by crosses. This should facilitate the breaking of some ‘trait antagonisms’ that classical breeding has failed to overcome so far. The spread of these technologies and methodologies is critical for improving breeding efficiency and capacity. The development of innovative, proof-of-concept breeding projects in partnership with NARES, CGIAR centers and ARIs will contribute to major advances in genetic gains, enhanced capacity in
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national programs, and the emergence of a new generation of breeders that will regularly use marker-based technologies in their work. In order to help boost the potential impact of these projects and of other breeding and molecular breeding initiatives of DRYLAND CEREALS, the Integrated Breeding Platform (IBP) being developed under the auspices of the Generation Challenge Program, will provide a centralized and functional portal to store and retrieve information, to access analytical and data management tools, and highthroughput genotyping services. Such a platform will enable breeding programs in the public and private sector to design and efficiently perform marker-assisted breeding and accelerate variety development for developing countries. Tapping heterosis to boost yields Hybrids will be targeted to produce more stable and higher yields in extreme stress environments, producing more when it is needed most. Pearl millet in India and for the Sahel; barley for expanses of the steppe; sorghum for residual moisture conditions in peninsular India; and photoperiod sensitive sorghums adapted to low phosphorus conditions in West Africa are all examples of how hybrids can serve smallholders in the disadvantaged dryland regions. Hybrids will provide the opportunity to trigger collaboration among a wide range of actors. Farmers, researchers from a range of disciplines, development partners, communication providers, input providers, credit providers, merchants and grain processors can act in concerted manner in given target regions – assuming appropriate incentives are in place – to turn high cereal prices into benefits for smallholder farmers. Mechanisms for interaction and platforms for local innovation will need to be created to facilitate this process. Efficient production of multi-purpose varieties Work recently done on pearl millet may represent one of the first proof-of-concept experiments for genetic gains in food-feed traits achieved through conscious, targeted selection, namely using recurrent selection and marker-assisted breeding with the aim of producing superior dual-purpose varieties. Within two recurrent selection cycles important fodder quality traits increased by 15%. The improvement in stover fodder quality came at no penalty for grain or stover yield (Bidinger et al., 2009). These results suggest that new hybrids can be developed with concomitant improvements in grain and stover traits (Nepolean et al., 2009). Given the substantial and largely untapped genetic variability present for feed/fodder quality traits in all species included under this CRP, and the ready availability of high-throughput, breeder-friendly selection technologies (NIRS), significant genetic progress for fodder quality and the development of successful dual-purpose cultivars adapted to dryland farming systems are likely to occur rapidly. Improving shelf life of dryland cereal products Rapid rancidification of pearl millet flour (within 7-10 days after milling) is a major barrier in the commercialization of pearl millet flour-based products (Nantanga et al., 2008). This is relatively less of a problem in barley and sorghum, and there appear to be no studies on finger millet. Fortunately, there are processing technologies under development that can enhance the shelf life to several months. A new method that involves moist heating of the grain followed by drying to about 10-12% moisture and decortication appears to increase the shelf life of sorghum flour for up to 8-10 months, and pearl millet flour for up to 3-4 months. This technology could produce a breakthrough in the commercialization if it proves feasible for large-scale application. Furthermore, research suggests that there is genetic variation for rancidity associated traits and for the tolerance of pearl millet flour to storage (Chugh and Kumar, 2004). Thus, opportunities exist to make improvements in shelf life from an approach that explores a crop improvement angle in combination with an assessment of processing technologies.

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INTERACTIONS WITH OTHER CRPS
DRYLAND CEREALS will partner with several other CRPs, providing outputs, drawing inputs and engaging in joint activities with them (Table 12). The connection points are evident from the activities and outputs in our three Strategic Objectives. DRYLAND CEREALS will contribute varieties and management practices for integrated agricultural systems for the drylands (under CRP 1.1). CRP 1.1 will provide opportunities to evaluate and promote improved varieties, agronomic methods and seed systems in the targeted dryland systems. Enhanced incomes for smallholder farmers will be catalyzed through CRP 2 via science-based policy advice and identification of new market opportunities. Dryland Cereals will adopt multi-dimensional crop improvement approaches addressing multiple traits at the same time, including feed and fodder value of stovers and other byproducts. Feed and fodder improvement will be done in close collaboration with CRP 3.7 and its feed- and fodder-related activities. DRYLAND CEREALS research will have important synergistic relationships with crop CRP 3.1 (WHEAT), CRP 3.2 (MAIZE), CRP 3.3 (GRiSP) and CRP 3.5 (Grain Legumes). Interactions with CRP 5 will contribute to formulating solutions to water scarcity and ecosystem degradation, and with CRP 7 aimed at enhancing agricultural productivity in the context of climate change. As dryland cereals are among the most adapted cereals for harsh environments, CRP 5 will be able to evaluate their role in improving resource use. CRP 7 will provide models of possible changes in dryland areas so that better targeting of crops and varieties can be achieved. DRYLAND CEREALS will provide crop parameters for use in improving crop models used in climate change predictions. Farmers living in drought-prone dryland environments need risk-mitigating production options, such as highly stress-resistant varieties and management systems that are resilient to such shocks. DRYLAND CEREALS, working jointly with CRP 1.1, CRP 2 and CRP 5 will deliver this combination of synergistic innovations. The dependence of improved varieties on fertile soils to express their genetic potential will be addressed through joint work with CRP 1.1 on crop management strategies that the poor can afford. This joint work will cover the entire process cycle, including strategy development and planning, knowledge sharing, and joint priority setting. In general terms, linkages between DRYLAND CEREALS and nearly all the others will be facilitated and reinforced by the fact that all CRPs are characterized by multi-center participation – scientists and managers from different centers will work together under different CRP umbrellas, conducting joint research, planning CRP activities, setting priorities together, and working with many of the same non-CG partners. This collaboration will go far towards ensuring that interdependence and shared accountability are not only recognized, but also embraced by CRP participants as part of a new and better way of doing business.

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Table 12. Envisioned linkages and collaboration between DRYLAND CEREALS and other CRPs
CGIAR Research Program CRP 1.1 Integrated Agricultural Production Systems for Dry Areas Outputs from DRYLAND CEREALS Improved dryland cereal germplasm, production and processing technologies, and information on seed and input systems, value chains, and market access. Inputs to DRYLAND CEREALS Prioritization and targeting of dryland cereal-based components in dryland production systems. Joint Actions with DRYLAND CEREALS (1) Characterizing and cataloging different farming systems and constraints to production in target agro-ecologies to understand the varietal needs for dryland cereals (2) Modeling and evaluating cropping options for boosting productivity of farming systems (3) Developing appropriate cereal varieties and plant types suitable for intercropping in rainfed and irrigated production systems (4) Developing nutrient-use efficient varieties with resistance/tolerance to abiotic and biotic stresses (5) Generating and evaluating appropriate integrated crop management practices to enhance cereal productivity in different cropping systems (6) Upgrading farmers’ skills and knowledge on improved production technologies for cereals in different cropping systems CRP 2 Policies, Institutions, and Markets to Strengthen Assets and Agricultural Incomes for the Poor Value-added dryland cereal varieties, information on productivity, value chains, market access, gender issues, and dryland cereal-based technologies. Foresight on policy and market environments for smallholder dryland cereal production systems to be profitable. Methods for value chain analysis. Trend analysis and scenarios for poverty, markets, and risk. Models and tools for impact assessment. (1) Identifying deficiencies in existing marketing systems of dryland cereals and devise mitigation strategies (2) Developing advocacy briefs that promote farmer-friendly marketing infrastructure and protocols for dryland cereals (3) Identifying and standardizing quality control mechanisms for cereals and train farmers and buyers in quality control and monitoring (4) Promoting the interface between food processors and cereals growers and train stakeholders along all key points of the value chain (5) Identifying policy interventions for effective seed systems for ensuring availability of quality seed of dryland cereal varieties to farmers at affordable price (6) Strengthening the skills of partners for gender-sensitive, interdisciplinary, inter-institutional and multiple-stakeholder problem solving

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CGIAR Research Program CRP 3.1 WHEAT CRP 3.2 MAIZE CRP 3.3 GRiSP: A Global Rice Science Partnership

Outputs from DRYLAND CEREALS Genetic/genomic/phenotypic information in dryland cereals on traits common with wheat, maize and rice; varieties and production technologies suitable for cereal-legume and croplivestock systems, and dryland cereal-based information, and technology. Appropriate dryland cereal varieties for the respective mixed cereal-legume intercropping systems; genetic/genomic/phenotypic information in dryland cereals on traits common with grain legumes Strategic research on feed/fodder quality, improved cereal varieties with better fodder quality traits and development of integrated crop management practices for ensuring high quality of cereal fodder Strategic research on enhancing the nutritional value of dryland cereals, nutritionally enhanced germplasm, breeding approaches and functional markers.

Inputs to DRYLAND CEREALS Genetic/genomic/phenotypic information in wheat, maize and rice on traits common with dryland cereals

Joint Actions with DRYLAND CEREALS (1) Exchange information on breeding methodologies as well as the phenotypic and genotypic understanding of abiotic and biotic stresses (2) Establishment of the integrated breeding platform

CRP 3.5 Grain Legumes

Genetic/genomic/phenotypic information in grain legumes on traits common with dryland cereals

(1) Exchange information on breeding methodologies as well as the phenotypic and genotypic understanding of abiotic and biotic stresses (2) Cereal-legume feed/fodder mixtures appropriate for smallholder farmers (3) Establishment of the integrated breeding platform

CRP 3.7 Sustainable Staple Food Productivity Increase for Global Food Security: Livestock and Fish

Phenotyping of dryland cereal varieties to determine feed/fodder quality and processing options

(1) Foster enhanced awareness and significance of fodder among farmers and livestock and livestock-product producers (2) Optimize sorghum and millet cultivar types for crop-livestock systems (3) Identify and facilitate entry of sorghum and millet stovers into fodder/feed value chains

CRP 4 Agriculture for Improved Nutrition and Health

Targeting, advocacy, promotion of nutritionally enhanced dryland cereals, and insights on the interaction of gender and nutrition and health.

(1) Priority setting for new traits (2) Developing cereal varieties with better nutritional quality and consumer appeal and agronomic practices for improved product quality (3) Developing new products and processing methods for enhanced nutritional value of dryland cereals (4) Studying bioavailability, bio-efficacy and bio-effectiveness of nutrients from cereals and their value-added products (5) Advocating the consumption of dryland cereals and their value added products

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CGIAR Research Program CRP 5 Durable Solutions for Water Scarcity and Land Degradation

Outputs from DRYLAND CEREALS Information on water, land, and ecosystem information with changes in dryland cereal-based technology evolution. Improved dryland cereal varieties and dryland cerealbased technologies to be tested for resiliency to the impacts of climate change.

Inputs to DRYLAND CEREALS Best-bet practices for both rainfed systems and irrigated systems where dryland cereals are cultivated in mixed systems or as crop rotations. Strategic foresight on the potential impact of climate change on the patterns of biotic and abiotic stresses and adaptation of dryland cereals.

Joint Actions with DRYLAND CEREALS (1) Contributing improved varieties with better water and nutrient use efficiency (2) Increasing system productivity through incorporation of dryland cereals in systems (3) Scaling up of findings to the landscape level

CRP 7 Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security

(1) Providing improved dryland cereal varieties which are resilient to the impacts of climate changes (2) Developing varieties with tolerance to drought, heat, and salinity stresses (3) Helping to disseminate the most appropriate climate-ready varieties and management and minimizing the effects of climate variability on dryland cereal productivity

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GOVERNAN NCE AND MANAGEMENT A T
We have e based the governance g and manage ement of DRY YLAND CEREA ALS on the p principles out tlined in the CGIA AR Strategy and a Results Framework. F The CRP is being b implem mented by tw wo CGIAR Cen nters – ICARDA and ICRISAT T – with ICRIS SAT as the de esignated Lead Center. The T Generatio on Challenge e Program tion in 2014. In addition, m will play a key k role until its terminat , the CRP willl be support ted through key partner rships with th he USAID-su pported Sorg ghum, Millet t and other G Grains Collab borative Research Support Pr rogram (INTS SORMIL), IRD D and CIRAD in France, th he Indian Co uncil of Agricultural Research (ICAR) and d the Iranian Agricultural Research Ed ducation and Extension O Organization (AREEO) ), as well as other o NARS, public and p private sector institutes in developed d and target countrie es. We have thus t designe ed a manage ement structu ure that prov vides effectiv ve governance and oversigh ht by the Lead Center, Strategic overs sight by key partners, ma anagement b by contributi ing partners s and indepe endent evaluation and in put by outsid de experts. We W recognize e that the pr roposed structure (Figure 14) ) may require alterations s as the CRP develops, bo oth in terms of members ship, t configuration itself. S Such possibilities will be continually e evaluated an nd responsibilities and the changes s implemente ed as require ed.

Fig gure 14. DRYL LAND CEREAL LS Governance e and Manage ement Structu ure

ROLES AN ND RESPONSIBILITIES The Lead d Center (ICR RISAT) will si ign a Program m Implemen ntation Agree ement (PIA) w with the Con nsortium of Intern national Agri icultural Rese earch Cente rs for implem mentation of f the CRP. Th he Lead Cent ter, represen nted by its Director D Gene eral and Gov verning Board d, will be res sponsible for r the overall perform mance of DRY YLAND CEREA ALS by provid ding a clear vision, v direct tion, prioritie es and focus through an inclus sive, consult tative and tra ansparent pa artnership pr rocess. Partic cipant Progr ram Agreeme ents (PPAs) w will be signed d with all key y participants s according to t Consortium procedure es and policies. The Gov verning Boar rd of ICRISAT T will have th he fiduciary and a legal res sponsibility a and accounta ability for the implementat tion of the CRP. Through the Director r General, it will monitor r management and impleme entation, inc cluding the performance of the DRYLA AND CEREAL LS Director, I ndependent t
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Advisory Committee and Research Management Committee. The governance and/or management entities of the other partners will be expected to provide similar oversight of their respective institute’s involvement in DRYLAND CEREALS. This would include ensuring that their institution’s policies, vision and mission are in agreement with the CRP, that DRYLAND CEREALS is appropriately reflected in their strategic plans, and that their institution assumes fiduciary and legal responsibilities and accountabilities for implementing the agreed research agenda of the CRP. The Director General of ICRISAT will ensure the success of DRYLAND CEREALS by working with the Director Generals of partner CGIAR Centers to:  Provide oversight on the overall operations of the CRP through the CRP Director,  Ensure implementation of the CRP, including the effective integration of existing and new bilateral projects,  Assign required staff to the DRYLAND CEREALS management committees/teams,  Appoint and empower the CRP Director and Strategic Objective Coordinators and provide required support, and  Ensure that performance contracts are successfully managed, including the management of risks. A Research Management Team (RMT) will be chaired by the DRYLAND CEREALS Director and will include the six Strategic Objective Coordinators (see below) plus the Directors of Research (or their designates) from each key partner. It is expected that the Coordinators will be selected to provide effective regional representation across the target regions of the CRP. The RMT will be the key entity responsible for the establishment, execution and monitoring of the DRYLAND CEREALS research portfolio, strategy, work plans and annual budgets. The RMT will meet regularly, with at least one meeting being in-person. The RMT will:  Coordinate strategic foresight, planning and reporting of the R4D portfolio;  Monitor and evaluate research progress across the CRP  Develop annual research plans and budget allocations;  Prepare required reports for submission to the Consortium Board;  Identify necessary resources (financial and otherwise) to meet the goals of the CRP;  Communicate and represent the CRP globally (e.g., at major events);  Organize periodic research reviews and impact assessments; and  Conduct annual meetings of the CRP that include meetings of the Independent Advisory Committee. The DRYLAND CEREALS Director, who will report to the Lead Center Director General, will be internationally recruited by the Lead Center in consultation with the other partners. The Director will lead the development and implementation of the CRP’s R4D agenda with the RMT, ensuring the highest quality and relevance of the program’s outputs, and have decision-making authority over the day-to-day operations of the CRP. This position will require a full-time commitment and be compensated accordingly; she/he will be covered by the policies of the Lead Center. The Lead Center Director General will oversee the recruitment, approve the Terms of Reference for, and annually evaluate the performance of the DRYLAND CEREALS Director. The Director will organize RMT, Independent Advisory Committee and other meetings and reviews for DRYLAND CEREALS, chairing such meetings where required. Specific responsibilities will include:   Developing a clear and shared vision for CRP 3.6 among all partners and stakeholders and communicate this vision to all stakeholders; Providing intellectual leadership to, and coordinate implementation of, the CRP;
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Developing strong partnerships among participating centers, partners and other stakeholders;  Representing the CRP in international fora to ensure that the Dryland Cereals CRP is highly visible and strongly supported by investors and other stakeholders;  Guiding fundraising efforts for the DRYLAND CEREALS CRP together with the Centers and other partners; and  Ensuring that the CRP has well developed and articulated gender and capacity strengthening strategies, defined work plans, clear deliverables, and that the CRP meets its programmatic and financial targets. A Program Management Unit will support the CRP Director, who will supervise its staff and operations. The PMU will consist initially of a senior administrative officer and a communications manager (to provide support in various communications matters including the CRP website, newsletters, reports, etc.). ICRISAT will assign a part-time financial manager and contracts officer in its respective departments to provide the required assistance to the CRP Director. Support for resource mobilization will be provided by ICRISAT’s Resource Planning and Marketing Unit, coordinated with similar units in the partner institutes and at the Consortium level. Program evaluation will be assisted by ICRISAT’s Impact Assessment Office and through externally managed reviews and evaluations. ICRISAT and the CRP Director will monitor the requirements for additional administrative assistance and make adjustments as required. DRYLAND CEREALS is structured into six Strategic Objectives, each of which will be coordinated by a Strategic Objective Coordinator, who will be at least a half-time appointment and will continue to be affiliated with their home institution, with the agreement of the institution. It is expected that ICARDA and ICRISAT will host at least one coordinator each, with efforts made to have partner and regional coordination across the Strategic Objective Coordinators. Partners will nominate the Coordinators, with appointments being made by the Lead Center. The Coordinators will ensure that activities for delivering agreed outputs within each region are effectively implemented, coordinated, and monitored/assessed. Coordinators will also maintain close relationships with the DRYLAND CEREALS Director, participating in all RMT meetings, as well as with other Coordinators, relevant partners, donors and stakeholders involved in the CRP. An Independent Advisory Committee, reporting to the Lead Center Governing Board, will provide input and advice to the ICRISAT Governing Board and RMT on the quality and relevance of the DRYLAND CEREALS research portfolio, priority setting and allocation of resources. The committee will be composed of 5-6 independent R4D experts with relevant experience and expertise in dryland cereals and the target regions. Nominations will be sought from CRP partners with final appointments made by the Lead Center Governing Board. Appointments will be for an initial threeyear period. The committee will meet at least once in person, with other meetings conducted virtually as required. The committee will elect its chair from among its membership. Written reports will be provided to the ICRISAT Governing Board and the RMT following each meeting and as part of the CRP annual evaluation. Dispute resolution among DRYLAND CEREALS partners or with external parties will be handled, if within the domain of R4D (including partnerships), according to policies established by the RMT. If disputes fall in the domain of institutional and legal responsibilities, the Lead Center Director General will resolve them in accordance with the principles established in the Consortium Constitution. Should the RMT be unable to resolve any given dispute, the matter will be referred to the Lead Center for a decision and the respective party will be expected to take any actions deemed necessary.

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MANAGEMENT OF INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY CRP intellectual property (IP) management will be aligned with the overall CGIAR Consortium Guiding Principles on the Management of Intellectual Property, which are driven by the mission of the CGIAR and the imperative that the products of the Centers' research should be international public goods. As the CRP will work with a wide range of partners, including national agricultural research systems, advanced research institutes, civil society organizations, private sector companies, and regional and international intergovernmental organizations, the CRP will develop an IPR regime that allows all partners to honor their own IP policies without compromising the CGIAR principles. Ultimately, the Centers must produce, manage and provide access to the products of their research for use by, and for the benefit of the poor, especially farmers in developing countries. Intellectual assets resulting from this CRP will be made available globally and publicly. Centers hold their in-trust collections of germplasm for the benefit of the world community, in accordance with agreements signed by Centers and the Governing Body of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (ITPGRFA). All such germplasm exchanges will be conducted using the Standard Material Transfer Agreement (SMTA). All other material transfers will be done under an appropriate MTA that follows the guidelines of the Consortium’s Policy on Intellectual Property. KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT AND COMMUNICATIONS In general terms, knowledge management (KM) comprises a variety of strategies and practices used to identify, create, represent, distribute, and enable adoption of insights and experiences. Such insights and experiences comprise knowledge, either embodied in individuals or embedded in organizational processes or practice. Many non-profit organizations dedicate significant resources to KM, often as a part of their fundamental business plan. The same must be done in the context of DRYLAND CEREALS. Internally focused KM efforts typically focus on management-related objectives, such as improved organizational performance, clarity about competitive advantages and innovations, and the sharing of lessons learned. In the context of a CRP, KM efforts will overlap with monitoring, evaluating and learning (ME&L), and will both reinforce and draw on ME&L efforts. Effective KM (and of course, ME&L) will be critical to the overall success of this CRP. Given the organizational complexity of this initiative, we must be willing to invest in efforts designed to help partners obtain and share valuable insights, reduce redundant work (increasingly rely on task specialization), increase the efficiency of R4D activities and capacity strengthening efforts, retain intellectual capital as partners (and individuals) involved in the CRP change or turnover, and adapt to often rapidly changing operational environments and new opportunities. Effective KM systems do not just happen. They require careful analysis and expert advice in their design and development. They are often most effective if developed from the ground up, i.e., if their development begins with the data, information and knowledge needed by end users – in this case smallholder farmers in dryland areas. The KM system is then designed with those ultimate needs in mind. This will help DRYLAND CEREALS partners reduce the expenditure of scarce resources on accumulating “nice to have” data and information, and keep us more focused on gathering, storing and sharing information that will facilitate the achievement of our strategic objectives and the delivery of critical outputs and outcomes that will lead to impact. Over the past few decades, rapid developments in genomic and other molecular research technologies, as well as brisk advancements in information technologies, have combined to produce and enable the effective management of a tremendous amount of information related to molecular biology. Bioinformatics tools and geo-spatial mapping (referenced most notably under Strategic

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Objective 1) will be critical components of DRYLAND CEREALS’ knowledge management efforts, but even these high-end information technologies will be oriented towards resolving practical problems arising from the management and analysis of very large amounts of agro-biological data and information. Agricultural research and development communication is also undergoing a transformation, one driven by the spread of high-speed Internet connectivity; the advent of digital media; the development of new tools, platforms and methodologies; and changes in the ways the world accesses and uses information. The opportunity is before us to implement systems for the rapid, highly targeted and efficient transfer of research results, and transform them into practice and policy recommendations – while simultaneously capturing them in peer-reviewed journals and publications. Effective and unified communication by DRYLAND CEREALS partners will require careful study and deliberate implementation of agreed guidelines. We will be operating in a complex arrangement of interlocking groups and interests, at international, regional, national and local levels. Communicating effectively in this context will be challenging, as will communicating effectively and efficiently to a wide array of stakeholders and other interested parties not directly involved in the CRP. A guiding principle for this work is that communications activities will be aligned with and promote our strategic objectives; such activities do not comprise an end in themselves. Another guiding principle is that all partners should be communicating on behalf of the CRP, and in doing so view their own organizational and individual interests as secondary to those of the overall program. The CRP Director will have general responsibility for communicating on behalf of DRYLAND CEREALS partners to a wide variety of audiences, and will help establish and monitor – in concert with the Steering Committee and Regional/Research Program Coordinators – the program’s communication action plan. Implementation of that plan will occur at all levels and be carried out by many of those involved in the R4D work, but regardless of their organizational affiliation, their communication efforts will rest on the strategic needs, interests and achievements of the CRP. Communications work will be made an integral part of the R4D process, and not be just a by-product of it. DRYLAND CEREALS will invest in developing the communication skills of key individuals and partners – especially their ability to interact effectively with the media – and communications work will be periodically audited to ensure that resources are being spent wisely and for optimum impact. As noted earlier, advocacy on behalf of increased investments in DRYLAND CEREALS R4D (and in markets and other needed rural infrastructure in dryland areas) is seen as a vital activity for this CRP. Such advocacy must be based on the best information available, and capitalize on the most effective communications technologies and pathways. This advocacy role will be fully integrated in the KM and Communication plan that will be developed in the early days of implementing DRYLAND CEREALS.

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TIMEFRAME
CRP3.6 DRYLAND CEREALS began the proposal development process with delineating the partners’ vision of realistic impacts to be achieved through collaborative R4D over the next ten years. We have outlined milestones for the first three-years (through 2014 as we will most likely start CRP activities in 2012). Each year, the partners will conduct an extensive analysis of progress achieved relative to projected milestones and in the context of our initial priorities. Based on the results of those annual analyses, we may modify our priorities, planned activities and anticipated milestones as we go, creating a rolling three-year action plan. DRYLAND CEREALS will continue the extensive discussions that have already been held among the initial partners and, at the same time, bring other key partners on board to help map out specific work plans for first three years of the initiative. In developing this proposal, the current partners identified general areas where they believe collaboration can be more effective. During the first six months, our focus will shift to elaborating and clarifying relative roles and responsibilities of those involved in order to effectively implement collaborative efforts and more fully realize the potential efficiencies we see, and hopefully identify others. Thus, in the first six months, a detailed business plan will be developed – one that reflects our plans for mainstreaming important gender dimensions of DRYLAND CEREALS R4D, capacity strengthening, and details regarding different research activities, technologies to be developed and/or promoted, and the relative roles of different partners and their contributions to achieving the DRYLAND CEREALS strategic objectives. As will other CRPs, during the coming six months from this submission (and regardless of approval date), we will more fully develop our gender strategy in the context of the guidelines that have been recently provided.

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MITIGATING RISKS
A number of risks have been identified. First and foremost is that we will be operating in new ways with existing partners and establishing entirely new partnerships under the umbrella of DRYLAND CEREALS. There will be a relatively steep learning curve associated with the new ways of doing business that we are actively promoting in this endeavor, which may slow our progress (at least initially). A streamlined management structure and careful selection of partners involved in the CRP will help mitigate this risk, as will the simple good will that all partners will bring to the initiative. Related to this is the need to accentuate accountability and promote ownership of DRYLAND CEREALS by the partners involved. Since many activities related to impact are beyond the control of the research program itself, we must also give emphasis to the inclusion of development agencies and extension services in research planning and implementation. Doing so may increase transaction costs, but will help mitigate the risk of limited impact on the ground. As alluded to in other CRPs, the main risks to all are global in character, i.e. local problems are less likely to affect the overall success of DRYLAND CEREALS than are such things as continued global financial challenges, and the resulting political pressure to cut aid financing. We plan to reduce this risk by broadening our sources of finance, cultivating both public and private, and Consortium and non-Consortium sources. Seriously inept or inefficient management combined with poor oversight presents a risk to the success of this and other CRP initiatives. Strong monitoring and evaluation, both within DRYLAND CEREALS as well as independently of it, broad-based expert advice and feedback, and an emphasis on consensus decision-making and conflict resolution will help to ameliorate management-related risks. Dryland cereal production systems are sometimes located in areas that experience high social and political volatility, and this could affect the adoption of interventions in targeted areas. In such countries, DRYLAND CEREALS will emphasize local partnerships to minimize this risk. As noted in CRP 1.1, while dry area systems have always been characterized by risk, these risks are changing and in some cases increasing. At the same time, the capacity to manage risk has declined as a result of restricted access to resources, lack of information, land degradation and land tenure insecurity. Resource conflicts characterize dry areas, and could be severe in some cases (e.g., the availability and control of water resources in West and Central Asia). Mitigation of such risks will be difficult, and will depend on wise counsel and full participation in community level activities, with priorities being driven locally. Continued government policy bias against the support of smallholder farmers in marginal areas, even in the face of growing evidence of the value and importance of their enterprises, is an important risk. Efforts to speak with a unified voice to policymakers and other influential people should help reduce this risk, but policy decisions are usually not made on the basis of well-reasoned arguments or even solid scientific evidence. DRYLAND CEREALS partners will need to identify local, regional and even international ‘champions’ who have the ear of key policymakers and who might, over time, be able to influence the course of political decisions impinging on dryland cereal production, processing and marketing. Finally, important risks to longer-term sustainability of DRYLAND CEREALS could include insufficient interest on the part of private sector organizations needed to push commercialization of new technologies, as well as insufficient capacity on the part of national agricultural R4D institutions to sustain the initiative well into the future. By including public and private organizations in the early stages of research planning and implementation, we believe that sustainability risks will be diminished due to a stronger sense of ownership and accountability for success.

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MONITORING AND EVALUATION
DRYLAND CEREALS will generate a number of diverse outputs, including improved crop varieties, crop management technologies, information exchange, capacity building tools, and genetic and genomic resources. These outputs, which are detailed in previous sections, should result in desired outcomes that ultimately lead to the intended impacts of reducing poverty and malnutrition, enhancing food security, and reducing environmental degradation (Table 13). The DRYLAND CEREALS monitoring and evaluation work will fully conform to the principles and standards now being established by the CGIAR Consortium, and as these become available, our monitoring and evaluation (M&E) plans and activities will be adjusted accordingly. To effectively ensure that we achieve our outcomes, ex ante impact assessments will be conducted during the project development stage. Building from that base, M&E studies will be conducted during the implementation of the CRP. To complete the cycle, ex post impact assessments will be carried out after allowing sufficient time to quantify and assess research and development impacts and to aid in priority setting. Priorities established in this document are based on assessments found in the CGIAR Strategy and Results Framework. During implementation of DRYLAND CEREALS, ongoing M&E exercises will be performed at various levels. Partners will conduct their own internal M&E of agreed research activities. At the DRYLAND CEREALS level, the Research Management Team (RMT) will have responsibility for ensuring that proposed outputs are delivered and that expected outcomes are successful. This will require formal, annual project evaluations, as well as mid-term and end-ofprogram reviews by independent experts including evaluation by end users (farmers) and consumers. We also expect that the proposed Independent Scientific Advisory Pool will provide short-term annual reviews and feedback. Given the breadth and scope of DRYLAND CEREALS, additional experts will be commissioned to provide inputs into specific activities. These will be considered by the RMT and required adjustments will be made as needed in our research planning. Some of the major indicators to be used for M&E including:  Enhanced genetic resources and new sources of resistance to abiotic and biotic stresses and improved nutritional quality, productivity and product quality including palatability and consumer acceptance;  Leading-edge scientific knowledge on genetics and genomics published;  Cultivars derived from IARC germplasm released by NARES and grown on a large-scale along with recommended crop management practices;  Efficient private sector and informal seed production and delivery systems/models established and operating in each target country, supported by reformed national and regionally harmonized regulatory frameworks;  Capacity building and technology delivery frameworks and options enhanced to facilitate farmers’ access to validated technology such as quality seed of improved crop cultivars, crop management approaches and other farm inputs; farmer and consumer acceptance of final product and  Publication of peer reviewed research articles, curated data sets and learning materials in granulated form to support use in multiple contexts by the partners and stakeholders.

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Table 13. Monitoring and Evaluation (M&E) Framework (Process and Performance Indicators) M&E Indicators Enhanced genetic resources and new sources of resistance to abiotic and biotic stresses and improved nutritional quality, productivity and product quality Type of output Quality germplasm/ seed material Quantity of output Measurement a) No. of accessions screened and characterized. b) Crop productivity and nutritional composition c) Consumer acceptance of product quality Publications a) Cultivar/Variety released at regional and national level, b) Performance over time and locations, c) No. of scientific articles published in international/ national journals, books, reports, monographs. Analysis of data on performance of crop variety at different locations. Peer review. Classification of publications by type, author, collaborator. Citation index. IARC, NARES Annually Implementing/ Executing agency Method of M&E Field and laboratory inspection and analysis of data generated Implementing Agency IARC, NARES, NGOs, Private Sector Frequency Seasonal/Annually M&E Agency Implementing/ Executing/ Independent agency

Leading edge scientific knowledge on genetics and genomics published

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M&E Indicators Cultivars derived from IARC germplasm released by NARES and grown on a large scale along with recommended crop management practices

Type of output Cultivar (seed material)/ Crop management Technology

Measurement a) No. of improved cultivars released under different conditions, b) Effectiveness and cost of crop management practices/technologies recommended, c) Productivity and returns per ha d) BC ratio e) Area covered and % of farmers adopting technologies

Method of M&E Field inspection. Visits to varietal trails, field days and demonstration plots. Analysis of field data generated. Focused group discussion

Implementing Agency IARC, NARES

Frequency Monthly/ Quarterly

M&E Agency Implementing/ Executing agency

Efficient private sector and informal seed production and delivery systems/ models established and operating in each target country, supported by nationally reformed and regionally harmonized regulatory frameworks

Availability of quality seed: Breeder/Foundation/ Certified seed,

a) Quantity of seed produced and distributed at right time, place, and at right price. b) Increased seed replacement ratio. c) Reduced transaction cost of seed distribution at agency and farmer levels.

Field visits and inspection. Certification/Quality accreditation. Seed market surveys, number of dealer/agencies involved in seed supply. Reduced seed cost/unit.

Private Sector, NGOs, NARES, IARC

Half-yearly

Implementing/ Executing/ Independent agency

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M&E Indicators Capacity building and technology delivery frameworks and options enhanced to facilitate farmers’ access to validated technology such as quality seed of improved crop cultivars, crop management approaches and other farm inputs

Type of output Enhanced capacity of human resources and Gender participation

Measurement a) No. of trainings organized. b) No. of partners/ collaborators/ clients trained. c) Dissemination of gained knowledge. d) Gender wise receptivity. e) Impact on farmers’ fields due to capacity building.

Method of M&E Review of capacity building activities. Interactive workshops/ meetings/opinion survey of beneficiaries. Initial adoption surveys. Impact analysis at farm level

Implementing Agency IARC, NARES

Frequency Annually

M&E Agency Implementing/ Executing/ Independent agency

Publication of peer reviewed research articles, curated data sets and learning materials in highly granulated form to support use in multiple contexts by the partners and stakeholders Impact analysis of new technology released.

Publications/ Data sets/ Learning material

a) No. of peer reviewed articles, books, reports, monographs, policy briefs. b) No. of users of curated datasets/ learning material.

Peer review. Classification of publications by type, author, collaborator. Citation index, segregation by institution. Economic impact analysis at farmer/ primary level

IARC, NARES

Annually

Implementing/ Executing agency

Knowledge on impact

a) Impact analysis using primary and secondary data b) Sustainability of technology released

IARC, NARES

Beginning and End of the project

Implementing/ Executing agency

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BUDGET NARRATIVE AND TABLES
The DRYLAND CEREALS budget for the first three years (2012 to 2014/15, assuming a 2012 starting date) has been developed following guidelines from the Consortium in terms of Window 1 and 2 funding and based on existing bilateral project funding for ICRISAT, ICARDA and the GCP. Bilateral project activities and corresponding budgets were first allocated across the CRP outputs. Additional funding from Windows 1 and 2 was then allocated based on priorities and projected expenses for each output (for each crop in each region). Each output budget represents the requirements for ICRISAT, ICARDA, the GCP and the key partners to be initially funded by DRYLAND CEREALS.
Table 14. DRYLAND CEREALS Funding Budget (USD '000) Funding Source ICARDA CGIAR Window 1 & 2: Research Bilateral Funding (secured)* Funding Gap ICARDA Totals
* includes Other Center Income

Year 1 1,574 1,335 2,000 4,909

Year 2 1,653 526 3,500 5,679

Year 3 1,735 168 4,000 5,903

3-Year Total 4,962 2,029 9,500 16,491 30% 12% 58% 100%

ICRISAT CGIAR Window 1 & 2: Research Bilateral Funding (secured)* Funding Gap ICRISAT Totals
* includes Other Center Income

5,562 10,918 0 16,480

5,840 8,163 6,023 20,026

6,132 4,534 13,541 24,207

17,534 23,615 19,564 60,713

29% 39% 32% 100%

Generation Challenge Program CGIAR Window 1 & 2: Research Bilateral Funding (secured)* Funding Gap GCP Totals
* includes Other Center Income

1,021 1,021

934 934

832 832

2,786 2,786

100% 100%

All Centers CGIAR Window 1 & 2: Research CGIAR Window 1 & 2: CRP Management Total CGIAR Window 1 & 2 Bilateral Funding (secured)* Funding Gap All Centers Totals
* includes Other Center Income

7,136 1,376 8,512 13,274 2,000 23,786

7,493 1,445 8,938 9,623 9,523 28,084

7,867 1,517 9,384 5,534 17,541 32,459

22,496 4,338 26,834 28,430 29,064 84,328

27% 5% 32% 34% 34% 100%

DRYLAND CEREALS is projecting a total budget of US$ 84.3 million for the initial three-year period (Table 14). We are requesting that US$ 26.8 million (32%) be provided from CGIAR Windows 1 and 2 (US$ 22.5 million for research and US$ 4.3 million for CRP management). The Window 1 and 2 funding for Year 1 is based on the guidelines received at the time of the initiation of the CRP process. Window 1 and 2 funding in Years 2 and 3 is based on a 5% increase over the previous year budget level. Additional funding will come from already secured bilateral projects (US$ 28.4 million; 34%; see Appendix 6 for a list of the major bilateral projects included in the CRP). This leaves a current funding gap of US$ 29.1 million (34%). The funding gap will be met by additional funds being allocated by the Fund Council through the Consortium to Windows 1 and 2, or by the CRP Centers seeking additional bilateral projects if such Window funding is not available. Note that the

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Generation Challenge Program (GCP) is not requesting financial support through the CRP but will continue to receive funds directly from CGIAR donors through end of 2013, as indicated in the GCP transition strategy, to ensure a smooth transition of its on-going research activities and contractual obligations. GCP's financial support to CGIAR Centers is reported under their respective budget as secured bilateral funding and resources reported under GCP indicates funds allocated to non-CGIAR Center partners.
Table 15. Budget by Strategic Objective (USD '000)
Strategic Objective / Output SO1 Better targeting of opportunities 1.1 Knowledge and priorities for R4D 1.2 Knowledge of trade-offs 1.3 Evidence for policy and regulations Total Strategic Objective 1 SO2 Genetic resources and tools 2.1 Dynamic germplasm exchange and utilization1 2.2 Characterized genetic resources 2.3 Integrated genomic and information platforms Total Strategic Objective 2 SO3 Variety and hybrid development 3.1 High grain and fodder yield 3.2 Abiotic stresses 3.3 Biotic stresses 3.4 Green forage, stover and straw 3.5 Enhanced nutritional grain Total Strategic Objective 3 SO4 Sustainable crop management 4.1 Gender responsive crop management options 4.2 Integrated biotic stress management options Total Strategic Objective 4 SO5 Effective seed and information 5.1 Integrated technology packages 5.2 Innovations to strengthen seed and input delivery 5.3 Alternative communication and awareness strategies Total Strategic Objective 5 SO6 Post-harvest value and markets 6.1 Improved storage and processing technologies 6.2 Novel and diverse products for entrepreneurs 6.3 Institutional innovations to improve market linkages Total Strategic Objective 6 Total Strategic Objectives Gender Research & Analysis CRP Management 1,171 512 512 2,195 21,039 1,371 1,376 1,422 621 621 2,663 25,041 1,598 1,445 1,703 735 735 3,174 29,077 1,864 1,517 4,296 1,868 1,868 8,032 75,158 4,832 4,338 5% 2% 2% 9% 89% 6% 5% 1,065 1,171 1,089 3,325 1,263 1,422 1,322 4,007 1,493 1,713 1,592 4,799 3,821 4,306 4,003 12,131 4% 5% 5% 14% 1,321 1,404 2,725 1,572 1,672 3,244 1,793 1,914 3,708 4,686 4,990 9,676 6% 6% 12% 2,442 2,007 1,392 844 794 7,479 2,881 2,390 1,701 951 951 8,873 3,246 2,656 1,914 1,101 1,120 10,037 8,569 7,053 5,007 2,896 2,865 26,390 10% 8% 6% 3% 3% 31% 250 1,206 1,256 2,713 250 1,397 1,443 3,091 275 1,647 1,688 3,611 775 4,251 4,388 9,414 1% 5% 5% 11% 677 759 1,166 2,602 821 921 1,422 3,164 967 1,088 1,693 3,749 2,465 2,768 4,281 9,515 3% 3% 5% 11% Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 3-Year Total

Total Budget 23,786 28,084 32,459 84,328 100% 1 Funding for the genebank core activities described under Strategic Objective 2, Output 2.1 are provide from funds approved in the Genebank Funding proposal for ICARDA and ICRISAT

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The DRYLAND CEREALS research budget represents 95% of the total expenses and is based on projected research costs for each Strategic Objective Output (Table 15). The costs for each output represent the collective costs for ICARDA, ICRISAT and the GCP. Note that funding for the genebank core activities described under Strategic Objective 2, Output 2.1 are provide from funds approved in the Genebank Funding proposal for ICARDA and ICRISAT. A separate budget for gender research and analysis is indicated and more details provided below. For completeness, we have included the CRP management budget in the table. Each Strategic Objective and Output is based on projected research costs for each crop in each region. Table 16 presents the three-year expense budget by region and crop. Largest budget expenditures are targeted for pearl millet and sorghum across WCA, ESA and S Asia, and barley in CWANA
Table 16. Total Three-Year Budget by Region and Crop (USD '000)
WCA Strategic Objective SO1 Better targeting of opportunities SO2 Genetic diversity and genomics SO3 Variety and hybrid development SO4 Sustainable crop management SO5 Effective seed and information SO6 Post-harvest value and markets Total Strategic Objectives
Pearl Millet Sorghum Barley Finger Millet

ESA
Pearl Millet Sorghum

1,214 1,214 2,428 1,214 1,518 911 8,500 11%

1,518 1,463 3,333 1,214 1,684 911 10,123 13%

220 450 1,758 340 300 300 3,368 4%

607 607 2,277 1,214 759 304 5,768 7%

1,214 607 2,429 1,214 1,821 1,214 8,500 11%

1,214 769 3,185 1,214 1,929 1,214 9,525 12%

CWANA Strategic Objective SO1 Better targeting of opportunities SO2 Genetic diversity and genomics SO3 Variety and hybrid development SO4 Sustainable crop management SO5 Effective seed and information SO6 Post-harvest value and markets Total Strategic Objectives
Barley Barley

S Asia
Pearl Millet Sorghum

E Asia
Barley

570 1,425 4,748 840 660 630 8,873 11%

225 450 1,600 300 120 120 2,815 3%

1,214 1,214 1,821 1,214 1,821 1,214 8,500 11%

1,518 1,214 2,125 911 1,518 1,214 8,500 11%

686 686 1%

Partners are critical for the success of DRYLAND CEREALS and a total of US$ 12.8 million (18%) of the three-year budget is allocated for them. The budget for the Generation Challenge Program (GCP) is entirely designated for partners (non-CGIAR Centers). The Center Partners budget represents funds that are provided by the CGIAR Centers directly to partners (Table 17). All of the partners are currently engaged in joint research with one of the key CRP partners and details of the budget allocations are defined in the specific contracts and bilateral project agreements with each partner. Several partners, especially IRD, CIRAD, INTSORMIL, ICAR and AREEO, will also make significant inkind contributions to the CRP. These institutes and/or programs have their own source of funding to support infrastructure, salaries and operational expenses. Through better coordination of efforts under the CRP, these opportunities will be tapped to greatly enhance progress towards the goals of DRYLAND CEREALS. We will also work with each partner, and additional potential partners, to help identify additional funding resources to support the work of partners in the CRP.

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Table 17. Budget by Partner (USD '000) Partner ICRISAT ICARDA GCP Partners Center Partners CRP Management Total Budget Year 1 14,008 4,562 1,021 2,819 1,376 23,786 Year 2 17,022 5,276 934 3,406 1,445 28,084 Year 3 20,576 5,485 832 4,049 1,517 32,459 3-Year Total 51,606 61% 15,323 18% 2,786 3% 10,275 13% 5% 4,338 100% 84,328

Personnel costs (scientific and technical salaries and supporting costs) represent the largest percentage of the budget (35%, Table 18). Institutional management has been kept at 18%, while management of the CRP is 5% of total costs.
Table 18. Budget by Category (USD '000) Category Research Personnel Costs Supplies and Services Travel Workshops/Conferences/Training Capital Expenditures Partners Institutional Management CRP Management Total Budget Year 1 8,199 3,401 1,435 723 598 3,840 4,214 1,376 23,786 Year 2 9,870 4,055 1,719 857 721 4,340 5,077 1,445 28,084 Year 3 11,661 4,623 1,985 959 850 4,881 5,983 1,517 32,459 3-Year Total 29,729 12,079 5,139 2,540 2,168 13,061 15,273 4,338 84,328 35% 14% 6% 3% 3% 16% 18% 5% 100%

Costs for gender research and analysis are budgeted separately and include scientists’ time and operating expenses across the partners (Table 19). Approximately 6% (US$ 4.8 million) of the total first three-year budget has been specifically allocated for gender-related research. ICRISAT and ICARDA have gender specialists who will devote approximately 35% of their time to DRYLAND CEREALS conducting research on gender aspects of targeting, planning, design and implementation.
Table 19. DRYLAND CEREALS Gender Research and Analysis Budget (USD '000) Center ICARDA ICRISAT GCP Total Budget Year 1 250 1,071 50 1,371 Year 2 250 1,302 46 1,598 Year 3 250 1,573 41 1,864 3-Year Total 750 3,946 137 4,833

Given the need to effectively manage the CRP across all partners, including a number of non-CGIAR partners, a specific budget for CRP management is proposed (Table 20). The budget includes costs (salaries, travel and operations) for the CRP Director (1.0 FTE), 6 Strategic Objective Coordinators (0.5 FTE each), the Program Management Unit (1.0 FTE administrative, 1.0 FTE communications, 0.5 FTE financial and 0.5 FTE HR managers), Research Management Team meetings twice each year, and travel and honoraria costs for Independent Advisory Committee members to meet twice each year. The total management budget is 5% of the total CRP budget for the three-year period.

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Table 20. DRYLAND CEREALS Management Budget (USD '000) Category CRP Director (salary, travel, operations) Strategic Objective Coordinators (salaries, travel, operations) Program Management Unit (salaries, operations) Research Management Team (travel, operations) Independent Advisory Committee (honorarium, travel, operations) Total CRP Management Budget Year 1 280 708 208 90 90 1,376 Year 2 294 743 218 95 95 1,445 Year 3 309 781 229 99 99 1,517 3-Year Total 883 2,232 656 284 284 4,338 20% 51% 15% 7% 7% 100%

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APPENDIX 1: OVERVIEW OF THE DRYLAND CEREALS TARGET CROPS
DRYLAND CEREALS will focus on four of the most important dryland cereals – barley, finger millet, pearl millet and sorghum – vital crops for the food security and livelihoods (including as sources of livestock feed) for millions of smallholder farmers in the drylands. What follows here are brief descriptions about these important crops. Barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) is grown on 18 million hectares in developing countries (Figure 1-1), often at the fringes of deserts and steppes or at high elevations with modest or no inputs. Barley is an important food source for 60% of the population in the highlands of Ethiopia. It is also the staple food for impoverished farmers in the Andes at altitudes of 2,200-4,000 meters above sea level, due to its tolerance to cold temperatures, drought, poor soils and soil salinity. Barley grain is rich in zinc (up to 50 ppm), iron (up to 60 ppm) and soluble fibers, and has a higher content of Vitamins A and E than other major cereals. Barley has many uses. Its grain is used as feed for animals, for malting, and as food for direct human consumption. About 75% of world barley is used for animal feed and 20% for malting, with the remaining 5% for direct food use. Barley straw is used as animal feed in many developing countries, and for animal bedding and as cover material for hut roofs. After combine harvesting, barley stubbles are grazed in summer in large areas of West Asia and North Africa. Barley is also used for green grazing or is cut before maturity and either directly fed to animals or used for silage. Malt is the second largest use of barley, and malting barley is grown as a cash crop in a number of developing countries. Utilization for malting and by the brewing industry has picked up recently with an increase of consumption of beer and other malt products in many countries. In the highlands of Tibet, Nepal, Ethiopia, Eritrea, in the Andean countries, and in North Africa, barley is used as human food either for bread making (usually mixed with bread wheat) or for traditional recipes. These regions are characterized by harsh living conditions and are home to some of the poorest farmers in the world who depend on low-productivity systems. In the Andes barley is the staple food for farmers at altitudes ranging from 2,200 to 4,000 meters above sea level (masl). Above 3,000 meters, barley, faba bean, potatoes and quinoa are the four crops that support human and animal life. In recent years the use of barley as food has gained momentum, especially in North America and Europe. In developed countries barley is claimed as a functional food and used in many bakery products and recipes. Barley bran flour accelerates gastrointestinal transit time, thereby reducing the incidence of colon cancer. In a 2007 ranking of cereal crops in the world, barley was fourth both in terms of quantity produced (136 million tons) and in area cultivated (566,000 km²). Hulless or "naked" barley is a form of barley with an easier to remove hull. Naked barley is an ancient food crop, but a new industry has developed around uses of selected hulless barley in order to increase the digestible energy of the grain, especially for swine and poultry. Hulless barley has been investigated for several potential new applications as whole grain, and for its value-added products. These include bran and flour for multiple food applications. Global barley production has remained more or less constant over the past 30 years, though there are regional differences. During that period, global area under barley has decreased, but has remained fairly constant during the last decade. Yield has generally increased, with a few notable regional differences. The world average yield of barley is 2.7 t/ha, ranging from about 1.0 t/ha in Africa to more than 3.0 t/ha in East Asia, Europe, and the Americas. The average yield in developing countries is about 1.7 t/ha, and almost 3.0 t/ha in developed countries. Frequently, grain yields in the dry areas are lower than 1.0 t/ha as result of drought. Major constraints to barley production include stresses associated with the crop being able to withstand the most severe conditions such as drought, frost, salinity, low soil fertility, low soil pH

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and poo or soil drainage; foliar and d root diseas ses, such as net and spot t blotch, scalld, powdery mildew, fusarium m head blight t, rusts and dryland d root rots; insects s, such as Russian wheat aphids and barley stem gall midge; nem matodes, suc ch as cereal c cyst nemato ode; and viruses, such as barley yellow w dwarf oping countr ry barley-gro owing areas, the risk of crop failure is s very high and the virus. In some develo use of fe ertilizers, her rbicides and pesticides is s virtually absent. Opportu unities to be explored inc clude: the de evelopment of o improved varieties of barley for fe eed, food and malt uses; the possibility p of barley becom ming more profitable p for r smallholder r farmers in dry areas co oping with cli imate change, mainly ris ing temperatures and increasing pre essure on water availabil lity; the exploitation of ri ich genetic r esources and available genomic g toolls for the identific cation and de eployment of favorable a alleles at gen nes contribut ting significa ntly to abiot tic and biotic stress resistan nces, as well as to the nut tritional valu ue of grain an nd straw; an nd increased uses in alternative food products.

Figure 1-1. 1 Where b barley is grow wn (Source: ICRISAT)

Finger M Millet [Eleusi ine coracana a (L.) Gaertn] plays an important role in both the dietary need ds and incomes s of many rur ral households in Eastern n and Southe ern Africa an nd South Asia a, accounting g for 10% of 3 38-50 million n hectares so own to all the e types of millet globally. Finger mille et is rich in fiber, calcium than iron and d calcium (co ontaining 40 times t more c n maize and rice, and 10 times more than wheat). It is the mos st important small millet in the tropic cs (where 12 2% of the glo obal millet area is found) a and is cultiva ated in more than 25 cou untries in Africa (eastern and souther rn) and Asia (from ( the Near East to the Far East), pr redominantl y as a staple e food grain. The major p producers are e Uganda, , Ethiopia, In ndia, Nepal and China. Finger m millet has hig gh yield potential (more t than 10 t/ha under optim mum irrigated d conditions s) and its grain sto ores very we ell. Still, like most m so-calle ed small mille ets, finger millet is grown n mainly in marginal m environm ments as a ra ainfed crop with w low soill fertility and d limited moi isture. Finge r millet is originally native to o the Ethiopi ian highlands and was in ntroduced int to India appr roximately 4 4000 years ag go. It is
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highly adapted to higher elevations and is grown in the Himalayan foothills, and East Africa highlands up to 2300 masl. Major constraints to finger millet production include blast disease, the parasitic weed Striga, and abiotic stresses such as drought and low soil fertility. Opportunities to be explored include the application of genetic male-sterility as a breeding tool (to make it easier to produce full-sib, F1 and BCnF1 crosses) to facilitate recurrent selection to develop broad-based and more durable, host-plant resistance to blast, and to produce backcross F1 generations that are large enough to permit exploitation of background selection to hasten recovery of elite recurrent parent background in breeding programs targeting value addition to farmer- and market-preferred finger millet varieties. Pearl millet [Pennisetum glaucum (L.) R. Br.] is the world’s hardiest warm season cereal crop. It can survive even on the poorest soils of the driest regions, on highly saline soils and in the hottest climates. It is annually grown on more than 29 million hectares across the arid and semi-arid tropical and sub-tropical regions of Asia, Africa and Latin America (Figure 1-2). Pearl millet is the staple food of more than 90 million people who live in the drier areas of Africa and Asia, where its stover is also a valued fodder resource. This crop is principally used for feed and forage in the Americas, and as the mulch component of conservation tillage soya production systems on acid soils in the sub-humid and humid tropics of Brazil. Globally, production has increased during the past 15 years, primarily due to increased yields. India is the largest single producer of pearl millet, both in terms of area (9.3 million hectares) and production (8.3 million tons). Compared to the early 1980s, the country’s pearl millet area has declined by 19%, but production increased by 28% owing to a 64% increase in productivity (from about 450 kg/ha to 870 kg/ha in 2005-07). This has been largely due to adoption of high-yielding hybrids, mostly cultivated in areas receiving more than 400 mm of rainfall annually. During the past ten years, 33 hybrids developed both by public and private sector breeding programs, and 13 openpollinated varieties (OPVs) developed by the public sector, have been officially released in India. In more favorable pearl millet production regions of India, the private sector is now a dominant force in hybrid development and seed delivery. Besides official releases, the private sector also markets what is called ‘truthfully labeled’ hybrid seed, and there are now more truthfully-labeled hybrids under cultivation than the unofficially released hybrids. A survey conducted in 2006 found that, of the more than 82 hybrids (by name) marketed by private seed companies and cultivated on about 4 million hectares, at least 60 hybrids were based on ICRISAT-bred male-sterile lines, or on proprietary male-sterile lines developed from ICRISAT-bred materials (Mula et al., 2007). The West and Central Africa (WCA) region has the largest area under millets in Africa (15.7 million hectares), of which more than 90% is pearl millet. Since 1982, the millet area in WCA has increased by over 90%, and productivity by has risen by 12% (up from 800 to 900 kg/ha). Production has increased by about 130% (up from 6.1 to 14.1million tons), most of which has come from increases in cultivated area. Research in WCA has concentrated on OPV development, although hybrids in WCA are likely to have a significant grain yield advantage over OPVs. Eighteen OPVs, developed by ICRISAT in partnership with NARS, have been released and adopted in nine countries in the region. Because some of these OPVs were released under different names in more than one country, a total of 34 improved varieties by name have been released in the region. For instance, the most popular improved OPV, SOSAT-C88, has been released in six countries, while another popular improved OPV, GB 8735, has been released in four. Lack of seed production in the region, however, is a major bottleneck in the spread of improved cultivars – and is the primary reason that breeding research in this region has to date focused more on OPVs than hybrid cultivars although fresh seed of both OPVs and hybrids should be purchased for sowing each season. In Eastern and Southern Africa (ESA), pearl millet is cultivated on about 2 million hectares. Sixteen OPVs have been released in 10 countries in the region, and in a few of them – such as Eritrea,
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Namibia a, Tanzania and Kenya – smallholder s adoption has been very promising. S Still, as in WC CA, a lack of comm mercial seed production and a distribut tion continue es to be the major bottle eneck in the spread of impro oved OPVs. Besides being highly y adapted to abiotic stres sses, such as heat, drought, high leve els of soil aluminum saturatio on and low levels of soil macro- and micronutrients, pearl millet has been n found to be highly responsive to improved manage ement. For in nstance, whe en cultivated as an irrigat ted summer season crop und der intensive e manageme ent condition ns in parts of f India, hybrids of 80-85 d day duration n give grain yie elds as high as a 4-5 t/ha of grain yield. . Pearl millet t is a highly nutritious n cer real with high protein content (11-12% with a better b amino o acid profile e than maize, sorghum, w wheat and rice) and high grain iron conte ents (60-65 ppm p iron in i mproved varieties and more m than 80 0 ppm iron in n germpla asm and bree eding lines). High levels o of dietary fib ber with glute en-free prote eins, and phe enolic compou unds with ant tioxidant pro operties furt her add to it ts health valu ue. Research h has shown the effective eness of various processi ing and food d products te echnologies to t produce a alternative an nd health fo oods. These can be validated for theiir commercia alization pot tential, and f fine-tuned where w needed, , or new tech hnologies developed.

Figure 1-2. 1 Where m millets are grown (Sourc ce: ICRISAT) )

Major co onstraints to o pearl millet t production include dise eases such as s downy mild dew and blas st, the parasitic c weed Striga a, and abiotic stresses su uch as drought, soil salini ity, and high temperatur res during seedling establishment an nd flowering g time. unities to be explored inc clude: the inc creased interest in hybrids in Africa b building on past p Opportu successe es in India an nd on the init tial heterotic c grouping of pearl millet t landraces a accomplished d in West Af frica; high lev vels of micro onutrients (ir ron and zinc); increased use u for altern native food products, feed, and fodder; and the availabillity of geneti ic and genom mic tools for identificatio on and deploym ment of favor rable alleles at genes con ntributing sig gnificantly to o biotic stress s resistances s and abiotic s stress toleran nces, and nutritional valu ue of grain, green g fodder r and stover (including micronu utrients as well as anti-nu utritional fac ctors such as phytate and d flavones). D Due to its sup perior adaptati ion (compared to all other tropical ce ereals) to dro ought, soil sa alinity, soil a acidity, and high h

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temperatures, not to mention its food, feed and fodder values, opportunities exist for pearl millet to make inroads in new niches in Central Asia, the Middle-East, Australia and the Americas where preliminary trials have yielded encouraging results, especially with respect to its forage value. Sorghum [Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench] is cultivated in the drier areas of Africa, Asia, the Americas and Australia. It is the fifth most important cereal after rice, wheat, maize and barley, and is the dietary staple of more than 500 million people in more than 30 countries. It is grown on 42 million hectares in 98 countries of Africa, Asia, Oceania and the Americas (Figure 1-3). Nigeria, India, the USA, Mexico, Sudan, China and Argentina are the major producers. Other sorghum-producing countries include Burkina Faso, Chad, Ethiopia, Gambia, Ghana, Mali, Mauritania, Mozambique, Niger, Senegal, Somalia, Tanzania and Yemen. Sorghum is a staple cereal in sub-Saharan Africa, its primary center of genetic diversity. It is most extensively cultivated in zones of 600-1000 mm rainfall, although it is also important in the areas with higher rainfall (up to 1200 mm), where poor soil fertility, soil acidity and aluminum toxicity are common. Sorghum is extremely hardy and produces even under very poor soil fertility conditions (where maize fails). The crop is adapted to a wide range of temperatures, and is thus found even at high elevations in East Africa, overlapping with barley. It has good grain mold resistance and thus has a lower risk of contamination by mycotoxins. The cultivated species is diverse, with five major races identified, many of them with several subgroups. This reflects farmer selection pressure applied over millennia for adaptation to diverse production conditions, from sandy desert soils to waterlogged inland valleys, growing to maturity with only residual moisture, as well as in standing water. The grain is mostly used for food purposes, consumed in the form of flat breads and porridges (thick or thin, with or without fermentation). Sorghum grain has moderately high levels of iron (> 40 ppm) and zinc (> 30 ppm) with considerable variability in landraces (iron > 70 ppm and zinc >50 ppm) and can complement the ongoing efforts on food fortification to reduce micronutrient malnutrition globally. In addition to food and feed it is used for a wide range of industrial purposes, including starch for fermentation and bio-energy. Sorghum stover is a significant source of dry season fodder for livestock, construction material and fuel for cooking. Sweet sorghum is emerging as a multi-purpose crop. It can provide food, feed, fodder and fuel (ethanol), without significant trade-offs among any of these uses in a production cycle. ICRISAT has pioneered the sweet sorghum ethanol production technology, and its commercialization. Globally, sorghum production has remained more or less stable over the past 30 years, although there are notable regional differences. Area of production has decreased overall, but has remained essentially constant during the past five years on a global basis. West Africa, which produces roughly 25% of the world’s sorghum, has seen a steady increase in total production over the past 25 years. Most of the increase up to 1995 is attributed to increases in area, although productivity increases also contributed; after 1995, yield increases explain most of the rise in sorghum production in the region. Recent global trends also show both grain yield and production increases. These gains may reflect increased use of improved varieties, better crop management practices (such as fertilizer micro-dosing), as well as increased demand due to population growth and higher world prices for major cereals. The yields of post-rainy season sorghum have steadily increased in India, and are in demand for their superior grain and stover quality. Major constraints to sorghum production include shoot fly, stem borer, head bug and aphid insect pests; grain mold and charcoal rot diseases; weed competition and the parasitic plant Striga (in Africa); and abiotic stresses such as drought (especially terminal drought), high temperatures, acid soils (resulting in high levels of aluminum saturation) and low soil fertility (in terms of both macronutrients like nitrogen and phosphorus, as well as micronutrients such as iron and zinc). Opportunities to be pursued include: creating hybrids to increase yields for a wider range of production systems in Africa, building on successes in India, Mali and elsewhere; and new, improved

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plant typ pes for “dual purpose” so orghums for r grain, feed and fodder uses u that wo ould increase e the value of f the crop. Th hese new sor rghum types s would stren ngthen the in ntegration of f animal husbandry with cro op production, resulting in higher and d more stable incomes while w improviing soil healt th through increased organic matte er cycling. Th he availability of the full genome g seq uence and other o genetic and genomic c tools will enable efficie ent use of the e crop’s rich genetic dive ersity for the improve ement of sorghum and ot ther cereals. . This will fac cilitate the id dentification and transfer r of favorabl le alleles for stress tolera ance (such as s phosphorus efficiency, aluminum to oxicity and terminal drought), product qu uality (micro onutrient con ntent, digestibility and industrial qua lities) and su uperior mic performa ance. agronom

3. Where so rghum is gro own (Source: ICRISAT) Figure 1-3

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APPENDIX 2: TARGETING RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT INTERVENTIONS
WEST AND CENTRAL AFRICA (WCA)
Analysis of sorghum and pearl millet trends in West Africa Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor (L.)) and pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum) are the major crops grown by smallholder farmers in the dryland production systems in West Africa. Other cereals cultivated under rainfed conditions include maize, to a small extent fonio, and upland rice and wheat. While sorghum, pearl millet and maize are rainfed crops, rice is primarily cultivated as an irrigated crop in large public irrigation schemes in countries such as Mali, Niger, Burkina Faso, Benin, Senegal, Nigeria and Sierra Leone, or under natural submergence, in the so called inland valley systems. Pearl millet was grown on about 16 million ha and sorghum in over 14 million ha in West Africa (2005-09 average). Production follows the same trends. Production of pearl millet is estimated to be more than 15 million tons and that of sorghum to be over 14 million tons. Yield of these crops is relatively low compared to other cereals like maize and rice. It is estimated that pearl millet averages 949 kg/ha and sorghum about 999 kg/ha in WCA (Tables 2-1 and 2-2). Sorghum and pearl millet are the most important cereal crops in West and Central Africa. Production and area cultivated to sorghum and pearl millet are concentrated in West Africa with 92% and 91% of pearl millet and sorghum area, respectively. Similar trends are observed for sorghum and pearl millet production. In West Africa, it is estimated that sorghum and pearl millet account for about 30% and 35% of total cereal area grown. Similarly, sorghum and pearl millet account for about 25% each of the total cereal production in West Africa. Four countries, Nigeria, Niger, Mali and Burkina Faso, are the largest producers of pearl millet in West and Central Africa accounting for 82% of the pearl millet cultivated area and 87% of total pearl millet production. Similarly, the same countries are the major producers of sorghum accounting for 83% of area cultivated with sorghum and 86% of total sorghum production in West Africa. The relative importance of these crops in terms of area and production differs by country. Nigeria accounts for 53% of the total pearl millet production in West Africa, followed by Niger (20%), Mali (8%) and Burkina Faso (7%). Similar trends are observed in terms of pearl millet area cultivated (Table 2-1). The remaining countries – Benin, Cote d’Ivoire, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea Bissau, Mauritania, Senegal, Sierra Leone and Togo – account for 20% of the total cereal area and 22% of total cereal production in West Africa. Nigeria is also the lead country in sorghum production accounting for 66% of total sorghum production in West Africa followed by Burkina Faso (11%), Niger (7%) and Mali (6%) (Table 2-2). Within countries, sorghum and pearl millet account for a larger share of cereal area and production. In 2006-09, pearl millet occupied 68% of total cereal area cultivated in Niger followed by Senegal (63%), Mali (43%), Burkina Faso (36%) and Nigeria (24%). Similar patterns are observed for total pearl millet production (Table 2-10). During the same period, 44% of total cereal area was occupied by sorghum in West Africa, followed by Nigeria (36%), Niger and Mali (29% each) and Senegal (15%) (Table 2-11). From 1961 to 2009, in West Africa, the area cultivated with pearl millet almost doubled from 8,886,000 ha to 15,875,000 ha and production tripled from 4,976,000 tons to 15,104,000 tons (Table 2-5). Similar trends are observed for sorghum with area increasing from 7,753,000 ha to 14,145,000 ha and production more than doubling from 5,689,000 tons to 14,112,000 tons. In almost all countries, sorghum and pearl millet production and area have been increasing (Tables 2-5 and 2-6). It is estimated that sorghum and pearl millet productions have increased annually by 2.3% and 2.5% respectively from 1961 to 2009. As can be noted in Figure 2-1 below, two major growth phases can be depicted – a phase of stable/slight decline from 19611984 and a growth phase from 1984 to 2009. Growth in annual production has increased significantly from 1984-2009 estimated to about 2.9% for pearl millet and 2.7% for sorghum.

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F Figure 2-1. Trend T in cere eal area, rice e, sorghum, pearl p millet and a maize in n West Africa In almost all countries in n West Africa a, production n of sorghum m and pearl millet m has be en increasing (Table 24). For exam mple, in Burki ina Faso sinc ce 1984, prod duction of pe earl millet ha as been incre easing by about 3% annually, in Mali by 2.3% %, in Niger by y 3.9% and in n Nigeria by 2.9%. Growt th in product tion can be largely (60%) ) explained by y an increase e in area cult tivated. In alll countries, productivity p increase has s been below w 1% annually.

est Africa Figure 2-2. Trend in rice, r sorghum m, pearl mille et and maize e yields in We orghum and millet in We est Africa, the area occup pied by other cereal Despite the relative importance of so crops (rice a and maize) ha as been incre easing subst tantially, while the propo ortion of cere eal area alloc cated to pearl millet or sorghum has been decreasing. Th e proportion n of cereal ar rea covered by pearl mill let decreased fr rom 42% to 35% 3 from 19 961-65 to 200 06-09. The same trend is s seen for so orghum – the e proportion of cereal are ea covered by b sorghum has h decrease ed from 36% to 30%. How wever, trends s do vary by country. In Nigeria, for e example, the e proportion of cereal ar rea covered by b pearl mille et has decre ased from 39% to 24% from 1961-6 65 to 2006-09 9 and that of sorghum fr rom 47% to 36% 3 (Tables 2-10 and 2-1 11).

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The consumption shares of these crops relative to total cereals have been steadily declining in some countries. In Senegal, for example, the share of pearl millet to total consumption has declined from 61% to 40% from 1961-65 to 2006-08 and in Mali from 43% to 30% during the same period. In other countries (e.g., Niger, Burkina Faso and Nigeria), the shares have remained virtually the same. This small decreasing trend could be explained by shifts in consumer preferences for substitutes such as rice and maize (Table 2-13). Few studies have specifically focused on factors determining the demand for coarse grains. Delgado and Reardon (1991) investigated the determinants of the changing patterns of cereal use in West Africa and concluded that the pattern is demand driven. However, price and income did not explain the demand but rather, structural factors. Even short-run factors such as harvest short-fall or price dips are not responsible for the changing patterns. During the 1985 and 1986, bumper harvests of coarse grains in the Sahel, with subsequent fall in grain prices, did not increase coarse grain consumption. Rather commercial imports of rice and wheat continue to rise. Evidence from Mali, Senegal, and Burkina Faso show inelastic coarse grains (millet, sorghum and maize combined except for Burkina Faso where maize was not accounted for) demand response to own price or cross-price elasticities. In Mali, a long-term rise of 1% of coarse grain price is associated with a 0.07% decrease of quantity demanded of coarse grains. Similarly, in Burkina Faso, a long-term rise of 1% of coarse grain price is associated with a 0.5% decrease of quantity demanded of coarse grains. Cross-price elasticities show virtually no impact of wheat and rice price on coarse grain consumption. For example, a long-term rise of 1% of wheat price in Mali is associated with a 0.01% increase of quantity demanded of coarse grains. Demand for coarse grains is also not responsive to income. A rise of 1% in income leads to a decrease of only 0.24% of coarse grain demand in Mali. A study examining the effects of devaluation on food consumption patterns in urban Bamako using disaggregated data on coarse grains showed that there was no substitution between maize and sorghum/millet but rather between sorghum/millet and imported rice before and after devaluation (Table 212). In effect, sorghum/millet and maize are complements. Before the devaluation, as the price of sorghum/millet increases, the quantity of maize demanded decreases. Similarly, if the price of maize increases, the quantity of sorghum/millet decreases. Sorghum/millet and imported rice are substitutes (Coulibaly, 1999). The situation is however different for processed pearl millet and sorghum products. Micro-level evidence from Mali supports that structural factors and non-price factors are major determinants for the changing patterns of cereal consumption. In urban Mali, Boughton, et al. (1997) examined the determinants of household purchases of already processed millet, sorghum and maize products to find that the purchases of these products rise with the opportunity cost of women's time and household income. The results for the millet and sorghum differ widely. Raw and processed millet are similarly affected by the opportunity cost of women's time and household income. Whereas, improving sorghum processing will increase the total sorghum demand as income rises, the same cannot be said for millet. Using household survey data, Dibley et al. (1995) examined the processing and preparation costs for rice and coarse grains in urban Mali to show that coarse grain dishes are still cheaper than rice based dishes. The main contributing factors to the higher cost of rice-based dishes were the sauce, cereal and preparation costs. These results hold through a wide range of rice and coarse grain prices and opportunity costs of time and thus are applicable to the urban Sahel, not just Bamako. Coarse grain need not take longer to process and prepare compared to rice dishes if the dehulling stage is mechanized. Pre-processed coarse grains are not competitive with household processing given present technology and opportunity cost of women's time. Coarse grains will not be able to retain the extent of their cost advantage over rice as income and opportunity cost of labor rise without improvement in the efficiency of processing services.

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Table 2-1. WCA pearl millet Area, production, and yield (2005-09 averages and shares)
Area Country Benin Burkina Faso Cote d'Ivoire Gambia Ghana Guinea Guinea Bissau Mali Mauritania Niger Nigeria Senegal Sierra Leone Togo WCA Source: FAODATA, 2010 2005-09 Average (ha) 42,625 1,323,295 56,377 130,612 183,328 290,000 27,785 1,532,596 14,136 6,280,732 4,904,000 834,251 23,750 64,699 15,875,325 2005-09 Average Share (%) 0.27 8.34 0.36 0.82 1.15 1.83 0.18 9.65 0.09 39.56 30.89 5.26 0.15 0.41 100.00 2005-09 Average (t) 34,959 1,148,125 44,809 122,584 180,486 299,000 38,584 1,253,202 3,614 2,983,078 8,006,750 582,002 23,750 44,451 15,104,171 Production 2005-09 Average Share (%) 0.23 7.60 0.30 0.81 1.19 1.98 0.26 8.30 0.02 19.75 53.01 3.85 0.16 0.29 100.00 Yield 2005-09 Average (kg/ha) 804 856 885 933 980 1,033 1,361 817 264 481 1,675 684 1,000 680 949

Table 2-2. WCA sorghum area, production, and yield (2005-09 averages and shares)
Area Country Benin Burkina Faso Cote d'Ivoire Gambia Ghana Guinea Guinea Bissau Mali Mauritania Niger Nigeria Senegal Sierra Leone Togo WCA Source: FAODATA, 2010 2005-09 Average (ha) 156,820 1,565,551 64,460 24,676 275,306 35,875 20,986 966,701 184,828 2,763,277 7,505,250 190,775 22,000 217,837 14,145,054 2005-09 Average Share (%) 1.11 11.07 0.46 0.17 1.95 0.25 0.15 6.83 1.31 19.54 53.06 1.35 0.16 1.54 100.00 2005-09 Average (t) 143,835 1,612,722 36,333 27,239 291,266 37,178 20,203 958,484 82,280 1,039,872 9,355,000 168,433 23,000 216,056 14,112,347 Production 2005-09 Average Share (%) 1.02 11.43 0.26 0.19 2.06 0.26 0.14 6.79 0.58 7.37 66.29 1.19 0.16 1.53 100.00 Yield 2005-09 Average (kg/ha) 915 1,028 562 1,105 1,048 1,036 973 978 448 386 1,243 863 1,045 990 999

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Table 2-3. WCA total cereal area, production, and yield (2005-09 averages and shares)
Country 2005-09 Average (ha) Benin Burkina Faso Cape Verde Cote d'Ivoire Gambia Ghana Guinea Guinea Bissau Liberia Mali Mauritania Niger Nigeria Senegal Sierra Leone Togo WCA Source: FAODATA, 2010 939,532 3,594,620 28,181 811,034 226,192 1,415,241 1,720,619 143,787 158,000 3,472,977 241,788 9,253,977 18,933,000 1,302,971 1,052,400 790,971 44,085,290 Area 2005-09 Average Share (%) 2.13 8.13 0.06 1.84 0.51 3.21 3.9 0.33 0.36 7.87 0.55 20.97 43.02 2.94 2.38 1.79 100 2005-09 Average (t) 1,168,148 3,818,031 6,800 1,410,731 223,478 2,088,769 2,742,591 211,131 228,180 4,425,427 185,371 4,251,929 28,496,800 1,360,390 1,056,937 895,104 52,569,816 Production 2005-09 Average Share (%) 2.23 7.25 0.01 2.7 0.42 3.95 5.2 0.4 0.43 8.32 0.35 8.07 54.38 2.55 2.02 1.71 100 Yield 2005-09 Average (kg/ha) 1,241 1,067 233 1,740 980 1,468 1,587 1,470 1,421 1,260 771 458 1,505 1,022 1,004 1,131 1,190

Table 2-4. Pearl millet and sorghum growth rates (% annual) in major countries in West Africa
Country 1984-2009 Area Benin Burkina Faso Cote d’Ivoire Gambia Ghana Guinea Bissau Guinea Mali Mauritania Niger Nigeria Senegal Sierra Leone Togo West Africa 1.35 1.40 2.32 5.12 1.04 3.32 0.49 2.67 1.43 3.13 1.81 2.00 -0.64 1.36 2.00 Prod 2.49 2.93 2.41 5.93 2.68 1.52 0.58 2.35 -0.17 4.73 2.57 1.47 0.14 2.88 2.72 Yield 1.14 1.53 0.08 0.81 1.64 -1.80 0.09 -0.31 -1.60 1.60 0.76 -0.52 0.78 1.53 0.72 Area 1.34 1.10 2.81 3.00 1.54 1.13 3.21 1.97 -0.21 4.41 0.97 1.13 3.79 2.24 1.52 Sorghum 1961-2009 Prod 2.61 2.87 2.77 3.50 2.71 0.90 4.09 2.42 0.50 2.41 2.20 1.24 2.40 3.24 2.34 Yield 1.27 1.77 -0.03 0.49 1.16 -0.20 0.88 0.45 0.71 -2.00 1.23 0.10 -1.39 1.00 0.82 Area 2.53 1.08 -1.77 5.52 -0.37 8.68 1.81 2.30 0.81 2.97 1.68 -0.67 -0.96 -2.54 1.97 1984-2009 Prod 3.82 3.04 1.15 4.90 1.40 5.68 2.42 2.29 -3.53 3.88 2.90 -0.22 -1.74 -2.67 2.85 Yield 1.29 1.96 2.92 -0.61 1.77 -3.00 0.61 -0.01 -4.34 0.92 1.22 0.45 -0.78 -0.12 0.88 Area 2.44 1.56 -0.16 3.44 0.68 4.58 2.93 2.21 -1.79 3.05 0.45 -0.10 2.82 -2.75 1.43 Pearl millet 1961-2009 Prod 4.73 3.38 0.50 3.27 1.83 3.76 4.29 2.33 -1.31 2.84 2.51 0.77 1.64 -2.40 2.45 Yield 2.29 1.82 0.66 -0.18 1.13 -0.81 1.35 0.13 0.48 -0.21 2.05 0.88 -1.17 0.34 1.03

Source: Calculated from FAO Data, 2010

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Table 2-5. Trend in pearl millet area, production and yield in WCA countries
Country Burkina Faso 1960-65 728 293 402 675 442 655 1,791 897 501 4,315 2,621 607 839 393 468 109 68 624 8,886 4,976 560 1970-75 801 307 383 597 430 720 2,096 794 379 4,709 3,407 724 899 462 514 204 123 603 9,665 5,788 599 Year range 1980-85 1990-95 891 1,207 445 819 499 679 816 1,234 620 757 760 613 3,090 4,841 1,228 1,803 397 372 1,932 4,778 3,013 4,706 1,560 985 932 891 541 581 580 652 184 203 121 162 658 798 8,107 13,609 6,196 9,171 764 674 2000-05 1,327 1,064 802 1,504 996 662 5,615 2,471 440 4,517 6,308 1,397 793 506 638 193 160 829 14,465 11,969 827 2005-09 1,323 1,148 856 1,533 1,253 817 6,281 2,983 481 4,904 8,007 1,675 834 582 684 183 180 980 15,875 15,104 949

Mali

Niger

Nigeria

Senegal

Ghana

WCA

Area (000 ha) Production (000 t) Yield (kg/ha) Area (000 ha) Production (000 t) Yield (kg/ha) Area (000 ha) Production (000 t) Yield (kg/ha) Area (000 ha) Production (000 t) Yield (kg/ha) Area (000 ha) Production (000 t) Yield (kg/ha) Area (000 ha) Production (000 t) Yield (kg/ha) Area (000 ha) Production (000 t) Yield (kg/ha)

Table 2-6. Trend in sorghum area, production and yield in WCA countries
Country Burkina Faso Area (000 ha) Production (000 t) Yield (kg/ha) Mali Area (000 ha) Production (000 t) Yield (kg/ha) Niger Area (000 ha) Production (000 t) Yield (kg/ha) Nigeria Area (000 ha) Production (000 t) Yield (kg/ha) Senegal Area (000 ha) Production (000 t) Yield (kg/ha) Ghana Area (000 ha) Production (000 t) Yield (kg/ha) West Africa Area (000 ha) Production (000 t) Yield (kg/ha) Year range 1960-65 946 467 494 456 327 717 464 306 659 5,227 4,196 803 117 89 761 158 104 658 7,753 5,689 734 1970-75 1,090 568 521 403 317 787 587 215 366 4,352 3,375 776 125 105 840 216 161 745 7,085 4,901 692 1980-85 1,052 654 622 483 441 913 1,093 320 293 3,184 4,063 1,276 126 128 1016 218 136 624 6,606 6,033 913 1990-95 1,317 1,210 919 900 721 801 2,176 359 165 5,690 6,104 1,073 130 109 838 303 302 997 11,151 9,253 830 2000-05 1,500 1,461 974 838 636 759 2,362 719 304 6,907 8,077 1,169 179 145 810 323 305 944 12,773 11,871 929 2006-09 1,566 1,613 1,028 967 958 978 2,763 1,040 386 7,505 9,355 1,243 191 168 863 275 291 1,048 14,145 14,112 999

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Table 2-7. Trend in total cereal area, production and yield in WCA countries
Country Burkina Faso Area (000 ha) Production (000 t) Yield (kg/ha) Mali Area (000 ha) Production (000 t) Yield (kg/ha) Niger Area (000 ha) Production (000 t) Yield (kg/ha) Nigeria Area (000 ha) Production (000 t) Yield (kg/ha) Senegal Area (000 ha) Production (000 t) Yield (kg/ha) Ghana Area (000 ha) Production (000 t) Yield (kg/ha) WCA Area (000 ha) Production (000 t) Yield (kg/ha) Year range 1960-65 1,898 901 475 1,459 1,054 722 2,269 1,217 536 11,106 7,598 684 1,085 619 571 510 408 800 21,244 14,550 685 1970-75 2,055 987 480 1,325 1,030 777 2,707 1,030 380 10,414 7,515 722 1,153 695 603 882 774 878 21,408 15,517 725 1980-85 2,117 1,254 592 1,603 1,360 848 4,223 1,607 381 6,731 9,548 1419 1,215 894 736 962 756 786 20,467 19,080 932 1990-95 2,778 2,400 864 2,673 2,220 831 7,050 2,240 318 17,573 20,238 1,152 1,200 978 815 1,227 1,438 1,172 37,097 34,331 925 2000-05 3,284 3,269 995 3,140 2,952 940 8,016 3,273 408 17,342 22,910 1,321 1,193 1,149 963 1,425 1,920 1,347 39,347 41,852 1,064 2006-09 3,594 3,818 1,067 3,473 4,425 1,260 9,254 4,252 458 18,933 28,497 1,505 1,303 1,360 1,022 1,415 2,089 1,468 44,085 52,570 1,190

Table 2-8. Trend in the proportion of pearl millet area and production relative to WCA
Country Burkina Faso Mali Niger Nigeria Senegal Ghana Area (000 ha) Production (000 t) Area (000 ha) Production (000 t) Area (000 ha) Production (000 t) Area (000 ha) Production (000 t) Area (000 ha) Production (000 t) Area (000 ha) Production (000 t) Year range 1960-65 8.19 5.89 7.60 8.88 20.16 18.03 48.56 52.67 9.44 7.90 1.23 1.37 1970-75 8.29 5.30 6.18 7.43 21.69 13.72 48.72 58.86 9.30 7.98 2.11 2.13 1980-85 10.99 7.18 10.07 10.01 38.12 19.82 23.83 48.63 11.50 8.73 2.27 1.95 1990-95 8.87 8.93 9.07 8.25 35.57 19.66 35.11 51.31 6.55 6.34 1.49 1.77 2000-05 9.17 8.89 10.40 8.32 38.82 20.64 31.23 52.70 5.48 4.23 1.33 1.34 2005-09 8.37 7.72 9.87 9.03 41.11 21.13 29.83 52.55 5.38 4.06 1.17 1.27

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Table 2-9. Trend in the proportion of sorghum area and production relative to WCA
Country Burkina Faso Mali Niger Nigeria Senegal Ghana Area (000 ha) Production (000 t) Area (000 ha) Production (000 t) Area (000 ha) Production (000 t) Area (000 ha) Production (000 t) Area (000 ha) Production (000 t) Area (000 ha) Production (000 t) Year range 1960-65 12.20 8.21 5.88 5.75 5.98 5.38 67.42 73.76 1.51 1.56 2.04 1.83 1970-75 15.38 11.59 5.69 6.47 8.29 4.39 61.43 68.86 1.76 2.14 3.05 3.29 1980-85 15.92 10.84 7.31 7.31 16.55 5.30 48.20 67.35 1.91 2.12 3.30 2.25 1990-95 11.81 13.08 8.07 7.79 19.51 3.88 51.03 65.97 1.17 1.18 2.72 3.26 2000-05 11.74 12.31 6.56 5.36 18.49 6.06 54.08 68.04 1.40 1.22 2.53 2.57 2006-09 12.03 12.29 7.58 7.96 20.61 7.57 50.92 64.15 1.49 1.34 1.99 2.21

Table 2-10. Proportion of pearl millet area and production relative to total country total cereals
Year range Country Burkina Faso Mali Niger Nigeria Senegal Ghana West Africa Area Production Area Production Area Production Area Production Area Production Area Production Area Production 1960-65 38 33 46 42 79 74 39 34 77 63 21 17 42 34 1970-75 39 31 45 42 77 77 45 45 78 66 23 16 45 37 1980-85 42 35 51 46 73 76 29 32 77 61 19 16 40 32 1990-95 43 34 46 34 69 80 27 23 74 59 17 11 37 27 2000-05 40 33 48 34 70 75 26 28 66 44 14 8 37 29 2006-09 36 30 43 27 68 74 24 28 63 43 13 8 35 28

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Table 2-11. Proportion of sorghum area and production relative to total country total cereals
Year range Country Burkina Faso Mali Niger Nigeria Senegal Ghana Total WA Area Production Area Production Area Production Area Production Area Production Area Production Area Production 1960-65 50 52 31 31 20 25 47 55 11 14 31 25 36 39 1970-75 53 58 30 31 22 21 42 45 11 15 24 21 33 32 1980-85 50 52 30 32 26 20 47 43 10 14 23 18 32 32 1990-95 47 50 34 32 31 16 32 30 11 11 25 21 30 27 2000-05 46 45 27 22 29 22 40 35 15 13 23 16 32 28 2006-09 44 44 29 22 29 24 36 31 15 13 19 14 30 26

Table 2-12 Proportion of total cereal area and production by country relative to WCA
Country Burkina Faso Mali Niger Nigeria Senegal Ghana Area (000 ha) Production (000 t) Area Production Area Production Area Production Area Production Area Production Year range 1960-65 8.93 6.19 6.87 7.24 10.68 8.36 52.28 52.22 5.11 4.25 2.40 2.80 1970-75 9.60 6.36 6.19 6.64 12.64 6.64 48.65 48.43 5.39 4.48 4.12 4.99 1980-85 10.34 6.57 7.83 7.13 20.63 8.42 32.89 50.04 5.94 4.69 4.70 3.96 1990-95 7.49 6.99 7.21 6.47 19.00 6.52 47.37 58.95 3.23 2.85 3.31 4.19 2000-05 8.35 7.81 7.98 7.05 20.37 7.82 44.07 54.74 3.03 2.75 3.62 4.59 2006-09 8.22 7.24 7.95 9.20 21.12 7.95 42.60 52.66 2.97 2.64 3.19 4.17

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Table 2-13. Proportion of the per capita cereals consumed by countries in WCA
Year range 1960-65 Maize Nigeria Mali Niger Burkina Faso Senegal Pearl millet Nigeria Mali Niger Burkina Faso Senegal Sorghum Nigeria Mali Niger Burkina Faso Senegal Rice Nigeria Mali Niger Burkina Faso Senegal 2.5% 16.7% 0.9% 3.8% 15.4% 5.9% 15.8% 3.4% 3.4% 11.5% 13.6% 11.9% 2.9% 3.5% 14.4% 14.9% 20.6% 3.0% 2.4% 17.5% 13.8% 29.1% 2.2% 2.9% 18.1% 13.2% 30.5% 1.5% 3.1% 20.6% 51.1% 31.6% 26.1% 52.7% 16.4% 40.8% 29.6% 21.1% 53.5% 18.0% 42.2% 32.6% 21.1% 52.1% 19.5% 30.2% 33.6% 15.5% 50.9% 12.1% 35.5% 21.9% 21.6% 45.2% 12.1% 32.9% 22.0% 25.1% 44.5% 12.3% 32.9% 42.8% 72.7% 32.4% 61.1% 41.9% 44.3% 74.5% 35.8% 62.0% 31.3% 44.9% 74.3% 35.2% 54.8% 23.3% 33.7% 81.1% 34.2% 57.4% 27.7% 34.0% 74.7% 32.7% 41.8% 29.0% 30.1% 72.5% 31.0% 39.8% 13.5% 8.9% 0.2% 11.2% 7.1% 11.5% 10.3% 1.0% 7.3% 8.5% 12.9% 10.6% 1.7% 9.3% 11.3% 31.6% 12.1% 0.3% 12.5% 13.0% 23.0% 15.0% 1.6% 19.2% 28.0% 24.9% 17.4% 0.9% 21.4% 27.2% 1970-75 1980-85 1990-95 2000-05 2006-08

Major bottlenecks to technology transfer – barriers to adoption Bottlenecks to growth in agricultural productivity The importance of conventional inputs in Sahelian agriculture has been suggested in many studies as critical constraints on continued growth in agricultural productivity. These constraints have their origin in the natural, economic and policy environment in the Sahel. Poor income growth and poverty and inadequate water availability have hindered the use of improved crop varieties and fertilizer. Inadequacies in the provision of basic physical and institutional infrastructure have had similar effects. For instance, poorly developed physical infrastructure, including roads and communication networks, increase the cost of purchased inputs (such as improved seeds, fertilizer, pesticides), inhibit the timely acquisition and application of these inputs and decrease access to output markets. Institutional bottlenecks include complex land tenure systems, constraints on access to credit and delivery services. The weak extension systems in many Sahelian countries means that few extension services and information on new crop varieties, appropriate input use and improved management practices are directed to farmers, particularly women. Given that conventional inputs explain most of the variation in agricultural productivity between countries, it is clear that in many Sahelian countries, there is still considerable scope to raise productivity through increased use of existing and improved technologies, including improved crop varieties, increased use of fertilizer, pesticides and soil and water conservation technologies. Although, the returns to these inputs and technologies are high, particularly on research stations, they have not been widely adopted by farmers. Barriers to adoption and increased use of these inputs are many and varied but include inappropriate

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technology development, inadequate attention to the socioeconomic conditions, objectives and production risks faced by smallholders and lack of appropriate incentives due to weak policies and institutions. Taking all these factors into consideration, it is apparent that very substantial increases in scientific and technological effort will be required, particularly in highly vulnerable systems such as the Sahelian systems, if agricultural productivity and food security is to be improved. Since the 1970s, more than 98 pearl millet and 141 sorghum varieties have been released and are currently available in the 5 countries in West Africa (Table 2-14). However, their adoption remains low. Table 2-14. Number of varieties released in 5 countries in West Africa before and after 1990
Year range and crop Country Pearl Millet Burkina Faso Mali Niger Nigeria Senegal Total Source: ICRISAT 2010 7 14 24 5 5 55 1970-1990 Sorghum 0 10 2 34 0 46 Total 7 24 26 39 5 101 Pearl Millet 4 19 13 6 1 43 1990-2010 Sorghum 29 50 5 5 6 95 Total 33 69 18 11 7 138 Pearl Millet 11 33 37 11 6 98 Total Sorghum 29 60 7 39 6 141 Total 40 93 44 50 12 239

Using a triangulation of expert opinions, GIS tools and available surveys on adoption in five major pearl millet and sorghum countries in West Africa, it is estimated that adoption rates of varieties released less than 20 years ago is extremely low in countries such as Senegal or very low as in Burkina Faso. In other countries such as Nigeria, Niger and Mali, adoption rates are still modest (Table 2-15). Table 2-15. Adoption of modern varieties (% area planted) released less than 20 years ago in WCA.
Country Burkina Faso Mali Niger Nigeria Senegal Crop Pearl millet 2.1 29.98 15.23 24.8 0 Sorghum 3.3 23.73 1.5 17.2 0

Source: Ndjeunga et al. (2011) Unpublished ICRISAT

The low adoption is partly explained by the slow release of modern varieties, therefore limiting the availability of better performing varieties that can readily attract smallholder farmers. In effect, countries are endowed with weak pearl millet and sorghum breeding programs. It is estimated since 1990, countries in WCA have released on average less than one pearl millet variety per year and less than one sorghum variety per year. However, there are disparities between countries. As can be noted, the correlation between the number of releases and adoption is high. In countries such as Mali, where the number of releases is high, adoption rate is also relatively high compared to countries like Senegal. The adoption rate is also partly explained by the strength of the breeding programs. Table 2-16 provides the number of full-time equivalents available in sorghum and pearl millet breeding programs. It can be noted that Mali has the strongest breeding programs in terms of FTE in addition to support from international organizations such as ICRISAT and INTSORMIL. In other countries like Niger and Nigeria, it must be noted that international institutions such as ICRISAT and INTSORMIL have largely contributed to research impacts.

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Table 2-16. Full-time equivalent ts scientists in sorghum and pearl millet m breedin ng programs s in WCA
Crop and lev vel of educatio on Country y BSc Burkina Fa aso Mali Niger Nigeria Senegal Total 2.1 0.2 0 0 0.3 2.6 Pearl millet t MSc 0.2 3.63 1 0 2 6.83 PhD D 2.16 6 2.6 1 1.5 0.9 8.16 6 All 4.46 6.43 2 1.5 3.2 17.59 BSc 0.1 3.75 0 0 0.3 4.15 Sor rghum MSc 0.2 1.3 1 0 0.5 3 PhD 2.16 2.7 0 2.5 1.4 8.76 All A 2.46 7.75 1 2.5 2 2.2 2 15 5.91 BSc 2.2 3.95 0 0 0.6 6.75 0.4 4.93 2 0 2.5 9.83 Total MSc Ph hD 4.3 32 5.3 1 4 2.3 16.92 All 6.92 14.18 3 4 5.4 33.5

Source: ICR RISAT databas se 2010

Barriers to a adoption of technologies t and innovat tions can be grouped into o four broad d categories including i technologica al, socio-cult tural and eco onomic, instit traints. Seve ral adoption n studies tutional and policy const undertaken in West Africa identified d the followin ng major technological co onstraints as s being the li imiting factors influencing the uptake u of sor rghum and m millet improv ved varieties in WCA (Yap pi et al. 2000a and b, Ndjeunga et t al. 2005 and d 2008 and 2011, 2 Ogung gbile et al. 19 998, Macaver r et al. 1999,, Mazzucato V and Ly S. 1994). These e are early-m maturity, coo oking traits, p productivity, and disease e and drough ht resistance (Figure 2-3).

Figur re 2-3. Facto ors influencin ng adoption of varieties (Youssouf, Bantilan B and d Ndjeunga. 2006) 2 In Niger for e example, Ma azzucato and d Ly (1993) re t low market t price for ce ereals, weak transport eported that and market infrastructur re, poor seed d multiplicat tion system, and the unavailability of f seeds, fertilizer, and credit were the major co onstraints to adoption of f improved sorghum and millet variet ties. Other constraints to o adoption tha at are institu utional in nat ture include the lack of seed, the lack k of fertilizer rs and the lac ck of information (Figure 2-4). research and d development priorities, , institutiona al and policy issues are of f paramount t In terms of r importance; ; followed by y technologic cal, socio-eco onomic and cultural issues. The lack o of appropria ate and adapted inst titutional inn novations to supply input ts (seed, fert tilizers, pesticides, etc.) a at least cost and affordable p prices to end-users remai in a major ch hallenge. App propriate po olicies likely t to ease acces ss to varieties and d facilitate th he movemen nt of seed tra ade between n countries need n to be fu urther resear rched. Technological issues rem main very imp portant, as m many varietie es available may m not suit t farmers’ socioeconomic circumstances s. The search h for innovat tive systems that will faci ilitate the de evelopment and a promotion o of varieties in n partnership p with end-u users need to o be emphasized.

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Figure 2-4 4. Adoption constraints from Yousso ouf, Bantilan n and Ndjeun nga, 2006

novative app proaches to overcome co onstraints New and inn l productivit Technologic cal options fo or improved agricultural ty A number of f improved technologies are now ava ailable to far rmers in Sahe elian system s. These include improved cr rop varieties and crop ma anagement s systems invo olving cereal-legume rota ations, soil an nd water conservation n practices, soil s fertility maintenance m e methods co ombining org ganic and ino organic fertil lizers, animal traction with h improved implements i and integrat ted pest man nagement practices. On-f farm evaluat tion of some e of these tech hnologies ha as shown tha at they can e nhance farm m productivit ty. Sayer and Ca ampbell (200 01) have argued that in o order meet the challenge es of increase ed agricultur ral productivity y and environ nmental sust tainability in complex and d marginal sy ystems such as Sahelian farming systems, a p paradigm shif ft in convent tional resear rch and deve elopment is required. Thi s shift would d involve a redirection o of research objectives o to oward enhan cing adaptiv ve capacity by incorporat ting more participatory approaches, , by embracing key principles of mult ti-scale analy ysis and inter rvention and d by the use of a variety of tools (e.g. systems analysis, inform mation mana agement and d impact asse essment too ols). Integration across scales, comp ponents, stak keholders an nd disciplines s will be a ke ey concept in n the new ap pproach. Cutt ting edge technology r research on components s of the farm ming systems will still be vital, v but willl have to be placed in the context of specific biophysical an nd socioecon nomic condit tions facing the t farmers. In this conte ext, crop bree eding and ag gronomic res search to imp prove grain and a stover y ields and the e nutritional value of crop p residues will w be needed d to increase e food/feed availability. In I the past, c crop improve ement has been based largely on co onventional breeding me ethods. Thes se have been successful b but a numbe er of biotic and abiotic s stresses cont tinue to limit t yields on sm mallholder fa arms. Conventional bree eding has had d difficulties overcoming these constraints. In rec cent years, th here have be een calls for increased inv vestment in b cro op traits that t convention nal breeding has found in ntractable. biotechnology research to work on beneficial Biotechnology offers new w opportunities for crop p breeding. But biotechno ology will on nly work for the t poor if it focuses on t traits that are e important to smallhold der farmers and a consume ers. New scientif fic knowledg ge in genomics and biote chnology will be needed to speed up p technology y developmen nt, for examp ple, in marke er-assisted se election of desirable trait ts in dual-pu urpose cereals. Overall, technical res search will be geared tow ward produc cing a diversified range of f technologic cal options to suit the needs of farmers with di ifferent reso ource endow ments, mana agement skills and ability y to bear risk k. Finally, research will be needed to strengthe en farmers’ a ability to manage a broad d range of pr roduction factors and to achieve the skills that wi ill enhance their control over their ow wn destinies s. Policy and in nstitutional options There is grow wing evidenc ce that a major factor ex xplaining low w adoption of f improved t echnologies and stagnation in n agricultura al productivit ty in Sahelian n countries is the lack of appropriate e policy and institutional support (San nders, 1989, Deuson and d Day 1990, W Williams, 199 93). The policy and instit utional envir ronment – input and ou utput market ts, credit and d interest rat tes, rural infrastructure, extension se ervices and farmer f selfhelp organiz zations – rem mains conside erably weak. ments in phy ysical . In the absence of planned improvem ent, the retu infrastructur re, policy and institutional environme urns to uptak ke of improve ed technolog gies and

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other interventions are likely to be limited as the policy and institutional constraints quickly become binding. In such a situation, the role of policy is twofold. First, governments need to invest in underlying physical infrastructure (roads and communication network) to improve the basic performance of markets by reducing the costs of transportation and transactions and by facilitating the transmission of goods, services and market signals. Such improvements can be expected to reduce input costs and increase access to output markets, providing both demand- and supply-side incentives for increased use of conventional input and output growth (Wiebe et al., 2001). Secondly, governments need to strengthen formal as well as local-level institutions governing property rights, credit and extension services in order to minimize the costs and risks poor smallholders face in adopting new technical innovations and to overcome market imperfections. Studies have shown that, while land tenure security may not significantly affect input use and yield, it does have an important effect on investments in land improvements and use of credit (Place and Hazell, 1993; Gavian and Fafchamps, 1996). Secure property rights give greater security over future land use and allow for long-term planning. Also, innovative institutional arrangements involving community-based organizations will be needed to strengthen extension services in many Sahelian countries. A well-functioning extension service conveys prescriptive information (e.g. fertilizer dosage) to farmers and can also play an educational role in improving farmers, particularly women farmers’, technical skills and understanding of new innovations. This will have important implications for the distribution of costs and benefits of new innovations. Hazell and Fan (1998) have noted the importance of investing in measures to improve productivity not only in prime agricultural areas but in less-favorable agroecological zones as well. While their results are based on analysis of Indian data, similar policy research is needed to determine whether such patterns characterize research investments in Sahelian farming systems. Desirable action plans The studies reviewed on the sources of agricultural productivity growth in Sahelian farming systems reveal the importance of conventional inputs in explaining the variation in agricultural productivity. This is not surprising, given the low levels of use of some conventional inputs such as physical capital and fertilizer. This suggests that there remains significant scope to improve productivity in Sahelian systems through increased use of conventional inputs, particularly fertilizer, supplementary animal feeds, integrated disease control inputs and physical capital. The first task facing policy makers then is to create incentives to promote increased use of conventional inputs. As land becomes increasingly scarce relative to labor, farmers will need to seek ways to increase yields through intensification of production on existing land. Such intensification will call for improved knowledge and management skills. A second task for policy makers then is enhancing labor productivity through increased human capital for research and extension services. Increased investment in these nonconventional inputs will make possible increases in productivity through the use of conventional inputs. In the absence of planned improvements in physical infrastructure and the institutional environment, the returns to other interventions in isolation are likely to be limited as infrastructural constraints quickly become binding. Increased public investment in basic infrastructure will not only increase use of inputs and improve smallholders’ access to markets but is a necessary condition for complementary private investments to improve agricultural productivity. Governments also need to create the legal and institutional environment to empower farmers, particularly women, through local self-help organizations, training and skills improvement programs to raise agricultural productivity and to enhance health and nutrition of families. New partnership arrangements The task of increasing agricultural productivity in the Sahelian systems is huge and cannot be achieved by few institutions. There is a need for a concerted effort to bring together different institutions that have comparative advantage in delivering some good and services needed along the research and development continuum. In the research front, ICRISAT and INTSORMIL have largely invested in sorghum and pearl millet research in the Sahelian systems of West Africa. In addition, both institutions are working locally with the same partners particularly the NARS and more and more with local institutions such as NGOs or even public
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agencies. There are limited synergies gained from these investments. Identification of areas where both institutions have comparative advantages or where complementary interventions are needed is essential. The search of innovative ways to partner becomes more and more important to meet these enormous challenges. Upstream research where important challenges remain such as tolerance to drought and resistance to Striga are prime examples where collaboration between ICRISAT and INTSORMIL could be important. Other areas where resources are becoming limiting such as integrated pest management (Entomology, Pathology and else) may also be candidates for strengthening this collaboration. References
Delgado C, Rosegrant M, Steinfeld H, Ehui S and Courbois C. 1999. Livestock to 2020: The next food revolution. Food, Agriculture and the Environment Discussion Paper 28. Washington DC. IFPRI (International Food Policy Research Institute). 72 pp. Deuson R and Day J. 1990. Transfer of sustainable technology in dryland agriculture: lessons from the Sahel in the 1980s. Agricultural Economics 4: 255-266. Gavian S and Fafchamps M. 1996. Land tenure and allocative efficiency in Niger. American Journal of Agricultural Economics 78: 460-471. Hayami Y and Ruttan V W. 1971. Agricultural development: An International Perspective. First Edition. Second Edition, 1985. Baltimore. Johns Hopkins University Press. Hazell P and Fan S. 1998. Balancing regional development priorities to achieve sustainable and equitable agricultural growth. Paper prepared for the AAEA International Conference on Agricultural Intensification, Economic Development and the Environment, July 31-August 1, Salt Lake City. Place F and Hazell P. 1993. Productivity effects of indigenous land tenure systems in sub-Saharan Africa. American Journal of Agricultural Economics 75: 10-19. Sanders J H. 1989. Agricultural research and cereal technology introduction in Burkina Faso and Niger. Agricultural Systems 20: 139-154. Sayer J A and Campbell B. 2001. Research to integrate productivity enhancement, environmental protection and human development. Conservation Ecology 5(2): 32 [On line] URL: http/www.consecol.org/vol5/iss2/art 32. Wiebe K, Soule M J and Schimmelpfennig D E. 2001. Agricultural productivity for sustainable food security in subSaharan Africa. In: L Zepeda (ed.). Agricultural Investment and Productivity in Developing Countries. Rome. FAO Economic and Social Development Paper 148. pp. 55-74. Williams T O. 1993. Livestock pricing policies in sub-Saharan Africa: objectives, instruments and impact in five countries. Agricultural Economics 8: 139-159.

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EAST AND SOUTHERN AFRICA (ESA)
Targeted farming populations in ESA The main beneficiaries from research are expected to be smallholder farmers in the target countries in ESA. Sorghum and millet are grown in semi-arid areas with low agricultural potential and a high incidence of poverty. Table 2-17 shows the rural population and the incidence of poverty for the area planted to the three target crops in ESA. Approximately 42% of the rural population in the areas where these crops are grown live below $1 per day and 43% of children are stunted. Since these populations live where sorghum and millets are grown, higher productivity of these crops is expected to contribute to poverty reduction in these areas. Table 2-17. Target populations, ESA
Sorghum Country Kenya Tanzania Zimbabwe Uganda Ethiopia Malawi Mozambique Eritrea Sudan Namibia Total/Average Area (000 ha) 122 601 175 211 924 54 335 179 3,805 20 6,428 Millets Area (000 ha) 81 198 152 292 345 34 43 2 1,740 245 3,132 Barley Area (000 ha) 22 1 5 822 0 45 0 894 Rural Population (000) 27,135 37,087 10,660 24,365 67,029 10,363 17,919 4,394 33,021 1,501 233,475 Rural population in <1.25 $ /day 5,273 28,237 45 12,991 25,672 7,586 12,535 16 29 349 92,734 < 2 $ /day 10,494 29,326 71 17,237 52,130 9,235 15,098 32 42 444 134,109 Prevalence stunting (%) 38% 47% 27% 40% 51% 48% 57% 42% 45% 31% 43%

Source: HarvestChoice database

Benefits to smallholder farmers will come primarily by improving household food security through higher yields. Higher production will also reduce the demand for purchased sorghum and millets by food deficit households. In addition, consumers are expected to benefit from greater availability of sorghum and millets available for sale. Both sorghum and millet in ESA are widely sold. Higher productivity is expected to increase the quantity marketed and extend the availability of the crop for consumers. The main purchasers are expected to be food-deficit rural households, and urban consumers who rely on sorghum and millet purchases as a major item of food expenditure. The targeted population expected to benefit directly from research was determined using the methods described in Appendix 3. For ESA, the number of smallholder households expected to benefit directly from the projected increase in production in ESA is estimated at 45 million (Table 2-18). This represents the number of farm households that can meet at least 30% of their cereal consumption needs from these target crops. Of this, 30 million will benefit from higher production of sorghum and 15 million from higher production of finger millet. CRP 3.6 did not estimate benefits to urban or rural consumers from greater availability of sorghum or millet. Evidence is available for selected countries. In Ethiopia sorghum consumption per capita by urban households averages only 9 kg/yr and sorghum accounts for only 3% of consumption expenditure by the urban poor (Berhane, 2011). In Kenya, 65% of urban households consume finger millet (39 kg/adult equivalent per year) and low-income urban households consume the same quantity as others (Macharia et al, in progress). In some cases, therefore, poorer urban consumers may also benefit from greater availability of these cereals. Studies to quantify consumer demand for sorghum and millets in ESA will be a major research focus of the CRP.

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Table 2-18. Smallholder households expected to meet 30% of consumption needs from each crop.
Country Kenya Tanzania Zimbabwe Uganda Ethiopia Malawi Mozambique Eritrea Sudan Namibia ESA Region Sorghum 3,812,646 602,810 4,513,766 367,649 1,015,250 1,024,272 19,086,767 30,423,160 Millet 236,337 1,289,284 1,161,802 1991728 1,373,378 3,930,721 4,788,371 646159 15,417,780

Analysis of barley trends done country by country in ESA In East Africa Ethiopia in the largest barley cultivation country (1.1 million hectares), followed by Eritrea and Yemen. The area in the region has been stable in the last 10 years, with small oscillations in the harvested area mostly due to market as well as climatic factors. With the high increase in malt product consumption and the intention of the private sector to produce malting barley closer to the demand, the area it is expected to increase in the following years. Some of that tendency is already observed in 2010 in Kenya and Ethiopia (Table 2-19) Table 2-19. Evolution of barley area by countries East Africa and Yemen (hectares)
Region Country 2001 East and south Ethiopia Eritrea Africa Yemen and Yemen
Kenya Zimbabwe Zambia Tanzania Total East, South Africa and Yemen 938010 48381 41278 28999 4554 2400 2000 1065622

2002
821383 40437 40112 29702 3000 2400 2000 939034

2003
1075437 43965 37755 8930 6000 2400 2000 1176487

2004
1254786 51926 34998 14344 5000 2280 1775 1365109

Year 2005
1208631 49918 34515 12784 5575 2224 1631 1315278

2006
996947 45000 36985 12784 5575 2224 1631 1101146

2007 1019310 44440 42900 15000 9000 1220 2125
1133995

2008 984942 28524 37326 14677 10320 1220 2025
1079034

2009 977757 56857 32330 13694 12077 1400 2370 1096485

2010 1129110 58000 47458 25123 13000 2600 2400 1277691

Average 1040631 46745 38566 17604 7410 2037 1996 1,154,988

Analysis of sorghum and pearl millet trends done country by country in ESA Cereal production in ESA is dominated by maize, which accounts for 60% of cereal production (2005-2007). The remaining 40% comes from five cereal crops. In order of importance, these are wheat, sorghum, rice, millet, and barley. Together, sorghum and millet account for 12% of total cereal production. Of this, sorghum contributes 9% and millet 3%. Table 2-18 shows average area, production, and yield for sorghum by country for the 3-year period 20072009. Sorghum is produced primarily in East Africa (including Sudan), which accounts for 97% of production. Southern Africa accounts for only 3%. Sorghum production is unevenly distributed. Within the region, four countries account for the bulk of sorghum production – Sudan (48%), Ethiopia (27%), Tanzania (9%), and Uganda (5%). Yields average only 472 kg/ha. Yields vary widely between countries. Yields in Sudan, the region’s biggest producer, average 845 kg/ha, compared to 1483 kg/ha in Uganda and 1611 kg/ha in Ethiopia. This suggests a significant yield gap that can be reduced by improved varieties and crop management practices. Table 2-19 shows average area, production, and yield for millet by country for the 3-year period 2007-2009. Millet is produced primarily in East Africa (including Sudan), which accounts for 99% of production. Millets

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are more evenly spread than sorghum. The biggest producers are Uganda (15%), Sudan (14%) and Ethiopia (9%). Yields average only 536 kg/ha. Again, yields vary widely between countries. Yields in Uganda, the region’s biggest producer, average 1750 kg/ha but yields in the second biggest producer, Sudan, average only 306 kg/ha. Figure 2-5 shows the contribution of sorghum and millet to total cereal consumption by country. Figures were not available for Sudan. Countries were arranged in rank order of share of sorghum to total production. Sorghum contributes more than 20% to cereal production in four countries – Eritrea, Rwanda, Ethiopia, and Botswana. Millet contributes 20% of cereal production in two countries – Uganda and Namibia. In other ESA countries, sorghum and millet contribute only a minor share of total cereal production.
100% 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0%

Sorghum

Millet

Maize

Wheat

Rice (Milled Equivalent)

Barley

Figure 2-5. Share of sorghum and millets in total cereal production, ESA, 2005-2007 Trends Trends in cereal production show a positive trend for both sorghum and millet (Figures 2-6 and 2-7). From 1961 to 2009, production of sorghum in ESA more than doubled, rising from 2.4 to 5.7 million mt. This represents an annual growth rate of 4% per year (Table 2-20). The period 1961-2009 saw an increase in the growth rate in production. Growth over the period 1984-2009 averaged 6% per year compared to 4% for the period as a whole. Growth in production was concentrated in the period after 1990. Sorghum production rose from 3 million mt in 1990 to 5.7 million mt. This represents about half the growth in sorghum production. Millet production rose more slowly than sorghum, from 1.1 million mt to 1.9 million mt. This represents an annual growth rate of 5% (Appendix Table 2-21). The period 1961-2009 saw an increase in rate of production growth. Growth over the period 1984-2009 averaged 9% per year compared to 5% over the period as a whole. Growth in production was concentrated in the period after 1990. Millet production rose from 1.2 million mt in 1990 to 1.9 million mt in 2009. This represents over 80% of the growth in millet production. Yields of both sorghum and millet rose between 1961 and 2009 (Figure 2-8). The average yield of sorghum in ESA rose from 1.4 t/ha in 1961-63 to 2.8 t/ha in 2008-2010. Overall, sorghum yields rose by 3% per year between 1961 and 2009. Yield growth accelerated in the 1980s. Annual growth in yields averaged 5% per year between 1984 and 2009 (Table 2-22). By contrast, millet yields showed no growth between 1961 and 2009. Positive yield growth in East Africa (1%) was cancelled out by negative yield growth in Southern Africa. The period 1984-2009 saw a positive trend in millet yields, which rose by 2% per year.

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For both crops, the growth rate in area exceeded the growth rate in yields. Over the period 1961-2009, the area planted to sorghum rose by 4% per year, while the area planted to millet rose by 3% per year. Thus, expansion in production was driven primarily by growth in area rather than growth in yield. Only in the period 1984-2009 did the growth rate in sorghum yields equal the growth rate in area planted. In the case of millet, however, the growth rate in area planted for the period 1984-2009 was still twice the growth rate in yield.
Millions 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 1961 1963 1965 1967 1969 1971 1973 1975 1977 1979 1981 1983 1985 1987 1989 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2005 2007 2007 2009 2009

Barley
Source: FAOSTAT

Maize

Millet

Rice, paddy

Sorghum

Wheat

Figure 2-6. Trends in cereal production, all cereals, ESA 1961-2009
7000 6000 5000 kg/ha 4000 3000 2000 1000 0 1961 1963 1965 1967 1969 1971 1973 1975 1977 1979 1981 1983 1985 1987 1989 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003

Maize
Source: FAOSTAT

Millet

Sorghum

Figure 2-7. Trends in production of cereals other than maize, ESA, 1961-2009

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7000 6000 5000 kg/ha 4000 3000 2000 1000 0 1961 1963 1965 1967 1969 1971 1973 1975 1977 1979 1981 1983 1985 1987 1989 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009

Maize
Source: FAOSTAT

Millet

Sorghum

Figure 2-8. Trends in yield for maize, sorghum, and millet, ESA, 1961-2009 Table 2-20. Sorghum area, production and yield (2007-2009)
Country Botswana Burundi Eritrea Ethiopia Kenya Lesotho Malawi Mozambique Rwanda Somalia South Africa Sudan Tanzania Uganda Zambia Zimbabwe Eastern Africa and Sudan Southern Africa Total Area Harvested (Ha) 2007-2009 36,252 63,667 261,055 1,537,720 144,254 28,439 74,677 412,333 150,623 311,667 80,433 6,598,250 863,359 321,333 28,392 272,738 11,042,708 161,755 11,204,463 (%) 0% 1% 2% 14% 1% 0% 1% 4% 1% 3% 1% 59% 8% 3% 0% 2% 99% 1% 100 Production (tons) 2007-2009 29,280 82,186 143,228 2,486,970 100,227 9,392 61,907 246,936 160,833 80,375 235,833 4,353,333 847,195 476,667 14,870 73,733 8,797,792 279,217 9,077,009 (%) 0% 1% 2% 27% 1% 0% 1% 3% 2% 1% 3% 48% 9% 5% 0% 1% 97% 3% 100 Yield (Kg/Ha) 2007-2009 836 1,291 526 1,611 680 369 829 591 1,069 268 2,907 660 986 1,483 545 277 1,076 1,719 845

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Table 2-21. Millets area, production and yield (2007-2009)
Country Botswana Burundi Eritrea Ethiopia Kenya Malawi Mozambique Namibia Rwanda South Africa Sudan Tanzania Uganda Zambia Zimbabwe Eastern Africa and Sudan Southern Africa Total Area Harvested (Ha) 2007-2009 4,584 10,233 76,997 393,813 95,282 43,801 75,667 212,907 5,460 13,913 2,337,640 297,396 448,333 45,038 206,738 6,782,098 231,403 7,013,501 (%) 0% 0% 1% 6% 1% 1% 1% 3% 0% 0% 33% 4% 6% 1% 3% 97% 3% 100% Production (tons) 2007-2009 1,059 11,233 30,903 480,480 70,687 30,329 32,727 39,088 5,371 6,988 715,667 214,774 785,333 34,869 40,266 5,160,125 47,135 5,207,260 (%) 0% 0% 1% 9% 1% 1% 1% 1% 0% 0% 14% 4% 15% 1% 1% 99% 1% 100% Yield (Kg/Ha) 2007-2009 222 1,098 377 1,216 725 692 428 188 983 506 306 727 1,750 780 195 1,022 208 536

Table 2-22. Annual growth rates in area, production, and yield in ESA (1961-2009)
Millet Country Area Botswana Burundi Eritrea Ethiopia Kenya Lesotho Madagascar Malawi Mozambique Namibia Rwanda Somalia South Africa Sudan Swaziland Uganda Tanzania Zambia Zimbabwe Eastern Africa Southern Africa ESA 2% 1% 8% -1% 4% 2% 4% 6% -1% 11% -3% 10% -1% 9% 3% -2% 1% -2% 3% -2% 2% 0% 2% -1% -1% 3% 5% 6% 2% 1% -1% -2% 4% 1% 5% 3% 0% 1% -1% 1% -1% 0% -2% 3% -2% 11% -1% 5% -1% 13% -1% 4% 0% -1% 7% 18% 3% 6% 9% 35% 0% 25% 1% 3% -2% 7% 10% 10% 8% 1% 9% 8% 4% 3% 0% 0% -1% 2% -1% 0% -1% 8% 10% 1984-2009 Prod 6% 0% -1% 20% 18% Yield 10% 0% 1% 5% 2% Area 35% 0% -1% 8% 1% 1961-2009 Prod 23% 1% -1% 20% -1% Yield -1% 0% 1% 5% -1% Area -1% 1% -5% 16% 0% -3% 0% 10% 2% -2% -1% -1% -3% 4% -3% 2% 4% 2% 3% 2% -3% 2% 1984-2009 Prod 22% 3% 2% 23% 0% -3% -1% 13% 3% -1% 0% -2% -2% 11% -3% 4% 2% 2% 1% 4% -2% 6% Yield 29% 1% 40% 2% 0% 0% -1% 1% 0% 0% 1% -2% 4% 4% -3% 1% -1% 0% -1% 1% 3% 5% Area -2% 4% -5% 16% 0% -2% -1% 5% 4% 1% 1% 0% -2% 7% -2% 0% 7% -1% 3% 3% -2% 3% Sorghum 1961-2009 Prod -1% 6% 2% 23% -1% -2% -1% 6% 3% 1% 2% -1% 0% 4% -2% 2% 6% -1% 0% 7% -1% 4% Yield 4% 1% 40% 2% -1% -1% -1% 1% 0% 0% 1% -1% 5% -1% 0% 1% 0% 0% -1% 2% 3% 3%

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Demand Very few studies exist for ESA of the demand for sorghum and millet grain relative to other cereal crops. The IFPRI Impact model was used to estimate future demand in ESA to 2020. The model is calibrated to the base year 2000 and projections reflect current trends in population, income, and urbanization. Table 2-23 shows results based on current trends or a ‘business as usual’ scenario without changes to supply or demand drivers. In the short to medium term, ESA will see strong growth in demand for both crops. Demand for sorghum will reach 11 million mt by 2020, an increase of 22% over the year 2011. The bulk of this demand (88%) will come from just four countries – Sudan (45%), Ethiopia (25%), Tanzania (10%) and Uganda (8%). Demand for finger millet will reach 4 million mt by 2020, an increase of 25% over the year 2011. Again, the bulk of demand will come from just four countries – Sudan (29%), Uganda (28%), Ethiopia (17%), and Tanzania (12%). Two studies are available that explore demand at country level. Preliminary evidence for Kenya shows limited demand for sorghum outside centers of production but that millet is widely consumed in both rural and urban areas. The share of urban households buying millet is the same as for maize (65%). In Ethiopia, by contrast, urban demand for sorghum is limited and consumption is restricted to rural areas. Millets may appeal to urban consumers because of their high energy and nutritional value. However, demand for sorghum by urban consumers may be limited because it has no advantages over maize. Urbanization may therefore affect demand for each crop differently.

Table 2-23. Projected demand for sorghum and millet, ESA, 2011-2020 (000mt)
Sorghum Countries Eritrea Ethiopia Kenya Malawi Mozambique Namibia Sudan Tanzania Uganda Zambia Zimbabwe ESA Source: IMPACT model 2000 187 1,609 100 38 291 7 3,253 656 397 28 97 6,661 2011 243 2,076 124 45 415 8 3,974 789 564 37 68 8,343 2020 321 2,745 181 59 548 12 4,888 1,031 869 56 88 10,799 3% 25% 2% 1% 5% 0% 45% 10% 8% 1% 1% 100% 2000 30 332 48 20 51 65 614 259 565 54 44 2,082 Millet 2011 41 455 61 24 73 74 827 321 750 72 32 2,730 2020 59 636 88 32 96 90 1,053 424 1,039 107 42 3,666 2% 17% 2% 1% 3% 2% 29% 12% 28% 3% 1% 100%

Price and income are significant determinants of demand. Preliminary evidence for Kenya shows that millet consumption rises with income, but no significant relationship was found for income and demand for sorghum (Macharia et al, 2012). Evidence for Ethiopia gives a price elasticity for sorghum of -0.7, implying inelastic demand (i.e., a 1% rise in price reduces demand by 0.7%), and an income elasticity of demand 0.8 (i.e., increase of 1% in income associated with 0.8% in demand). However, in urban areas the income elasticity of demand for sorghum is negative (-0.8) implying that sorghum is an inferior good for urban consumers. For millet (included in ‘other cereals’) the price elasticity of demand is -1.074 implying that a 1% increase in price will reduce consumption by more than 1%, while the income elasticity of demand is -6.7, showing that millet is an inferior good. This result is driven by urban demand (Tafere, et al., 2010). These results suggest that price and income elasticities for sorghum and millet vary regionally, and between urban and rural, reflecting differences in consumer preferences and opportunity costs.

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Consumption Tables 2-24 and 2-25 show the trend in share of sorghum and millet in per capita cereal consumption for the period 1961-2007. Sorghum accounts for 18% of cereal consumption in Eastern Africa but only 3% in Southern Africa. Sorghum’s share of cereal consumption has declined over time, from 20% in 1961-65, but is rising since the 1980s. Sorghum accounts for over half of cereal consumption in Eritrea, Sudan, and Rwanda, and for almost 40% of consumption in Ethiopia. In the case of millet, the crop accounts for only 6% of per capita cereal consumption in Eastern Africa, and only 1% in Southern Africa. Millet’s share in total consumption in Eastern Africa has declined over time, from 12% in 1961-65. Millet accounts for a significant share of consumption in four countries in ESA, including Uganda (35%), Sudan (18%), and Eritrea (12%). Table 2-24. Share (% of per capita consumption) of sorghum in total cereal consumption (1961-07)
Country Eritrea Sudan Rwanda Botswana Ethiopia Mozambique Uganda Tanzania Lesotho Burundi Zimbabwe Namibia Kenya Swaziland Malawi South Africa Zambia Madagascar Eastern Africa Southern Africa 30% 17% 10% 32% 4% 5% 4% 8% 34% 3% 5% 5% 3% 20% 7% 33% 19% 9% 27% 3% 9% 5% 7% 12% 4% 4% 4% 2% 18% 6% 27% 15% 11% 13% 6% 4% 6% 2% 4% 1% 2% 1% 1% 16% 3% 79% 77% 57% 78% 65% 51% 84% 64% 27% 1961-1965 1971-1975 1981-1985 1991-1995 65% 87% 40% 40% 32% 16% 12% 11% 8% 4% 3% 4% 2% 1% 1% 2% 2% 1% 13% 3% 2001-2005 84% 81% 57% 41% 34% 11% 10% 9% 8% 7% 4% 4% 2% 1% 1% 1% 1% 0% 14% 3% 2005-2007 82% 79% 56% 39% 38% 13% 12% 12% 8% 7% 6% 4% 3% 3% 2% 2% 2% 1% 18% 3%

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Table 2-25. Share (% of per capita consumption) of millets in total cereal consumption (1961-2007)
Country Namibia Uganda Sudan Eritrea Ethiopia Tanzania Zimbabwe Kenya Mozambique Burundi Malawi Rwanda Zambia Botswana South Africa Eastern Africa Southern Africa 8% 27% 6% 2% 2% 0% 2% 4% 0% 0% 12% 1% 6% 15% 5% 2% 2% 0% 2% 5% 3% 0% 9% 1% 8% 7% 1% 1% 2% 1% 1% 0% 1% 0% 7% 1% 1961-1965 28% 58% 20% 1971-1975 37% 48% 20% 1981-1985 39% 50% 15% 1991-1995 32% 43% 11% 25% 4% 4% 6% 1% 2% 2% 1% 0% 1% 1% 0% 6% 1% 2001-2005 38% 33% 16% 8% 5% 3% 3% 1% 1% 1% 1% 2% 1% 0% 0% 5% 1% 2005-2007 35% 35% 18% 12% 6% 3% 3% 2% 2% 1% 1% 1% 1% 0% 0% 6% 1%

Major bottlenecks to technology transfer – barriers to adoption Despite its significant contribution to the economies, agricultural productivity in ESA remains low, and its growth is largely constrained by both supply side and demand side constraints. Supply side constraints include, lack of improved genetic resources, lack of awareness of improved varieties, lack of access to fertilizer and related inputs, low human capital and lack of access to credit, among others. Currently since the 1970s, more than 26 pearl millet and 71 sorghum varieties have been released and are currently available in about 16 countries in Eastern and Southern Africa (Table 2-26). Most releases for sorghum occurred in Zambia, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Sudan, Kenya and Zimbabwe. As for pearl millet most releases occurred in Namibia, Zambia, Zimbabwe and Mozambique.

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Table 2-26. Number of varieties released in Eastern and Southern Africa during 1976-2010
Country Botswana Burundi Eritrea Ethiopia Kenya Malawi Mozambique Namibia Rwanda Somalia Sudan Swaziland Tanzania Uganda Zambia Zimbabwe Total Source: ICRISAT database Sorghum 4 2 7 8 7 2 3 1 5 3 6 3 3 2 9 6 71 4 4 26 2 2 1 2 3 4 2 Pearl Millet 2 Total 6 2 9 8 8 4 6 5 5 3 8 3 5 2 13 10 97

However, despite such releases, their adoption remains low. The low adoption has been attributed to a number of factors. Below we provide detailed explanations of some of the constraints to adoption. 1. Lack of Human capital and weak breeding programs and genetic resources Human capital is viewed as the most strategic factor in agricultural development, especially as new technologies emerge; markets demand higher quality, safer products and timely delivery as consumer requirements. In the ESA region, a major constraint to technological improvement is the lack of strong breeding programs for dryland cereals. The lack of breeders for dryland cereals has consequently led to the release of very few improved varieties of pear millet and sorghum and in some countries (e.g. Tanzania) no varieties of finger millet have been released. Consistent with this observation, Mark Erbaugh et al (2007) reports that in Tanzania, the main constraint faced by seed breeders was reduced funding for sorghum breeding research. Furthermore, low staffing and responsibility for multiple crops undermined seed certification efficiency. Mgonja et al (2007) expresses that there are important gaps in the region’s germplasm (assembly, resources and enhancement, breeding) collections, in cultivated varieties as well as wild species. The available germplasm also needs to be more fully characterized and utilized in breeding programs. This leads to very few released improved varieties for promotion and dissemination. 2. Lack of awareness/knowledge of improved varieties Awareness of a new technology is an important precondition to technology adoption as it generates its demand, which leads to adoption (Rogers 1995). Classical adoption literature states that the perceived attributes of the technology condition adoption behavior of farmers. Once exposed to (made aware of) the technology, farmers gather information about technology attributes, which will guide them in deciding whether or not to adopt it. As reported by Ashby and Sperling (1995) with full information about a technology, farmers may subjectively evaluate the technology differently than scientists. Thus awareness is an important precondition for adoption to occur. Studies conducted in Tanzania and Ethiopia (Schipmann, Muange, Orr and Mafuru 2011) indicated that the majority of farmers are unaware of improved varieties of sorghum. As a consequence the sample adoption rates for improved varieties are low. In Kenya, Okuthe et al. (2011), expresses that farmer’s lack of awareness of improved varieties act as deterrent to the adoption of improved sorghum varieties and technologies. Other related problems included the lack of where to secure inputs and where to market the crop. Low level of frequency of extension contacts with farmers was also a common problem, which hindered faster rate of adoption.

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3. Low availability of seed for improved varieties due to underdeveloped seed systems About 90% of farmers in SSA overwhelmingly rely on the informal seed sector (Gordon 2000) where seed is procured from previous harvest, farmer-to-farmer exchange, or local grain market. The small formal seed sector has been concentrating on hybrids and high-value exportable crops favoring large/commercial farmers (Venkatesan 1994; Dimithe et al. 1998; Tripp 2000). Further expansions to extend the supply of commercial seed to the rural areas have been challenged by weak supply networks and inadequate coordination between players involving seed production, multiplication, distribution, and marketing. High transaction costs in seed production, certification, and distribution continue to pose major problems for the development of seed systems in SSA. Consistent with these observations, Mark Erbaugh et al., (2007) express that in Tanzania the main constraint faced by seed multipliers for sorghum was weather variability that hampered improved seed multiplication and production. A related problem is that seed companies and seed distributors reported low demand for improved sorghum seed and that there was poor transportation infrastructure. 4. Weather related risk-factors and lack of adaptable technologies In some cases farmers want to use modern varieties to mitigate moderate risks. However, due to extreme weather events, most farmers are unable to use modern varieties that are not adaptable to the extreme weather conditions due to risk aversion. For example, Cavatassia et al., (2010) finds that in Ethiopia the adoption of modern varieties of sorghum does not necessarily represent an effective means of coping with drought. They find that modern variety growers are more likely to be affected by sorghum failure once controlling for exogenous production factors. Similar findings are reported by Wanyera (2007), who expresses that, in Uganda, drought, high temperature and nutrient stresses are a major constraint to finger millet production. Mgonja et al., (2007) also report that in East Africa there are few varieties that are adapted to specific production zones and this limits productivity. 5. Pests, diseases and weeds Pest, diseases and weeds are a major constraint in crop development and hence productivity. In Uganda, Wanyera (2007) reports that crop damage by insects is minimal but pests such as birds and striga weed are a constant serious threat to the production of finger millet. Finger millet blast disease is by far the most devastating, causing over 50% yield loss 6. Lack of labor Agricultural labor market imperfections continue to constrain productivity in the region. Wanyera (2007) reports that in Uganda, though the major millet producer in ESA, farmers face serious labor constraints. Excessive labor requirements in finger millet production especially during weeding limits farmers from expanding their land area under millet and affect their participation in other productivity activities as household level as they have to spend more time during weeding. 7. Low soil fertility Poor soil fertility remains a big constraint to the productivity of dryland cereals and yet farmers rarely apply fertilizer on such crops. Baseline studies conducted in Tanzania under the HOPE project, for example, have shown that farmers rarely apply fertilizer to sorghum or millet. 8. Lack of access to agricultural and business services and markets Improving smallholder farmers’ access to agricultural and business services is one of the major challenges facing governments in the developing world. In most countries in ESA farmers continue to lack access to output markets, which negatively affects technology adoption, intensification and productivity. As reported by Rohrbach and Kiriwaggulu (2007), a lack of access to commercial markets has limited farmer interest in improving the management of pearl millet. As a result, average pearl millet yields have changed little over the past 15 years. Cavatassia et al. (2010) also finds that In Ethiopia access to markets and social capital discourages farmers’ from adopting modern varieties of sorghum. 9. Low processing potential In Uganda Wamala (2007) reports that the Finger millet processing potential is extremely low and is hampered by several economic, biophysical, cultural, technological and policy constraints. This discourages farmers from production as it reduces demand for finger millet. Consistent with this notion, Okwadi (2007)
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expresses that in Uganda, processing of finger millet is constrained by low production and productivity of the crop at farm level, mistrust and suspicion among the actors and unscrupulous activities like adding soil/stones to finger millet, tampering with weights and measures and adulterating products with undeclared mixtures New and innovative approaches to overcome constraints Technological options for improved agricultural productivity A number of improved technologies are now available to farmers in ESA. The returns from these are not spectacular. A literature review identified 69 improved crop management technologies that had been tested in farmers’ fields (Harriss and Orr, 2012). These include interventions for a range of dryland crops, not just sorghum and millet. The median income from improved technologies was $268/ha/season, an increase of $184/ha/season over existing technology. The median cost benefit ratio was 2.1 meaning that farmers recovered $2 for every $1 invested. A cost-benefit ratio of 2 is generally regarded as the minimum required for adoption, but this may be higher for marginal regions and for poorer farmers. This suggests that while improved varieties of sorghum and millet can improve household food security and nutrition they will not be sufficient on their own to lift smallholders above the poverty line. That said, a significant yield gap exists for sorghum and millet in ESA and most smallholders do not fully capture the benefits from improved technology. In the case of sorghum, average farmers’ yield is estimated at 0.9 t/ha while the 5% best farmers obtain a yield of 1.8 t/ha, implying a yield gap of 54% (Larsson, 2001). A number of innovative approaches are required to overcome adoption constraints for poor and vulnerable farmers. These include: 1. Improved targeting New global databases and developments in crop modeling allow greater precision in targeting improved varieties of sorghum and millet to areas where they have an agronomic and economic advantage over maize. Targeting improved sorghum varieties to areas where drought makes it more profitable than maize will help to focus research and extension efforts on areas with the highest payoff. Mapping of target areas based on climatic risk of drought, and simulating crop yields for drought years in these areas, will help develop a decision-support system for growers in marginal environments, and enhance resilience. 2. Technical breakthroughs Biotechnology has the potential to accelerate development of improved sorghum and millet varieties, through identification of molecular markers that allow identification and movement of desirable traits. Current efforts focus on blast resistance in millets and resistance to Striga in sorghum and millets. Combining multiple resistance genes in one variety will make resistance more durable. Sorghum varieties with improved resistance to Striga asiatica have been identified. Integrated Striga Management (ISM) that combines resistant varieties with improved cultural practices has shown promising results and is being scaled up in ESA. Striga resistance is now being incorporated into local germplasm. Seed coating for Striga resistance (as with IR-maize) is another breakthrough that shows good potential. 3. Introduction of small-scale seed and fertilizer packages Typically improved seed is available only in large packs (5 kg) that limit purchases by poorer farmers. Small seed packs (500 grams) have demonstrated their potential to overcome this constraint and increase adoption. In Kenya, small seed packs for beans, maize, and fertilizer have been pioneered by NGOs. Purchasers of FIPS fertilizer minipacks (1-2 kg) are primarily women, and first-time fertilizer users. Nine in 10 users reported that minipacks doubled staple food consumption (maize, sorghum, or cassava) from 292 to 431 g/day (Blackie and Albright, 2005). Similarly, the Real IPM company (Kenya) promotes Gro-Plus, a small pack of high-quality soluble phosphorus, which is added to seed that has been soaked (primed) overnight before sowing. One pack can treat 2.2 kg of seed. The Gro-Plus concept can be adapted for Striga management. A StopStriga pack consists of two sachets, one containing soluble nutrients and one containing a mycoherbicide, instruction leaflets on seed priming and recommendations about good agricultural practice. In the first instance these inputs are provided free – while the farmers evaluate the product – but after this initial trial, farmers will pay for further packs (RIU, 2012). The introduction of small seed packs for
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sorghum and millet would encourage wider adoption. A modeling exercise made for CRP 3.6 suggested that 1 mt of improved seed, distributed in 500 g seed packs could (assuming 75% adoption and farmer-to-farmer exchange) reach 2000 farmers within five years. 4. Breeding for stover quality Sorghum is increasingly used for animal feed as agriculture in ESA becomes more intensive. Overall, stover use accounts for 26% of the value of the sorghum crop and for 37% of crop value in Ethiopia (Wortman et al, 2009). The price of stover relative to grain is expected to rise as pasture becomes scarcer. In South Asia, the value of stover is comparable with the value of sorghum grain. Research has shown that there is no trade-off between grain yield and stover quality. Improving stover quality would increase the attractiveness of improved varieties for smallholders. A modeling exercise made for CRP 3.6 suggested that (under reasonable assumptions) the value of stover could triple in ESA by 2020. The inclusion of stover quality in breeding objectives for sorghum would add even greater value to the crop. 5. Market linkages Demand is growing for sorghum grain as a substitute for barley in commercial beer brewing. Demand is also growing for millet to produce flour and weaning foods for urban consumers. However, high transaction costs limit the ability of smallholders to benefit from this growing market and obtain a higher share of the final price. Infrastructure development will reduce transport costs and increase the share of growers with access to this market. However, collective action is also required to allow smallholders to market in bulk, improve quality, and obtain a higher share of the final price. Evidence from Ethiopia shows cooperative marketing of staple food crops raised farmgate prices by 7% (Bernard et al., 2010). Additional challenges include the absence of recognized quality standards that would encourage producers to add value and obtain a price premium by sorting and cleaning grain. Consequently, processors rather than growers capture the quality premium. Linking farmers directly with processors that will pay a premium for quality allows farmers to capture this premium. Several innovative approaches are underway to link poorer smallholders with markets. They include the LEAD Project in Uganda (linking finger millet growers in Uganda with Nairobi millers) and SMART Logistics that links sorghum growers in Kenya with East African Breweries Limited (EABL). Linking research directly to these development initiatives will allow breeders to meet market requirements and directly benefit poorer smallholders. 6. Market information systems The cell phone revolution offers new opportunities to provide smallholders with market information on prices and buyers. The East African Grain Council (EABC) provides SMS services on weekly maize prices for farmer groups and private buyers. ICRISAT is partnering with EAGC to study the feasibility of providing a messaging service for sorghum and millet producer groups and buyers. Better information on prices is expected to strengthen negotiating powers for smallholders and higher prices will increase the incentives for growers to enter the market. 7. Policy and regulatory changes Policies that reduce barriers to regional trade would create market opportunities for finger millet within the region. Currently, Tanzania prohibits export of finger millet, forcing millers in Kenya to import from Uganda. Price policies that favour maize production distort incentives for producers and encourage maize production in marginal environments that are better suited to sorghum and/or millets. ESA needs to harmonize seed policies that remove barriers to seed exchange between countries. The seed and plant variety protection laws have been either changed or enacted in Tanzania, Rwanda and Uganda and technical agreements to ease variety release and seed certification negotiated. Compulsory certification for all crops be abandoned and that a two-tier seed multiplication and distribution system be put in place instead. At the first level, foundation seed would be multiplied to certified seed under the stringent and highly controlled conditions currently required by seed authorities and made available for direct sale. In the second stage, seed from the first level would be bulked by individual farmers and farmer groups in local villages under inspection by extension workers, and marketed as standard seed. Removing compulsory seed certification and restrictive trade licensing requirements will permit formal production of quality open
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pollinated maize, sorghum and groundnut seed by smallholders and sale among neighboring farmers. In addition, seed companies will be able to involve smallholders in contract seed production more easily. Seed markets can be developed by discontinuing the direct distribution of relief seed for commodities that are available commercially and instead provide farmers with vouchers to purchase seed locally. Second, finance could be made available to enable commodity traders to set up seed outgrower schemes under which the traders would supply improved seed, other inputs, extension advice and supervision to farmer associations. Farmers could repay the inputs with a specified amount of seed grain at harvest time and retain the option of selling the crop to the trader or on the open market. More experienced associations could eventually apply for finance as a group, contract for extension assistance and certification inspections as necessary, and offer the seed product for sale through the national commodity exchange. Third, seed companies can reduce their costs and risk by actively marketing the byproducts of seed processing 8. Partnerships New development partners in ESA (AGRA, PASS, the Kilimo Trust, HarvestPlus, P4P, as well as NGOs and private companies seeking new sources of supply) have strengthened the ability of ICRISAT and NARS to link research and development. These new partnerships are an integral part of ICRISAT’s research program in ESA. Innovation Platforms (IPs) that bring together partners in the value-chain can identify ways to improve access to seed and develop a reliable supply for buyers. ICRISAT/ILRI have used IPs to improve livestock marketing for smallholders in ESA to provide income for purchase of improved seed and fertilizer. IPs for sorghum and millet will be piloted in Tanzania as part of the CRP. References
Ashby, J.A., Sperling, L. (1995). "Institutionalizing participatory, client driven research and technology development in agriculture." Development and Change 26, 753-770. Berhane, G., Paulos, Z., Tafere, K., and Tamiru, S. (2011). Foodgrain Consumption and Calorie Intake Patterns in Ethiopia. Ethiopia Strategy Support Program II. Working Paper No. 23. International Food Policy Research Institute. Bernard, T., Spielman, D. J., Taffesse, A. S., and Gabre-Madhin, E. Z. (2010). Cooperatives for Staple Crop Marketing. Evidence from Ethiopia. IFPRI research Monograph 164. (Washington, DC: IFPRI). Blackie, M. and Albright, K. (2005). Lesson learning study of the Farm Inputs promotion (FIPS) project in Kenya (with a special emphasis on public-private partnerships for input provision and possibilities for regional upscaling). Crop Protection Programme. Department for International Development (UK). Dimithe, G., Debrah, S. K., Bumb, B. L. and Gregory, D. I. (1998). Improving Agricultural Input Supply Systems in SubSaharan Africa: A Review of Literature, Paper Series IFDC-P-22, IFDC, Muscle Shoals, ALabama, U.S.A. 48pp Gordon, A. (2000). Improving Smallholder Access to Purchased inputs in Sub-Saharan Africa. Policy Series 7. Natural Resources Institute. University of Greenwich, Greenwich, London. 52pp Harris, D. and Orr., A. (2012). Is Dryland Agriculture Really a Pathway from Poverty? Agricultural Systems (under review). Kisandu, DB W Ntundu, WY Marandu, and MA Mgonja (2000) Germplasm Collection and Evaluation of Finger Millet in Tanzania: Challenges and Opportunities for Improved Production: Accessed http://www.icrisat.org/Publications/ EBooksOnlinePublications/Publications-2007/J389_07%20FM%20workshop%20proceedings2.pdf Larsson, R. (2001). Crisis and Potential in Smallholder Food Production – Evidence from Micro-Level. Pp. 113-137 in G. Djurfeldt, H. Holmen, M. Jirstrom, and R. Larsson (eds), The African Food Crisis. Lessons from the Asian Green Revolution (Wallingford: CABI). Macharia, I., Orr, A., and Schipmann, C. (in progress). Consumption Patterns of Sorghum and Finger Millet in Kenya. An Analysis of the 2004/2005 Household Expenditure Survey. Mimeo, 20 pp. Mgonja MA, Lenné JM, Manyasa E and Sreenivasaprasad S. (eds.). (2007). Finger Millet Blast Management in East Africa. Creating opportunities for improving production and utilization of finger millet. Proceedings of the First International Finger Millet Stakeholder Workshop, Projects R8030 and R8445 UK Department for International Development – Crop Protection Programme held 13-14 September 2005 at Nairobi. Patancheru 502 324, Andhra Pradesh, India: International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics. 196 pp. ISBN: 978-92-9066-5052:Accessed on http://www.icrisat.org/Publications/EBooksOnlinePublications/Publications-2007/ J389_07%20FM%20workshop%20proceedings2.pdf NMW Wanyera (2007) Finger Millet (Eleusine coracana) (L.) Gaertn) in Uganda; Accessed on http://www.icrisat.org/ Publications/EBooksOnlinePublications/Publications-2007/J389_07%20FM%20workshop%20proceedings2.pdf Okuthe, I.K., Ngesa, F.U., Ochola, W.U. (2011). Socio-economic determinants of adoption of improved sorghum varieties and technologies among smallholder farmers in Western Kenya. Retrieved 11/01/2012 from CRP 3.6 DRYLAND CEREALS – Targeting Research

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http://km.fao.org/fileadmin/user_upload/fsn/docs/Socioeconomic_determinants_of_adoption_of_improved_sorg hum_varieties_.pdf Okwadi Julius (2007) Importance and Characteristics of Finger Millet Processing in Uganda. Accessed on http://www.icrisat.org/Publications/EBooksOnlinePublications/Publications-2007/ J389_07%20FM%20workshop%20proceedings2.pdf Research Into Use (2012). Best Bets. StopStriga and Gro-Plus. http://www.researchintouse.com/bestbets/ bb34stopstriga.html Rohrbach DD, Kiriwaggulu JAB (2007). Commercialization prospects for sorghum and pearl millet in Tanzania. Ejournal.icrisat.org Romina Cavatassia, Leslie Lipper, Ulf Narloch. (2010). Modern variety adoption and risk management in drought prone areas: insights from the sorghum farmers of eastern Ethiopia. Agricultural Economics, 42 (2011), pp. 279–292. Schipmann, Muange, Orr and Mafuru (2011) Hope Baseline report Tanzania. Tripp, R. (2000). Strategies for seed system development in Sub-Saharan Africa: A study of Kenya, Malawi, Zambia, and Zimbabwe. Working Paper Series no. 2. PO Box 776, Bulawayo, Zimbabwe: Socioeconomics and Policy Program, International Crop Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics. 56pp. Venkatesan, V. (1994). Seed Systems in Sub-Saharan Africa. The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank. Washington, D.C. Wamala Issa (2007) Issues and Constraints Faced by Finger Millet Processors in Uganda http://www.icrisat.org/Publications/EBooksOnlinePublications/Publications-007/ J389_07%20FM%20workshop%20proceedings2.pdf Wortman, C. et al (2009). Atlas of Sorghum Production in Eastern and Southern Africa. (Nebraska: University of Nebraska).

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Central West Asia and North Africa (CWANA)
Analysis of barley trends by country in CWANA Barley (Hordeum vulgare L. emend. Bowden) is cultivated over the broadest environmental range than any other cereal: from 70oN Latitude in Norway to 46oS in Chile and from sea level to high altitudes close to the Equator. Its main center of origin is the Fertile Crescent of the Near East where it was domesticated about 10,000 years ago within a region we define as CWANA. It is frequently referred to as the most flexible crop and is, often, the only possible rainfed crop in many countries. It is the typical crop of less favorable, low input environments and is often the last crop possible before the rangelands agro-ecological zones. It is also a major cereal in the high elevations and high latitudes. World barley area is around 55 million hectares, being the 5th most planted crop after wheat, rice, maize and soybeans (FAO STAT, 2008). The global area share of developing of countries is around 18 million hectares (32.78%). The global regional relative area importance (Figure A) shows that Europe holds the most important area share (52.21%) while Africa has a share of 8.89% (about 5 million hectares). The area shares of Asia and America are, respectively, 22% and 10% The largest countries of barley cultivation are dominantly encountered in the CWANA region, which comprises several countries with over 1 million hectares cultivated annually (Table 2-27). Table 2-27. Evolution of barley area by countries in the CWANA region (in hectares)
Region West Asia (WA) Country Turkey Iran Syria Iraq Afghanistan Pakistan Cyprus Jordan Saudi Arabia Lebanon Palestine Qatar Kuwait Oman sub total West Asia Morocco Algeria Tunisia Libya Egypt sub total NA Kazakhstan Azerbaijan Kyrgyzstan Uzbekistan Armenia Turkmenistan Georgia Tajikistan sub total CAC Year 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 Average 3640000 3600000 3400000 3600000 3650000 3600000 3314920 2732190 2977330 2999800 3351424 1487179 1670000 1510128 1600279 1659170 1700000 1641830 1070150 1675650 1584210 1559860 1302760 1234010 1253580 1290570 1327200 1200000 1362770 1433200 1290220 1174100 1286841 1200000 1299640 1063250 957000 1063250 1000000 1093750 1348530 703625 1005770 1073482 87000 236000 270000 180000 240000 240000 236000 236000 270000 270000 226500 113000 110600 107700 101600 93300 89900 94000 91100 86000 84100 97130 50200 52900 65007 58448 52517 52864 34019 30680 22444 25489 44457 20268 55377 25919 29006 36154 36027 46840 27184 31263 19502 32754 45066 25425 22535 9952 7479 20000 4500 3964 3472 3500 14589 7000 11500 13911 12590 14500 14500 15750 14500 16000 17000 13725 10300 10945 11166 10184 10949 11110 10755 11000 12000 10934 1298 1295 1702 1027 1629 1700 1619 1757 1800 1536 1325 1563 970 970 1263 1263 850 990 1000 910 1110 1193 1197 1202 1255 1128.6 1128.6 1171 1200 700 526 1070 7966589 8310452 7747070 7852881 8158540 7955683 7861217 7004070 7092470 7200717 7,714,969 2126000 2002400 2266500 2324100 2179800 2189000 1993400 2181300 2182800 1919500 2136480 515690 401400 782380 915440 684648 812280 971246 435963 1250760 1000000 776981 199000 98000 321553 560000 381000 431000 437000 258000 542000 184700 341225 180000 180000 180000 180000 204083 204083 204080 204080 205000 186500 192783 30899 33007 49009 59454 61830 92000 102940 76432 94980 87752 68830 3051589 2714807 3599442 4038994 3511361 3728363 3708666 3155775 4275540 3378452 3,516,299 1711500 1736835 1886875 1642380 1573200 1776600 1837800 1996700 1709300 1332800 1720399 146149 129470 139849 158908 167120 179912 203716 241442 268857 264624 190005 67280 63600 86859 102408 101810 107500 125399 133300 123598 122500 103425 75000 129300 110800 78080 72280 55990 51000 80000 110000 105000 86745 79600 61701 60392 64628 65462 36000 65180 66396 66511 60954 62682 45000 55000 55000 65000 65000 65000 61000 60000 53542 53000 57754 44973 38403 36417 37133 46960 40000 26900 29900 17400 20600 33869 29689 26063 37477 48860 44700 47300 42300 64829 57894 69420 46853 2199191 2240372 2413669 2197397 2136532 2308302 2413295 2672567 2407102 2028898 2,301,733 13217369 13265631 13760181 14089272 13806433 13992348 13983178 12832412 13775112 12608067 13,533,000

North Africa (NA)

Central Asia and Caucasus (CAC)

Total CWANA

Turkey has the largest annual barley cultivation area with more than 3.5 million hectares; it is followed by Morocco (2.1 million hectares), Kazakhstan (1.7 million hectares), Iran (1.6 million hectares), Syria (1.2 million hectares) and Iraq (1.1 million hectares).

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Area, production and productivity trends Barley cultivation has stayed constant across the CWANA in the last 10 years. We have to highlight that the FAO statistics provide mainly the harvested area, which many years can differ from planted area, especially in years where abiotic stresses cause crop failures. In some countries we can observe a trend of increasing cultivation, e.g. Afghanistan and Morocco. This increase is believed to be more related to the use of barley as food and malt. Future changes in cultivation would be induced by the food and malt uses and mostly by the need to cope with climate change. World market prices increases in the past three years have also played an important role in that trend. Beneficiaries The potential and targeted number and types beneficiaries from the CRP efforts are shown in Table 2-28. This conservative estimation shows that the total number of small farmer beneficiaries would approach 10 million. Direct poor, small farmers are estimated to be at least 5 million while direct poor persons beneficiaries are estimated to be close to 50 million. Value chain beneficiaries are estimated to be close to 100 million. The most important portion of all classes of beneficiaries would be in CWANA and East Africa. Table 2-28. Estimated number of beneficiaries per targeted regions
Region ESA CWANA SA Total Average barley area (000) ha 1430 7750 770 9950 Average farm size (ha) 1.5 2.5 1.3 Farm area planted to dryland cereals (75%) 1.125 1.875 0.975 No. of farmers growing barley (000) 1271 4133 790 6194 Potential beneficiaries (000) 508 1653 316 2478

Major bottlenecks to technology transfer – barriers to adoption Barriers to adoption of technologies of dryland crops such as barley are highly varied and closely linked to the politico-socio-economic status of countries of the targeted regions, which greatly impacts the framework: “policy institutions-research and development organizations-communities of farmers. At the operational level, adoption of technologies is also particularly influenced by the nature and products of the interactions of the framework components and their effects on the considered crop(s). There is also strong interface between crop improvement and seed delivery. Seed remains a delivery mechanism for agricultural innovations. Availability of, access to and use of seed of improved, adapted and farmer preferred varieties remain critical in realizing the impacts of research in the farmers’ fields. However, apart for hybrid seed technology in sorghum and millets in some countries (e.g. India), the dryland cereal seed system is weak particularly in many major barley-growing countries of CWANA region. Formal seed supply remains low and dominated by the public seed sector, which is inefficient. Although barley is a major crop after wheat in many countries, the formal seed sector for barley is on average provide less than 5% and little information is available on adoption of improved varieties. Seed delivery considered a development activity with limited research on system constraints. With the dryland cereals value chain analysis of the seed sector would shed light on critical constraints and identify gaps to formulate policy and institutional innovations to strengthen the delivery system. Within the CRP 3.6, the purpose of seed system is not about seed production, but more is about understanding its dynamics in enhancing adoption. If we analyze the barriers/causes/limitations to adoption of barley technologies in the general context of any country, the frequently recognized and prioritized points can be summarized as follows:

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At the institutional level  Limited specific supporting policies and strategies for barley research and development  Lack/limited production and development incentives  Lack/limited organization and regulation of the barley sector and its value chain At the research level (NARS)  Limited human resources (qualified) and unsatisfactory financial resources  Insufficient focus of research objectives, actions and methodologies/approaches  Weak production of adapted and readily useable research outputs  Low/limited interactions with extension and farming communities  Low/limited interactions and partnership with CG centers At the extension level  Limited qualified human resources and unsatisfactory financial resources  Weak interactions with research and farming communities  Low/limited use of ICTs At the farmer level  Weak solicitation of extension and research  Resistance to risk-taking  Difficult access to incentives, credit and services  Weak power to influence, to his benefit, the value chain components  Limited access to a role of active stakeholders in the promotion of the crop At the CG centers level  Limited financial resources  Global and not specific focus on country needs  Limited ‘powers’ to influence national policy-research-development institutions At the specific, pragmatic level, ICARDA has been monitoring the limitations to adoption of barley technologies in the different target regions and the most relevant recognized barriers can be summarized as follows:  Slow valorization of research output, specifically the slow promotion of high potential new varieties and related improved production technologies.

The main (prioritized) recognized causes are:     The limited organization of the seed production and delivery system The limited access to agricultural machinery, efficient and adapted to the needs of small, resources poor farmers The weak use of participatory approaches with farming communities The limited initiatives to organize farmers as community-based, business oriented, set ups that would put to their benefit the tasks of technology transfer and promotion as well as and added value in the value chain of barley local products as functional food and drinks. The lack of integration of business oriented social professional organization and the private sector in the promotion process



New and innovative approaches to overcome constraints Dryland cereals are grown in the dry, risky and complex environments. This is further exacerbated by limited infrastructure, which is disincentive for formal public or private seed sector to operate where alternative ways of decentralized seed production and marketing need to be pursued. Establishing technically feasible and economically viable sustainable farmer-based seed production and marketing enterprises through
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farmer/community participation is necessary in complementing the formal sector. This is particularly important where participatory variety selection approaches are envisaged in extending formal breeding programs. The research on alternative seed delivery builds upon existing local institutions, knowledge, skills and experience of farming communities. It focuses on mobilizing farmers to engage in producing and marketing quality seed within their community and beyond. The research focuses on sustainability of alternatives seed delivery to resource poor farmers for out-scaling the lessons learnt to similar environments elsewhere. The future of insured, efficient transfer and adoption of technologies of dryland barley and its linkage to small ruminants as main source of food and feed security and improved households livelihoods lies on reverting the four causes (cited above) to the advantage of rural farming communities Considering that the most important output of breeding as the central activity, are new enhanced potential cultivars adapted to target areas, the seed is the key issue that ensures changes and impact on higher production through better productivity. If seeds of new varieties are not available then promotion would not have any chances of success. The Village-based seed enterprises approach (VBSEs)  An innovative strategy that has so far driven success is ICARDA’s development and implementation of the Village-Based Seed Enterprises (VBSEs) approach (Bishaw and Van Gastel 2005 and 2008). VBSEs have been successful to get technologies (new varieties) closer to users and made the users have a significant, positive, community role and capitalize on their efforts to promote new varieties. The success of VBSE was ensure by the involvement of ICARDA’s seed Unit in the design of simple, locally made in Syria, seed cleaning and treatment machine, cheap and adapted to the needs of small farmers, even in remote rural areas. These machines have also proven to be very useful to national breeding programs to manage and distribute significant quantities of quality seed of new high potential varieties. At a higher institutional level, ICARDA has been interacting with national programs in the improvement of the formal seed sector, the advocacy of more adapted informal seed system and the design of liberalized and privatized seed sector scenarios. VBSEs have been adopted in many countries; Afghanistan, Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia, Syria Pakistan, Yemen, Ethiopia, Eritrea, Iraq and Iran VBSEs have been attracting important donors such as IFAD, BMZ, JICA, USAID and also CG centers such as ICRISAT for the promotion of new varieties of sorghum and pearl millet in Eritrea. Another major input of ICARDA Seed Unit is the capacity building of VBSEs members in the management and maintenance of the seed machines as well as the design, planning (business planning) and management of VBSEs.



  

Access of small farmers to decisive agricultural machinery The experience of ICARDA in promoting conservation agriculture, usually more suitable to large farms using expensive big machinery, have been successful with small farmers with the development of cheap direct drills. Efforts were invested to develop with local small Syrian machinery manufactures cheap efficient drills for useful as tools for the promotion direct drill, a significant conservation agriculture technology to semiarid area of Syria and Iraq that has been proven to increase water productivity, mitigate the effect of drought, reduce production cost and improve small famers benefits margins in a barley-lentil production system. Conclusive results were obtained in Syria and the technology has expanded to Iraq and being explored in Afghanistan, Pakistan, Jordan, Morocco, Algeria, Libya and Tunisia. Advocacy and use of participatory approaches and gender integration  Participatory approaches (Participatory Plant Breeding – PPB and Participatory Variety Selection PVS) is believed to ensure closer interactions with farming communities, bring part of research activities to be implemented in fields of farmers and drive farmers to be more interested by what is

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

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going on in research center and experiment stations. Gender integration ensure an active role to women, an important stakeholder and decision maker in rural household ICARDA’s barley program has been carrying out PPB activities in barley since the early 2000 (Ceccarelli et al 2000; Ceccarelli and Grando. 2007) with many NARS: Syria, Jordan, Ethiopia, Eritrea, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Iran, Egypt, and Mexico. It has also been fully involved in the facilitation of PPB with the CG Program: Participatory Research and Gender Analysis (PRGA). Empowerment of farmers (both men and women) to contribute their knowledge and be involved in the planning, implementation and evaluation of technologies and their promotion could drive positive changes and impact. The gender dimension is to provide equal opportunities and involve as much as possible women to contribute their knowledge to research and to drive benefit from it.

Integration and organization of farming communities in local business Besides seed business, the experience of VBSEs opened space to members to be also local dealers of inputs such as fertilizers, herbicides, small field equipment (knapsack sprayers, hoes, and small irrigation equipment) and services such as seed cleaning. With efficient business integration, these local community organizations could become the local extension service with much more credibility than the one of outsiders. Efforts can also be deployed to mark the emergence of small machinery producers; besides the example of the direct drill, others relevant machinery such as cutter binders for harvest, threshers and simple seed post-harvest machines closely related to processed product of barley, particularly when barley is used as food. Another important innovative avenue is the development of small enterprises for barley food and drink local products with is varied (Grando and Gomez, 2005). Barley is becoming and important healthy (for diabetics) and functional food product to a large portion of people in the developing and developed world because of the recognized benefit its higher content of beta glucans and zinc (Finocchiaro et al, 2005). Improving the added value of local product value chain is of interest to ICARDA. Aspects such as improvement of the quality of barley products, their standardization, certification and wider access to local and international markets are crucial to improved livelihood of farmers and subsequent investments in adoption and promotion of technologies and closer interaction with research and extension and markets. References
Ceccarelli, S., Grando, S., Tutwiler, R., Baha, J., Martini, A.M., Salahieh, H., Goodchild, A., and Michael, M., 2000. A Methodological Study on Participatory Barley Breeding. I. Selection Phase. Euphytica 111: 91-104. Ceccarelli, S. and Grando, S., 2007. Decentralized-Participatory Plant Breeding: An Example of Demand Driven Research. Euphytica 155: 349-360. Bishaw, Z. and Van Gastel A.J.G., 2008. ICARDA’s Approach to Seed Delivery in Less Favorable Areas Through VillageBased Seed Enterprises: Conceptual and Organizational Issues. Journal of New Seeds: 9(1): 68-88. Bishaw Z. and Niane A. 2008. Guidelines for Reviewing Liberalization/Privatization of Seed Sectors. Special publication. International Center for Agricultural Research in the dry Areas. Aleppo, Syria. 4 pp. Bishaw Z. and Van Gastel A.J.G. 2005. ICARDA’s Approach in Developing Village-Based Seed Enterprises (VBSEs) for Less favorable Areas. Special publication. International Center for Agricultural Research in the dry Areas. Aleppo, Syria. 15 pp. Grando, Stefania and Helena Gormez Macpherson (eds.). 2005. Food Barley: Importance, Uses and Local Knowledge. Proceedings of the International Workshop on Food Barley Improvement, 14-17 January 2002, Hammamet, Tunisia. ICARDA, Aleppo, Syria, x+156 pp. En. Finocchiaro L., Cavallero A., Ferrari B., Gianinetti A. and A.M. Stanca AM. 2005. Barley for Development of Functional Foods to Improve Human Health in the Third Millennium. In. Grando, Stefania and Helena Gormez Macpherson (eds.). 2005. Food Barley: Importance, Uses and Local Knowledge. Proceedings of the International Workshop on Food Barley Improvement, 14-17 January 2002, Hammamet, Tunisia. ICARDA, Aleppo, Syria, x+156 pp. En.).

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SOUTH ASIA (SA)
Analysis of sorghum and pearl millet trends in India In arid and semiarid harsh environmental conditions, the cropping choice is restricted due to moisture stress, low soil fertility, poor and saline soils and lack of assured sources of irrigation. Dryland cereals like sorghum and pearl millet are the hardy and sturdy crops that fare well in such adverse agro-ecological situations and are less risky for production. Both sorghum and millets continue to occupy a prime place in smallholder farming systems in arid and semi-arid regions providing employment, income and food for human consumption and feed for livestock. But at the same time, excessive dependence on rice and wheat for food self-sufficiency has not only made food security fragile, but also has shrunken the diversity of the food basket. In order to alleviate this problem and to make food more nutritionally balanced, healthy and affordable, coarse cereals like pearl millet and sorghum deserve to be promoted specifically in the wake of climate change. In India, both sorghum and pearl millet are cultivated as dual-purpose crops in over 7.5 and 9.5 million ha ranking forth and third among all cereals, respectively (Yadav et al 2011). Sorghum is widely cultivated both during rainy and post-rainy season in the regions of central and western parts of Maharashtra, Northern regions of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu, while pearl millet is produced in Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh and Haryana. Besides grain, millet and sorghum stover are an important feed for livestock especially when other feed resources are in short supply. The sorghum grain produced during the post-rainy season is from local and improved land races of superior quality (bold, white in color and sweeter taste) and hence preferred for consumption. By contrast, sorghum produced in the rainy season is from hybrids with poor grain quality and less preferred for human consumption. About 50% of the sorghum produced during the rainy season is utilized for alternative uses like poultry feed, alcohol and animal feed, while the post-rainy season sorghum is exclusively used as food (Parthasarathy Rao et al., 2010). Pearl millet on the other hand, apart from being used as food, is also used as poultry and animal feed, manufacture of alcohol and health foods. Area, production and productivity trends Total sorghum area [rainy (kharif) and post-rainy (rabi) seasons] has shrunk over time from 17.4 million ha in 1970-71 to 7.5million ha in 2008-09, registering 52% decline over the past 3 decades and a negative growth rate of -1.23% per year. The rainy season area dipped at a faster rate (70%) than the post rainy season area (32%) between 1970 and 2009 (Figure 2-9). This is due to substitution of rainy season sorghum area by competing crops such as sunflower, maize, groundnut, and pulses. Access to irrigation replaced sorghum area by commercial crops like sugarcane, cotton, onion, and maize. Despite sharp decline in the area, the production of rainy-season sorghum increased till 1990, due to the adoption and use of hybrids and improved cultivars and gradually decreased thereafter owing to area decline without significant impact on production. After the 90’s, the yield increase also slowed down. The overall post-rainy season sorghum production increased by 83% during 1971 to 2009, while rainy-season sorghum production declined by 52%. Thus, currently, 55% of the area in the post-rainy season is under sorghum compared to 35% in the 70’s. In the case of pearl millet, area and production increased till 1970’s and declined during 80’s due to downy mildew epidemics (Pray and Nagarajan 2010). After 1980’s, though there was a marginal decline in area under pearl millet, accelerated productivity led to sustained increase in production (Figure 2-10).

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Figu ure 2-9. Area a and produc ction of sorg hum and pe earl millet in India, 1970-71 to 2008-2 2009

Figure 2-10. Productivity (kg/h ha) trend of s sorghum [in kharif (rainy y) and rabi ( post-rainy) season] s and pea arl millet in I India during 1970-71 to 2008-09 c espe cially sorghu um and pearl millet in ter rms of area and a The relative importance of dry land cereals production d differs from state to state. More than n 70% of the e sorghum ar rea and prod duction share e is accounted b by two states s, Maharasht tra and Karna ataka, which h are in Penin nsular India. Similarly, in the case of pearl millet, more than 70% 7 of the area is accoun nted by thre ee states, Rajasthan, Mah harashtra and Gujarat. In n
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terms of production share, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and Gujarat account for 77% of the total. In case of finger millet, more than 70% of the area and production is accounted by three states, Karnataka, Uttarakhand and Tamil Nadu (Tables 2-29 to 2-32) As evident from the area and production trends (Tables 2-33 and 2-34), both in sorghum and pearl millet, the growth rate in area and production has been negative implying area and production have been decelerating. On the contrary, new alternative markets are emerging for sorghum and pearl millet grain uses. Sorghum (particularly the crop produced in the rainy season) is in the initial stages of entering the commercial chain in both livestock and poultry feed, and in production of alcohol, starch and other products. Thus, the industrial demand for sorghum is expected to rise in the future, given the value addition possibilities. This has to be met through supply augmentation. The future source of output growth is a function of genetically improved varieties, better management practices like seed treatment, drilling of fertilizers along with seed, wide row spacing, opening of furrow and access to different markets due to value addition as well as policy support which needs to be separately carved for coarse cereals to face the slackness in their procurement and distribution. Table 2-29. All India and state-wise sorghum area, production and productivity (2005-07)
State of India Maharashtra Karnataka Rajasthan Madhya Pradesh Andhra Pradesh All India Area (‘000 ha) 4,502 1,440 625 560 399 8,301 % of all India 54% 17% 8% 7% 5% 100% Production (‘000 ton) 3,893 1,599 311 606 490 7,569 % of all India 51% 21% 4% 8% 7% 100% Yield (kg/ha) 868 1,112 492 1,081 1,239 915

Table 2-30. All India and state-wise pearl millet area, production and productivity (2005-07)
State of India Rajasthan Maharashtra Gujarat Uttar Pradesh Haryana All India Area (‘000 ha) 4,973 1,390 925 877 614 9,553 % to all India 52.1 14.5 9.7 9.2 6.4 100.0 Production (‘000 ton) 3,468 1,073 1,133 1,290 955 8,693 % to all India 40.0 12.3 13.0 14.8 11.0 100.0 Yield (kg/ha) 694 775 1,225 1,470 1,546 910

Table 2-31. All India and state-wise finger millet production shares (2005-07)
Share in Total Area State of India 2007 Total Area (‘000 ha) 833 128 93.7 128 55 67.6 1,381 Share 60% 9% 7% 9% 4% 5% Total Area (‘000 ha) 606 136 95.5 136 59 65 1,171 2006 Share 52% 12% 8% 12% 5% 6%

Karnataka Uttaranchal Tamil Nadu Maharashtra Andhra Pradesh Orissa All India

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Table 2-32. All India and state-wise Finger millet production shares (2005-07)
Share in Total Production State of India 2007 Total Production (‘000 tons) Karnataka Uttaranchal Tamil Nadu Maharashtra Andhra Pradesh Orissa All India 1497 179 176 124 69 47 2146 Share 79% 8% 8% 6% 3% 2% 2006 Total Production (‘000 tons) 816 186 148 123 64 43 1437 Share 57% 13% 10% 9% 4% 3%

Table 2-33. All India area and production growth trends in sorghum
Period 1980-85 1985-90 1990-95 1995-00 2000-05 2005-09 1980-2009 Rainy season area -1.72 -2.52 -7.99 -4.49 -3.38 -8.12 -4.44 Rainy season production 0.52 5.80 -4.44 -5.85 -1.04 -7.34 -3.22 Post-rainy area 3.09 -2.42 1.27 -2.52 -0.89 -1.68 -1.14 Post-rainy production 4.42 6.07 3.92 -1.23 -4.34 6.10 0.13 Total area 0.06 -2.48 -4.05 -3.48 -2.08 -4.33 -2.89 Total production 1.67 5.88 -1.84 -3.96 -1.98 0.54 -1.95

Source: Directorate of Economics& Statistics

Table 2-34. All India area and production growth in pearl millet (%)
Period 1980-85 1985-90 1990-95 1995-00 2000-05 2005-10 1980-2010 Area -1.94 0.79 -1.83 -1.13 0.27 -2.19 -0.86 Production -3.41 16.74 0.70 -5.66 4.24 -0.81 1.83 Productivity -1.50 15.83 2.58 -4.58 3.96 1.28 2.71

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Table 2-35. State wise growth rates in area, production and productivity of sorghum (%)
State of India Area Andhra Pradesh Prod Yield Area Gujarat Prod Yield Area Karnataka Prod Yield Area Maharashtra Prod Yield Area Rajasthan Prod Yield Area Tamil Nadu Prod Yield Area Madhya Pradesh Prod Yield 1970-79 -1.98 3.77 5.87 -2.29 5.29 7.75 -2.26 0.14 2.46 2.13 17.15 14.70 -4.90 -3.76 1.20 0.9 3.7 2.8 -0.8 -1.5 -0.7 1980-89 -5.63 -6.35 0.76 -2.96 -8.35 -5.56 2.48 0.65 -1.78 -0.31 1.52 1.84 0.51 -1.55 -2.06 0.6 5.1 4.5 -2.7 -0.6 2.1 1990-99 -5.52 -5.78 -0.28 -11.54 -2.51 10.21 -1.55 0.07 1.64 -2.00 -1.70 0.31 -5.58 -6.58 -1.05 -5.4 -7.4 -2.1 -9.3 -9.7 -0.4 2000-2008 -10.53 -5.37 5.75 -2.54 3.89 6.63 4.67 6.98 2.21 -2.55 -0.18 2.42 -0.60 12.70 13.42 -1.8 -1.0 0.9 -2.8 1.9 4.9 1970-2008 -5.42 -2.99 2.57 -6.33 -3.57 2.95 -0.85 -0.43 0.43 -0.96 0.89 1.87 -1.54 -1.16 0.39 -2.7 -2.5 0.2 -4.1 -3.0 1.2

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Table 2-36. State wise growth rates in area, production and productivity of pearl millet (%)
State of India Area Andhra Pradesh Prod Yield Area Gujarat Prod Yield Area Karnataka Prod Yield Area Maharashtra Prod Yield Area Rajasthan Prod Yield Area Tamil Nadu Prod Yield Area Madhya Pradesh Prod Yield Area Uttar Pradesh Prod Yield Area Haryana Prod Yield 1970-79 -0.72 3.68 4.43 -3.65 -0.19 3.59 5.69 6.05 0.33 0.28 5.25 4.95 -3.14 -11.22 -8.35 -1.66 3.59 5.34 -2.97 -8.45 -5.64 -0.86 -4.20 -1.91 -0.37 -8.80 -8.47 1980-89 -7.84 -8.66 -0.89 -2.00 -4.47 -2.53 -1.83 1.79 3.70 1.84 3.98 3.32 -0.26 2.35 2.61 -2.06 0.74 2.87 -1.35 4.56 0.53 -2.94 0.48 3.52 -3.95 -3.49 0.47 1990-99 -7.16 -5.02 2.31 -2.33 1.44 3.87 0.18 1.48 1.31 -0.86 1.53 2.40 -1.64 -0.76 0.89 -5.87 -4.11 1.87 -2.11 1.63 3.83 1.21 3.88 2.64 0.05 4.79 4.74 2000-08 -8.28 -5.75 2.76 -0.87 2.75 3.66 5.23 9.14 8.11 -2.67 1.65 4.44 1.72 9.68 7.82 -10.98 -8.11 3.23 1.61 5.51 3.84 0.25 2.75 2.49 1.05 7.30 6.19 1970-08 -6.32 -4.49 1.95 -1.81 -0.27 1.57 -1.25 0.03 1.30 -0.24 2.89 3.14 0.00 3.14 3.14 -4.77 -3.04 1.81 -0.57 2.16 2.74 -0.67 0.35 2.78 -1.57 1.72 3.34

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Table 2-37. State wise growth rates in area, production and productivity of finger millet (%)
State of India Area Karnataka (A= 60.3 P= 69.7)* Prod Yield Area Uttaranchal (A= 9.2 P= 8.3) Prod Yield Area Tamil Nadu (A= 6.7 P= 8.1) Prod Yield Area Maharashtra (A= 9.2 P= 5.7) Prod Yield Area Andhra Pradesh (A= 3.98 P= 3.2) Prod Yield Area Orissa (A= 4.8 P= 2.1) Prod Yield 1970-79 0.33 10.4 9.65 ----2.55 2.81 4.98 0.06 12.26 11.64 -2.40 1.3 3.57 5.86 1.62 -4.28 1980-89 0.09 1.3 0.64 ----1.18 4.16 4.15 -0.61 3.21 3.99 -3.51 -2.3 0.92 -0.08 8.29 6.96 1990-99 -2.10 2.2 3.84 ----3.82 -2.16 1.53 -2.61 -2.47 0.20 -5.28 -3.3 1.27 -6.33 -6.95 -2.93 2000-2007 1.49 13 7.55 -1.56 -0.65 2.36 -1.86 2.80 1.46 -2.44 -0.83 1.59 -6.47 -4.3 1.72 -2.04 -0.62 2.22 1970-2007 -0.12 6.4 5.31 -1.56 -0.65 2.36 -2.38 1.85 3.11 -1.35 3.24 4.50 -4.31 -2 1.88 -0.57 0.65 0.40

*Figures in the parenthesis indicates A=area and P=production shares at all India level for 2007

1300

Area

Area ( 000 ha)

1100

900

700

500 1966 1968 1970 1972 1974 1976 1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 Year
Source: Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Government of India

Figure 2-11. Area trends of finger millet in India

2006

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2000 1800 1600 Production ( 000 tons) 1400 1200 1000 800 600 400 200 1966 1968 1970 1972 1974 1976 1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990

Production

1992

1994

1996

1998

2000

2002 2002

2004 2004

Year
Source: Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Government of India

Figure 2-12. Production trends of finger millet in India

1900 1700 Yield ( kg/ha) 1500 1300 1100 900 700 500 1966 1968 1970 1972 1974 1976 1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994

Yield

1996

1998

2000

Year
Source: Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Government of India

Figure 2-13. Yield trends of finger millet in Indi

2006

2006

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Analysis of barley trends in India The main uses of barley in India is for forage and feed, with some uses also as food, mainly in the SE of the country. Most recently there has been interest for malt, due to the increasing beer industry. The area has been stable in the last 10 years, with fluctuations mostly due to market prices and demand (Table 2-38). Barley is expected to increase in the country in next few years, due to the mentioned increase in demand and interest of some growers to fit barley in the rotation of rice-wheat systems, because of its earliness and shorter cycle. Table 2-38: Total barley area (ha) in the last 10 years period
Region Asia
India

Country 2001
777500

2002
659500

2003
701600

2004
657000

Year 2005
616500

2006
700000

2007 646200

2008 602600

2009 780000

2010 790000

Average 693090

Major bottlenecks to technology transfer – barriers to adoption Bottlenecks to growth in agricultural productivity Barriers to adoption of technologies and innovations can be grouped into 5 broad categories: biophysical, technological, economic, institutional and policy constraints. Some of the key constraints deterring adoption of hybrids/improved varied are highlighted in the Figures 2-14 and 2-15 and Table 2-39. The sorghum and millet based production system in arid and semi-arid regions greatly suffer from biotic and abiotic stresses. Extensive land degradation and unfavorable climate are the major abiotic constraints limiting crop production and productivity in the rainfed areas of India. Most of the soils in rainfed regions have soil nutrient deficiency especially phosphorus, nitrogen, and organic matter. Further, widespread deficiency of micronutrients has been observed. Biotic constraints such as downy mildew, smut, blast, and bird loss are also the major yield reducers of rainfed crops like pearl millet (Singh et al 2009). Shoot fly is a menace in late sown conditions in the rainy-season sorghum and early sown crops in the post-rainy season. Grain-mold in improved early and medium maturing white grain types in the rainy season is another key barriers affecting yield. Availability of quality seeds, fertilizers and other inputs at the right time and place is a major constraint farmers are facing in arid and semiarid areas. The seed replacement rate is more than 85% in the case of rainy-season sorghum because of private and public sector hybrids, while it is extremely low in the case of post-rainy season sorghum due to lack of quality seeds/hybrids, as seed production is confined to only to the public sector (Reddy Belum et al 2010). Labor scarcity during harvesting is a critical constraint reducing the profit margin. Farmers in the drylands tend to under-invest on fertilizers due to price risk and uncertainty. Lack of credit and input supply bottlenecks are common factors precluding optimal production. Lack of improved storage facilities at farm level is another constraint. Post-harvest processing of millets is in its infancy with no policy support, relegating millets. The most common complaint of small farmers in rural India is lack of access to stable markets and market led extension. Unorganized markets, asymmetric information, superfluous middlemen, little vertical coordination between producers, processors and consumers, meager bargaining power, poor transportation links, and lack of processing and value addition in sorghum and millets are making the millets less remunerative (Nagaraj, et al., 2011) Technologies have been generated but, these are not reaching the needy in time due to lack of effective extension efforts and often are not adopted due to lack of capital, infrastructure support, and poor market linkage. Smallholder farmers have been mostly reluctant to adopt improved varieties in the case of sorghum grown in the post-rainy season because of low grain and fodder quality (Nagaraj et al., 2011). Part of the reason for the stagnating production of sorghum and pearl millet is the growing competition in dry regions from other major cereals, including maize, and various cash crops, which benefit from government price support programs. The per capita consumption of sorghum in rural India declined from

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1.59 kg per m month in 197 73 to 0.45 kg g per month in 2003–200 04 (NRCS 200 07). Some of f this decline e is due to government tal policies th hat excluded d sorghum fro om public pr rocurement at minimum support pric ce (MSP) and from supply through h public distr ribution syst ems (NRCS 2006). 2 Gover rnment polic cies encourag ged onsumption of o wheat or rice in the re egions where e sorghum was w traditiona ally valued as a the increased co preferred ce ereal.

Source: HOP PE Baseline rep port 2011

Figure 2-14. Constraints in ado opting Post-r rainy season n sorghum va arieties

Source: HOP PE Baseline rep port 2011

Figu ure 2-15. Co onstraints in adopting pe earl millet HY YV technolog gies

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Table 2-39. Relative importance of biotic and abiotic constraints in dryland cereals across regions
Crop Insect pest/disease Shoot fly Stem borer Midge Head bugs/aphids Grain molds Foliar diseases Striga Drought/heat stress Stem borer Pearl millet Head caterpillars Downy mildew Blast Rust Other foliar diseases Striga Drought/heat stress Stem borer Blast Drought/heat stress Aphids Sun pest Rusts Nematodes Drought/cold tolerance SA *** ** * ** *** ** * ** * * *** *** ** ** *** * *** * ** ** ** * ** ESA ** *** *** ** *** *** ** ** * * ** ** ** ** *** *** * WCA ** ** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** ** *** *** * * * * WANA ** * * *** *** *** *** ***

Sorghum

Finger millet

Barley

*, **, *** = Low, medium, and high priority, respectively. SA = South Asia, ESA = East and southern Africa, WCA = West and central Africa, and WANA = West Asia and northern Africa.

Table 2-40. Development of sorghum and pearl millet cultivars in India, 1961-2005
Release period 1961-70 1971-80 1981-90 1991-2000 2001-2005 Total ICAR Sorghum nr 1 nr 32 4 37 Pearl millet nr 3 3 79 7 92 nr 2 8 13 2 25 ICRISAT a# Sorghum Pearl millet nr nr 14 28 3 45 Other notified varieties b Sorghum 9 39 53 58 22 262 Pearl millet 5 10 23 7 54 207

nr = no release a Refers to the period 1991-1998 and 2004-2005 for ICRISAT b Notified varieties include releases from State Agricultural Universities # Includes both varieties and hybrids Source: Pray and Nagarajan, 2009

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Table 2-4 41. Full time e equivalent (FTE, scienti ific) staff on sorghum crop improvem ment in Inida (2010)#
Organization AICSIP DSR IARC including ICRISAT Private seed co ompanies Total Actual staff 63 40 10 40 148 FTE equ uivalents 51 1.7 32 2.8 9 .5 32 2.0 126 6.0

S Source: Kumara acharyulu and Bantilan B (2011) ) unpublished TRIVSA T report

Table 2-42. Diffu usion of sorg ghum impro oved cultivar rs in major st tates of India a (per cent area) a
State Maharashtra Karnataka Andhra Pradesh Madhya Prade esh Rajasthan Gujarat Tamil Nadu All India 1966-68 2 1 1 1 0 0 2 1 19 976-78 22 24 11 18 1 3 13 18 19 986-88 59 24 35 48 4 25 40 43 1996-98 1 87 31 68 71 10 33 63 67 2006-08 94 75 31 85 29 47 82 80

S Source: Kumara acharyulu and Bantilan B (2011) ) unpublished TRIVSA T report

Table 2-43 3. Full time equivalent e (F FTE, scientifi ic) staff on pearl p millet crop c improve ement of Ind dia (2010)#
Organization AICPMIP (main n centres) AICPMIP (voluntary) IARC including ICRISAT Private seed co ompanies Total Actual staff 45.0 31.0 10.0 35.0 121.0 FTE equ uivalents 33 .75 17 .05 9. 50 28 .00 88 8.30

S Source: Kumara acharyulu and Bantilan B (2011) ) unpublished TRIVSA T report

Sou urce: Kumarach haryulu and Ban ntilan (2011) un npublished TRI IVSA report

Fig gure 2-16. Pattern of dif ffusion of im mproved cultivars of pear rl millet in m major states of India

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Figure 2-17. Diffusion of sorghum m improved cultivars in major states s of India

onstraints novative app proaches to overcome co New and inn l productivit Technologic cal options fo or improved agricultural ty he key recom In order to im mprove prod ductivity bes sides targetin ng improved varieties, targeting on th mmended technologies s, manageme ent practices s like efficien nt fertiliser use, u seed trea atment, dee p sowing, wide row spacing, opt timum plant population, Integrated P Pest Manage ement (IPM) and Integrat ted Nutrient Managemen nt (INM) is cr rucial. In add dition, moistu ure use efficiency toward ds reducing d drought risk is also important. of sorghum and a pearl millet, hybrid o options should be expand ded to more marginal en nvironments In the case o such as salin ne areas whe ere at presen nt very less o options are th here. There is i a need to b breed specif fically for arid- produc ction systems s in the case of pearl mil let and semi i-arid produc ction systems s in sorghum m by widening the e genetic base of breedin ng material a adapted to such regions. Sorghum an nd pearl millet being C4 crops with h high biomass s potential sh hould be bred d further for r various agro o climatic co onditions for both high grain and fodder. Also gr reen forage types t will be e bred to sustain the lives stock efficien ncy on farms s in offseasons. As the flour is one o of main diet d ingredie ent for provid ding essentia al minerals liike Fe and Zn n in arid and semi-arid regions, where e it is consum med and whe ere large nut trient malnutrition probl ems exist in such ecologies, he ence there is s need to inc crease the le vels of these e minerals in sorghum an nd millet grai in to circumvent n nutrient rela ated health disorders. d Pearl millet: :     Dev velopment of o location-sp pecific downy y mildew and blast resist tant hybrids and varieties Dev velopment and populariz zing short-du uration and drought d tolerant varietie es and hybrid ds Dev velopment and populariz zation of hea at-tolerant hy ybrids Imp proving the shelf-life s of pearl p millet fllour to 60 to o 70 days which at presen nt is short (7-10 days) due e to rancidity y

Sorghum rai iny-season: white grain back ground. Hybrid paren nts will be im mproved for grain yield w with resistanc ce to grain mold m in bold w Mostly medium maturity y genotypes are targeted d as they fit in i the predominant crop pping systems in the h pedigree an nd marker as ssisted breed ding methods are to be deployed. d . region. Both Sorghum-po ost rainy season: Major emph hasis will be given g to bree ed for post ra ainy season adaptation (60% ( of the r resources) co ompared to the rainy sea ason (15%). ICRISAT targets developm ment of hybr rid parents and a varieties . Important target t traits
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that are to be addressed in crop improvement are: high grain and fodder yield and quality, resistance to shoot fly, aphids and foliar diseases besides terminal drought. Also cold tolerance during crop growth and grain filling and photoperiod sensitivity to enable the crop mature on time irrespective of planting time are important traits that enhance crop productivity and farmers acceptance. Conventional breeding methods coupled with new science tools such as genome wide selection will be deployed. The region has soils of different depth, which decides the moisture storing capacity. Therefore, genotypes with early to medium maturity will be bred. In both the adaptations, efforts (about 25% of the resources) will also be directed to improve other traits such as high grain Fe and Zn and stalk sugars along with grain yield and adaptation traits. A multipronged approached is crucial if sorghum and millet production and marketing to benefit scores of small and marginal farmers in SAT areas is to be achieved. The project aims to bridge the above mentioned gaps by developing improved varieties and hybrids through partners and by capacity building that strengthens the skills and knowledge base of stake holders through TOT (transfer of technology), linking farmers to markets, market intelligence, credit and insurance programs. Establishing backward and forward linkages for the project through involvement of NGO’s and other service providers relating to inputs supply, machinery and processing and value addition is another innovation to be addressed in this project. Group extension approach will be resorted towards dissemination of technologies. Further, demonstration of soil health analysis, promoting INM and IPDM, and popularization of cost effective watershed technologies and improved crop management practices through partnership basis will be taken up. Strengthen farmers’ group capacity especially with respect to commercial capabilities e.g., in channeling of inputs, bulking up of outputs and storage will be attempted. Other important constraint to be addressed is the development of small-scale machinery for harvesting and grain and fodder processing. Further, value of both grain and fodder will be enhanced through developing value added products through food and fodder nutrition technologies Involving private and public sector participation in value addition and improving the shelf life of grain and fodder products. Integrated farming Systems (IFS) approaches with buffaloes, local cows, sheep besides crops relevant to location specific situations need to be developed, validated and transferred through participatory action research. The scope for group extension rather than individual farmers through producers association, cooperatives or SHG’s assumes importance as the farmers has to reap the benefits of value addition. Awareness for use of coarse grain in food preparations in cafeterias of national and international organizations/workshops/seminars of SAUs, ICAR institutes, CGIAR institutes/NGOs/government programs will be attempted through, production and broadcast of video-films, use of electronic media, organization of mobile millet food courts, millet food festivals millet melas. Inclusion of sorghum and pearl millet in mid-day meals and other similar government programs for women and children will be encouraged through partners. Policy makers will be sensitized by promoting their participation in the meetings, seminars and workshop and by lobbying through farmer groups for procurement of sorghum and millet at MSP. Policy makers should facilitate forward linkages where farmers enter directly in agreement with industrial users through contract farming, bulk marketing, etc. This will enable an assured price to the growers while the industry can expect bulk supplies of the required quality grain. Food technology can also consider multimillet meal by improving palatability and shelf life. Especially considering the increase in the diabetic population in SAT areas, innovative millet meals will pave the way for not only reducing or controlling diabetic population on the one hand at a cheaper cost, and on the other hand provide market for small millets.

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References
Bantilan MCS, Deb UK, Gowda CLL, Reddy BVS, Obilana AB and Evenson RE. 2004. Sorghum Genetic Enhancement: Research Process, Dissemination and Impacts. ICRISAT, Patancheru. Basavaraj G and P Parthasarathy Rao. 2011. Regional Analysis of Household Consumption of Sorghum in Major Sorghum-Producing and -Consuming States in India. Working Paper Series no 28 Patancheru 502 324, Andhra Pradesh, India: International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics ICRISAT. 1992. Appendix B, Yield loss tables. Medium Term Plan. ICRISAT, Patancheru, India. pp vii – ix. Kumar A Ashok, Belum V S Reddy, HC Sharma and B Ramaiah. 2011. Breeding stable sorghum hybrids resistant to shoot fly (Atherigona soccata Rondani). Journal of Millets Research. Kumara Charyulu D. and M.C.S Bantilan (2011). Tracking of sorghum and pearl millet improved cultivars adoption in India, TRIVSA project report, Unpublished. Nagaraj N. Basavaraj, G. Parthasarthy Rao, P. Cynthia Bantilan, 2011. Future Outlook and Options for Target Crops: The Sorghum and Pearl millet economy of India-Policy Brief (Forthcoming), ICRISAT NRCS. 2009. Vision 2025 Document - Perspective Plan. Rajendranagar, India: National research centre for Sorghum Parthasarathy Rao P, G Basavaraj and Wasim Ahmad. 2011. Regional Analysis of Household Consumption of Pearl Millet in Major Pearl Millet-Producing and –Consuming States in India. Working Paper Series no. 29. Patancheru 502 324, Andhra Pradesh, India: International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics. 20 pp. Pray Carl E. and Nagarajan L. 2009. Pearl millet and sorghum improvement in India. Discussion paper No. 919. International Food Policy research Institute. Reddy Belum VS, A Ashok Kumar and P Sanjana Reddy. 2010. Recent Advances in Sorghum Improvement Research at ICRISAT. Kasetsart J. (Nat. Sci.) 44: 499-506. Sharma, H.C. 2006. Integrated Pest Management Research at ICRISAT: Present Status and Future Priorities. Patancheru, Andhra Pradesh, India: International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics. 43 pp. Singh Piara, Aggarwal, Bhatia V.S. Murthy M.V. R, Pala M, Oweis T, Benli, B, Rao K. P. C, and Wani. P, Yield Gap Analysis of Achievable yields at Farm Level, Rainfed Agriculture: Unlocking the Potential, ICRISAT Yadav O P, Rai K N, Khairwal I S, Rajpurohit B S, and Mahala R S. 2011. Breeding pearl millet for arid zone of northwestern India: Constraints, Opportunities and approaches. All India Coordinated Pearl Millet Improvement Project, Jodhpur, India.

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APPENDIX 3: DEMAND PROJECTIONS AND VALUE PROPOSITION
DEMAND FOR DRYLAND CEREALS Demand for dryland cereals was estimated using the International Model for Policy Analysis of Agricultural Commodities and Trade (IMPACT): Model, developed by IFPRI. The model projects supply and demand for major commodities from baseline in 2000 over a 50-year period. The model allows separate projections for sorghum and millet but not for barley, which is aggregated in ‘other commodities that includes oats and rye. Demand for cereals is disaggregated into food and feed demand. The main demand drivers in the model are population growth and GDP, both of which are based on ‘medium’ World Bank projections. Table 3-1 shows demand projections for the target countries, using the baseline IMPACT model. The results show positive trends in demand for dryland cereals in all regions. In the baseline model, between 2000 and 2020, demand in our target countries is expected to grow from 23 to 35 million mt for sorghum, and from 21 to 29 million mt for millet. Since the IMPACT model does not disaggregate barley from other cereals, it was not possible to estimate predicted demand for barley. However, barley is expected to share in the rising demand for other cereals. In our target countries, barley is produced on 13 million ha leading to a production of 24 million mt.
Table 3-1.Demand projections for dryland cereals, 2020 (000 mt) from baseline IMPACT model Sorghum1 2000 8,388 5,914 7,706 22,008 2020 13,778 9,546 8,818 32,142 2000 9,243 1,770 9,680 20,693 Millet 2020 15,063 3,155 10,379 28,597 2000 4,378 38,072 66,421 108,873 Barley2 2020 7,180 53,942 95,502 156,624

Region WCA ESA CWANA SA (India) Total
1 2

All figures are for grain and exclude sorghum grown for forage in India Calculated based on percentage of barley within demand figures of other cereals (barley, rye, oats)

The IMPACT model can be used to indicate the likely long-term trend in demand. Because the IMPACT model takes account of own and cross price elasticities of different commodities, yield growth rates, rainfall and other factors, such as yield reductions due to water deficit, price of inputs like labor and fertilizer) in projecting supply, its projections are not directly comparable with the increases in supply projected in the CRP. The CRP estimates of increase in production (on which the estimation of benefits is based) suggest that the CRP estimate for sorghum is slightly below predicted demand (29 million mt versus 32 million mt). However, the CRP estimate for increase in the supply of millet is above the predicted demand (46 million mt versus 29 million mt). This is mainly due to the CRP production estimate for India, and the introduction of improved hybrids of pearl millet. In ESA, the increase in supply estimated by the CRP is below expected demand. No comparison is possible for barley since it is grouped with other cereals.

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Table 3-2.Projected increase in supply by 2020, with DRYLAND CEREALS technology change Region WCA ESA CWANA SA (India) Total Sorghum 14,857 6,508 7,615 28,980 Millet 14,556 17,728 13,014 46,101 Barley 1,773 20,890 1,712 24,375

Per capita demand for all cereals falls as incomes rise and consumers diversify diets into meat and milk products. Within the cereals, per capita consumption of dryland cereals falls relatively faster because rising incomes allow consumers to switch to preferred cereals like maize and rice. Nevertheless, aggregate demand for dryland cereals will continue to rise because of population growth, and lack of alternatives in to these crops in dryland areas. Additional demand will also be created by new markets for sorghum (brewing, substituting for expensive barley) and millet (healthconscious consumers). On balance, therefore, we can expect continued growth in demand where (1) population growth remains high (2) there are no alternative cereal crop and (3) where growth in income is not expected to rapidly increase consumer demand for preferred cereals. In Asia, rising incomes have reduced per capita consumption of dryland cereals, but not sufficiently to reduce aggregate demand. Demand projections for dryland cereals in India show that to 2020 demand will continue to exceed (Kumar, Rosegrant, and Hazell, 1995). Demand for sorghum products remains high in specific regions of India (Parthasarathy Rao et al., 2011). Demand for sorghum in India is driven by demand for feed, in response to rising consumer demand for meat and dairy products, as well as for food. Of the total demand for sorghum of 8,798,000 t projected for India by the baseline model, 90% is for food. However, this figure does not include the production of sorghum for forage in the rice-wheat farming system. Demand for dryland cereals in sub-Saharan Africa has not previously been studied and is the focus of current research, with ongoing surveys in both WCA and ESA of the demand by processors and studies of consumer demand based on national household expenditure surveys. The supply shift estimated by the CRP is supported by evidence of increasing in global demand for dryland cereals by 2020. The likely scale of increase in demand was estimated using IFPRI’s IMPACT model, which gives estimates for sorghum and millet, but not for barley. Results from the baseline model (based on historical trends) show positive demand trends for sorghum and millet in all our target regions. By 2020, demand for sorghum and millet in our target countries is expected to reach 35 million and 30 million mt, respectively. This is below the increase in supply that we estimated for sorghum (34 million mt), but above the increase in supply estimated for millet (36 million mt), largely because of expected technology breakthroughs with pearl millet hybrids in India. Based on available evidence, therefore, the CRP will assist farmers meet rising demand for dryland cereals. From the 22 million mt of barley production in developing countries, barley demand for malt is increasing in countries such as Iran, India, Ethiopia and Latin America. Demand for barley for human consumption is increasing in countries such as Morocco, Ethiopia and Iran. Overall demand for barley for animal feed is increasing in almost all countries and supply does not meet the demands in developing countries. There is also a huge barley production in the developed world and in countries such as Russia, Turkey that can fill gaps to some extent. The demand for Barley was calculated based
on percentage of barley within demand figures of other cereals (barley, rye, and oats).

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VALUE PROPOSITION FOR DRYLAND CEREALS Production estimates of barley, millets and sorghum Production estimates (in metric tons) for the base year (2011) were taken from FAOSTAT, average of three years 2007-2009. Production estimates for 2020 were estimated in two stages: First, we estimated the expected yield increase from (1) genetic improvement and (2) crop management. These yield increases were based on personal knowledge by plant breeders and agronomists, and published literature (Sanders et al., 1996; Twomlow et al., 2008; Mazvimavi et al., 2008; Mazvimavi and Twomlow, 2009). Second, we estimated the increase in production by projecting an increase in adoption for (1) improved varieties and (2) improved crop management practices for each year between 2012 and 2020. The expected increase in adoption was made by scientists in each region, based on personal knowledge of each country. The estimates were made separately for each country in the region. FAOSTAT does not distinguish between finger and pearl millet. Both are grown in East and Southern Africa. The proportion planted to each type of millet in ESA was based on published literature (FAO/ICRISAT, 1996: Appendix III) and personal knowledge of ESA plant breeders. Value of production Values in 2011 are producer prices in current US$ available for sorghum and millet. Figures derive from FAOSTAT and are not available for all countries in each region. Where prices were not available for a target country, we used the mean value for the region, based on producer prices for target countries for which prices were available. Values for 2020 are undiscounted 2011 prices. Food Security Food security was measured as the number of households in each country that can meet at least 30 % of basic kilocalories from a specific dryland cereal crop. This was estimated in three stages. First, we estimated the population for each country in areas where sorghum and millet were grown, using the HarvestPlus database. Second, we estimated the average household size from the FAOSTAT database, which is based primarily on decennial farm census data. Since figures were not available for each target country, we used a regional average household size, based on the mean of target countries for which data on household size was available. Third, mean household size was converted to adult equivalents (AE) assuming that each household had only two adults, with adults weighted as 1 and children as 0.5. Finally, we estimated the annual calorific requirement per adult based on a requirement of 2100 kcals/day, and kcal values per 100 grams of 339 (sorghum), 378 (millet) and 352 (barley) from the USDA nutrient database.
Table 3-3. Food Security from dryland cereals Region WCA ESA SA WANA EA Persons/household 9 5 5 5 3 AE/household 5.5 3.5 3.5 3.5 2.5 Kcal/household/30% 1,264,725 804,825 804,825 804,825 574,875

Added Net Income Additional income from dryland cereals was measured as the additional net income per ha from adoption of improved varieties of dryland cereals, measured in current US$, in 2020. Net income is therefore the difference in income per ha from unimproved and improved varieties, after subtracting cash costs and excluding the cost of family labor and non-purchased inputs (e.g. land, manure, etc.). Income refers to the producer price of grain, and excludes stover. The main sources

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of data were recent unpublished baseline surveys for the HOPE Project (sorghum and millet) (Table 3-4). Since this data was not available for all target countries, we used a regional average based on target countries for which data was available. Added income by crop and by country was then calculated by taking the area planted to improved varieties of dryland cereals in 2020, and multiplying by added income per hectare in Table 3-4.
Table 3-4. Added net income from adoption of improved varieties (US$/ha) Region/crop WCA sorghum WCA millet ESA sorghum ESA millet SA sorghum SA millet Barley Added net income 50 50 50 50 90 150 50

Targeted Farmers and Beneficiaries We estimated the average holding size for each region, using the same FAO database that was used to estimate household size (see section 3, Food Security). Since figures were not available for all target countries, we used a regional average based on the mean holding size for target countries for which figures were available. We then estimated the number of households by dividing the area for each crop by the average holding size. The number of holdings was then multiplied by the average household size to estimate number of beneficiaries. We estimate that we can reach approximately 20% of the total number of farmers (beneficiaries) in each country, except for Sudan where we estimate reaching 5%. Full details are provided in Table 3-5.

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Table 3-5. Estimation of targeted area, households and beneficiaries.
Region / country Crop Average Holding Size (ha) Average Persons / Household Area (ha) 2008-2010 Average Estimated Households Estimated Beneficiaries Proportion Area Overlap Proportion Targeted Area Targeted Area (ha) Targeted Households Targeted Beneficiaries

West and Central Africa Burkina Faso Mali Niger Nigeria Senegal Sub-total Burkina Faso Mali Niger Nigeria Sub-total Sorghum Sorghum Sorghum Sorghum 4 4 4 4 9 9 9 9 Millet Millet Millet Millet Millet 4 4 4 4 4 9 9 9 9 9 1,398,050 1,519,743 6,865,073 4,134,400 989,483 14,906,750 1,846,007 1,102,655 2,974,037 5,696,820 11,619,518 349,513 379,936 1,716,268 1,033,600 247,371 3,726,687 461,502 275,664 743,509 1,424,205 2,904,880 3,145,613 3,419,423 15,446,415 9,302,400 2,226,337 33,540,187 4,153,515 2,480,974 6,691,583 12,817,845 26,143,916 50% 50% 20% 40% 20% 20% 20% 20% 50% 50% 20% 40% 0% 20% 20% 20% 20% 20% 279,610 303,949 1,373,015 826,880 197,897 2,981,350 369,201 220,531 594,807 1,139,364 2,323,904 69,903 75,987 343,254 206,720 49,474 745,337 92,300 55,133 148,702 284,841 580,976 629,123 683,885 3,089,283 1,860,480 445,267 6,708,037 830,703 496,195 1,338,317 2,563,569 5,228,783

Eastern and Southern Africa Ethiopia Sub-total Ethiopia Sudan Tanzania Uganda Sub-total Ethiopia Sorghum 1.5 5 Millet Millet Millet Millet 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 5 5 5 5 Barley 1.5 5 1,030,603 1,030,603 392,122 2,235,473 317,315 459,333 3,404,243 1,589,173 687,069 687,069 261,414 1,490,316 211,543 306,222 2,269,495 1,059,449 3,435,343 3,435,343 1,307,072 7,451,578 1,057,716 1,531,111 11,347,477 5,297,244 10% 20% 10% 10% 10% 10% 20% 5% 20% 20% 10% 20% 206,121 206,121 78,424 111,774 63,463 91,867 345,528 317,835 137,414 137,414 52,283 74,516 42,309 61,244 230,352 211,890 687,069 687,069 261,414 372,579 211,543 306,222 1,151,759 1,059,449

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Region / country Sudan Tanzania Sub-total

Crop Sorghum Sorghum

Average Holding Size (ha) 1.5 1.5

Average Persons / Household 5 5

Area (ha) 2008-2010 Average 6,294,903 860,710 8,744,787

Estimated Households 4,196,602 573,807 5,829,858

Estimated Beneficiaries 20,983,011 2,869,034 29,149,290

Proportion Area Overlap 10% 10%

Proportion Targeted Area 5% 20%

Targeted Area (ha) 314,745 172,142 804,722

Targeted Households 209,830 114,761 536,481

Targeted Beneficiaries 1,049,151 573,807 2,682,406

Central and West Asia and North Africa Algeria Iran Iraq Kazakhstan Morocco Syria Turkey Sub-total Barley Barley Barley Barley Barley Barley Barley 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 5 5 5 3 5 5 3 895,574 1,443,337 1,019,308 1,679,600 2,094,533 1,299,173 2,903,107 11,334,633 447,787 721,668 509,654 839,800 1,047,267 649,587 1,451,553 5,667,316 2,238,936 3,608,342 2,548,271 2,519,400 5,236,333 3,247,933 4,354,660 23,753,875 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 20% 20% 20% 20% 20% 20% 20% 179,115 288,667 203,862 335,920 418,907 259,835 580,621 2,266,927 89,557 144,334 101,931 167,960 209,453 129,917 290,311 1,133,463 447,787 721,668 509,654 503,880 1,047,267 649,587 870,932 4,750,775

South Asia India Sub-total India Sub-total India Sub-total Sorghum 1.3 5 Millet 1.3 5 Barley 2 5 724,200 724,200 11,332,533 11,332,533 7,654,667 7,654,667 362,100 362,100 8,717,333 8,717,333 5,888,205 5,888,205 1,810,500 1,810,500 43,586,667 43,586,667 29,441,026 29,441,026 5% 20% 5% 20% 5% 20% 144,840 144,840 2,266,507 2,266,507 1,530,933 1,530,933 72,420 72,420 1,743,467 1,743,467 1,177,641 1,177,641 362,100 362,100 8,717,333 8,717,333 5,888,205 5,888,205

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This was measured in mt required to plant the area planted to improved varieties of sorghum, barley, and millets in 2020. The estimation was made in two steps. First, we measured the seed rate for each crop. The figures we used were 8 kg/ha (sorghum), 4 kg/ha (millets) and 100 kg/ha (barley). Second, we divided the total area under improved varieties by the seed rate per ha, and converted the result to mt of seed required. The seed requirement variable serves as a check on the validity of the estimates of adoption. Value of stover The value of stover was measured only for sorghum, based on the assumption that straw of millets and barley was used as fuel or feed. Values are producer prices for sorghum stover measured in current USD. The change in the value of stover was estimated based on the following assumptions. First, we estimated the grain: stover ratio for unimproved varieties and for improved varieties for sorghum. Second, we estimated the grain: stover price ratio in 2011 and 2020. We assumed that this ratio would stay constant for SA. For WCA and ESA, we assumed that the ratio would increase with rising demand for stover. Third, (for SA) only) we estimated the price premium (10%) that market traders would pay for improved sorghum varieties with higher quality stover that improved in vitro digestibility.
Table 3-6. Estimation of benefits from stover Grain: Stover ratio (mt) Region WCA ESA SA 2011 10 5 2 2020 4 3 2 Grain: Stover price ratio (%) 2011 10 10 50 2020 20 20 50 Quality premium (%) 2020 0 0 10

These ratios were based on personal knowledge of plant breeders in each region, as well as published literature (Blummel and Rao, 2006; Kristjanson and Zerbini, 1999; Gebremedhin et al., 2009; EADD, 2011). Information for WCA was obtained from de Leeuw (1997) and Clerget et al., 2010). Information for value of stover for WCA is spare but Falconnier (2009) documents how farmers have started to store and use sorghum stover. Values for newer varieties of sorghum were published recent as an abstract (Clerget et al., 2010). For the value we have no information that research has not been done, as the stover is only rarely traded so far. We have started to observe that farmers harvest and store sorghum stover of improved quality, and that it is major reason for adoption of new varieties (Gatien-Falconnier, 2009). These ratios were then applied as follows. To measure the value of stover in 2011, we multiplied the total sorghum production by the grain: stover ratio, to obtain a figure for total stover production in 2011. We then multiplied this figure by the grain: stover price ratio for 2011, to obtain a total value. To measure the value of stover in 2020, the calculations were made separately for improved and unimproved varieties. For unimproved varieties, we multiplied the total production of unimproved varieties in 2020 by the grain: stover ratio in 2011 (i.e. the original ratio) to obtain total stover production from unimproved varieties. We then multiplied this figure by the grain: stover price ratio for 2020 to obtain the value of stover from unimproved varieties in 2020. For improved varieties, we multiplied the total production of improved varieties in 2020 by the grain: stover ratio for 2020 (i.e. the new ratio), to obtain total stover production from improved varieties in 2020. We then added the value of stover from improved and unimproved varieties in 2020 to obtain the total value of stover in 2020.

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Finally (for SA only) we added the price premium (10 to the value of stover from improved varieties in 2020. This was estimated as the premium that market traders would pay for improved sorghum varieties with higher quality stover that improved in vitro digestibility. The value of stover for SA includes the value of forage sorghum, for which production was estimated to increase from 60 to 75 million t between 2011 and 2020. This was valued at the price for stover used to value stover produced from sorghum grown for grain. No price premium was added. Nutrition Benefits from nutrition were measured as the percentage of nutrient requirements for the population met from production of dryland cereals. This was estimated in two stages. First, we measured the supply of micronutrients from dryland cereals. This was made by multiplying the production of cereals by the nutrient values for calcium, iron, and zinc, using the values in Table 3-7.
Table 3-7. Nutrient values for dryland cereals (mg per 100 grams) Mineral Iron Zinc Calcium Barley 2.5 2.13 29 Sorghum 4.4 0 28 Millet 3.01 1.68 8

Source: USDA, except for sorghum where values for iron and zinc are for decorticated grain

Second, we estimated the demand for micronutrients in the target population. For each target country, the target population was measured as the total population in the area where the dryland cereal was grown. This assumes that the cereal is consumed entirely within the area in which it is being grown. Next, we estimated the nutrient requirement for this target population (Table 3-8).
Table 3-8. Nutrient requirements for iron, zinc, and calcium (mg or g/day) Nutrient Iron Zinc Calcium mcg/d 8100 6800 mg/d 8.1 6.8 1000 g/d 0.0081 0.0068 1 Measure EAR EAR AI

Note: EARs represent the estimated nutrient requirement so that 50% of the population will meet their nutrient requirements. This is in contrast to RDAs or RNIs (which most people are familiar with), which represents the estimated nutrient requirement so that 97% of the population will meet their requirements. I selected the highest adult EAR available, excluding pregnant and lactating women. The EARs are per the Canadian/US guidelines for iron and zinc. Calcium is unique (http://www.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=5776); an EAR could not be set by an expert committee so they set Adequate Intakes (AIs) of 1000 mg/day per adult.

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Table 3-9. Value propositions to 2020 for Dryland Cereal Crops and Regions
Production (mt) Region/Crop WCA Sorghum Millet ESA Barley Sorghum Millet India Barley Sorghum Millet CWANA Barley TOTALS Region/Crop Production (mt) 2011 WCA ESA India CWANA 27,515,365 9,404,768 22,048,130 20,615,767 2020 29,413,745 9,733,733 22,342,105 20,890,644 2011 8,248,904,744 3,179,398,409 3,680,631,179 5,262,816,970 Value (USD) 2020 8,358,890,389 3,207,547,812 3,770,181,330 5,332,988,136 Food security (hh) 2011 80,549,520 40,627,907 99,365,101 90,165,564 2020 91,376,213 47,606,967 101,471,526 91,367,776 Increase in net income (USD) 2020 255,367,850 67,818,550 485,002,020 113,346,350 2011 4,039,341,000 907,481,076 885,391,630 Stover (USD) 2020 7,096,815,605 2,486,662,156 916,085,259 20,615,767 20,890,644 5,262,816,970 5,332,988,136 90,165,564 91,367,776 113,346,350 1,690,000 7,515,420 12,842,710 1,712,533 7,615,626 13,013,946 382,785,000 1,264,845,186 2,033,000,993 428,363,822 1,281,709,856 2,060,107,652 7,391,420 31,655,669 60,318,012 8,271,529 32,077,746 61,122,251 7,242,000 137,783,970 339,976,050 885,391,630 916,085,259 1,750,440 6,145,010 1,509,318 1,773,779 6,187,272 1,772,682 787,698,000 1,814,962,151 576,738,258 798,200,550 1,827,308,929 582,038,333 7,655,762 25,883,371 7,088,774 8,318,410 27,413,179 11,875,378 10,306,050 40,236,100 17,276,400 907,481,076 2,486,662,156 1,630,000 14,365,365 1,651,733 14,556,904 335,997,333 4,209,563,744 340,477,229 4,265,691,351 4,369,092 45,301,937 4,427,346 55,658,660 18,460,050 139,172,700 335,997,333 539,428,238 2011 2020 2011 Value (USD) 2020 Food security (hh) 2011 2020 Increase in net income (USD) 2020 2011 Stover (USD) 2020

Barley Millet Sorghum GRAND TOTALS

24,056,207 28,717,393 26,810,430 79,584,030

24,376,956 29,343,532 28,659,739 82,380,227

6,433,299,970 6,819,302,995 7,119,148,337 20,371,751,302

6,559,552,508 6,907,837,336 7,202,217,823 20,669,607,667

105,212,746 112,708,723 92,786,623 310,708,092

107,957,715 128,656,289 95,208,478 331,822,482

130,894,400 496,425,150 294,215,220 921,534,770

-

-

5,832,213,706 5,832,213,706

10,499,563,020 10,499,563,020

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APPENDIX 4: STRATEGIC OBJECTIVE OUTPUTS, METHODOLOGY, MILESTONES & PARTNER ROLES
STRATEGIC OBJECTIVE 1 - BETTER TARGETING OF OPPORTUNITIES FOR TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT AND DELIVERY OF DRYLAND CEREALS TO SMALLHOLDER FARMERS IN AFRICA AND ASIA Outputs, methodologies and milestones Output 1.1 Knowledge and priorities for R4D opportunities along the dryland cereals value chain to increase benefits to smallholder farmers, especially women Dryland cereals primarily grown by smallholder farmers primarily for direct human consumption are also being used to produce various value added products that are becoming additional source of income especially for women. Over the decades the composition and demand for dryland cereals has undergone a swift change from a subsistence crop (staple) towards commercial production for the market as raw material for livestock, and poultry feed, potable alcohol, starch and ethanol industries, besides value added food products enhancing the incomes of small holders. However, underdeveloped markets, markets that mainly cater to grain for food purposes, small marketed quantities, market access and weak value chains act as major limiting factors preventing small scale farmers from reaping benefits from growing demand in various uses. Uncoordinated and unreliable supplies with associated high costs to end users could lead to diversion of demand to other substitute crops that have better linkages with the demand centers. These limiting factors can be very different and diverse depending on the type of product, market demand, market type and infrastructure. Experience illustrates that investment in market institutions, value chains, processing and innovations to reduce marketing costs and better provision of market information acts as drivers of change owing to the economic and competitive needs to reduce transaction cost, stimulate market demand and trade. It is therefore important to understand costs associated along the supply chain until the end user. This would provide a basis for the incentives for production, processing, and other improvements at each stage of the distribution chain. The detailed cost and return structures of individual value chain commodities will help to identify the areas of investment, improvement, innovations and opportunities for R4D to have greatest impact on profitability of small holder farmers and women. Traditionally, outreach and extension services have focused on improving productivity and production and ignored post-harvesting processing, marketing and value addition. The linkages among producers, value chain actors and consumers were often unexplored. Thus, the “value chain” from input suppliers through production to output markets needs to be explored. This must involve multiple actors such as input suppliers, producers, storage agencies, food technologists, processors, and marketing entities. Policy-makers need to be made aware of the opportunities that dryland cereals present for addressing both rural poverty and supplying food to rapidly growing urban populations. Dryland cereals primarily grown by smallholder farmers for consumption are also being used to produce value added products especially for livestock (e.g. sorghum and maize). However, the potential of dryland millets in addressing the diabetic and obese populations is still unexploited. Underdeveloped markets, poor outreach, niche markets, markets that mainly cater to grain for local and ethnic food purposes, small marketed quantities, low market access and weak value chains have deterred smallholder farmers from reaping benefits from growing these low input, low water, high value but low demand crops (Chandrakanth and Akarsha, 2011). Uncoordinated and unreliable supplies with associated high costs to end users can lead to crop substitution losing the rich wealth of dryland agro-biodiversity that can ably support farmers in the

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wake of climate change. Recent studies conducted by ICRISAT have identified that nearly 30-40% of sorghum and 50-60% pearl millet production in India is being utilized for alternative uses (as livestock feed) (Basavaraj et al., 2011 and Parthasarathy et al., 2010). The preliminary results generated from this output will be used in identification of major non-food sub-sectors in the market for dry land cereals. Each identified major sub-sector for each selected crop will be analyzed. A representative sampling procedure will be designed by incorporating a sizeable proportion of all stakeholders involved in sub-sector. Primary data will be collected through pre-tested schedules from stakeholders. The data will be analyzed with appropriate statistical tools and techniques. The costs and returns from different sub-sectors will be calculated based on the primary data and would be compared among different sub-sectors. Similarly, the producer farmer costs and returns per ha will be calculated. Ultimately, the producer share in the total profitability would be generated among alternative uses and sectors. The actual value-addition among different sub-sectors will be analyzed along with the reasons and steps for assured value addition will be explored. The preferred traits and qualities of each sub-sector, which will help in generating new cultivars/hybrids by research organizations/ institutes will be explored. Markets, institutions, value chains, processing and innovations to reduce marketing costs and better provision of market information reduce transaction costs, stimulating effective demand. Thus, the costs associated with supply chain are crucial. This provides basis for the incentives for production, processing, and other improvements in the distribution chain. The detailed cost and return structures of individual value chain commodities will help to identify the areas of investment, improvement, innovations and opportunities for R4D to have greatest impact on the economy of small holder farmers and farm women. Methodology Participatory value chain analysis (mapping market channels, transaction costs) The first step is to document the R4D in value addition of all the dry land cereals. With multiple stakeholders and products produced along the value chain for dryland cereals, understanding the market systems, their behavior in the systems in terms of opportunities and obstacles, interactions and inter-linkages of the stakeholders involved and mapping of the value chains are critical. Hence, a participatory type of value chain approach will be meaningful with involvement of diverse actors of the chain and specifically the value chains in dryland cereals can be explored with the effective participation of the farmwomen. The mapping will provide critical insights into the disaggregation of costs and returns, opportunities for value addition, challenges faced across various stakeholders along the value chain, distributional distortions and leverage points for policy and technical interventions. The indicative value chain costs and returns for dryland cereals, market prices of grain and stover, input use statistics, market margins together with the maintenance of monitoring data sets for specific projects, case studies will assist setting priorities among crops, regions, markets and approaches. Analysis of comparative economics and costing of the products produced will be attempted for their competitiveness. In addition, private and social cost benefit analysis will be done in order to assess the gains accrued among different players in the chain. The value chain framework thus, will help to focus and improve decision-making around priorities and investments and to identify development activities along the value chain of dryland cereals. The first step is to document the R4D in value addition of all the dry land cereals. The value chains in dryland cereals can be explored with the effective participation of the farm women using these crops in their meal preparations and linking them with food technologists and entrepreneurs who can undertake processing and this needs to be linked with the commercial brand equity owners such as Britannia, Parle, Kissan and other companies, who can herald the use of millets in their products. The participatory value chain will only be meaningful with involvement of diverse actors of the chain.

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Milestones  Mainstreamed gender plans for dryland cereals (2012)  Identify end market opportunities for dryland cereals (2013)  Completed Value Chain Analysis for 2 crops in 2 countries per region (2014) Output 1.2 Knowledge of trade-offs between food and non-food uses of dryland cereal multipurpose varieties and hybrids Alternative uses of dryland cereals create new opportunities that have potential to increase market demand and income for smallholder farmers. During the last two decades, new sources of demand for sorghum and pearl millet have been emerging from various sectors. The demand for sorghum and pearl millet as poultry feed (especially as layer feed) and animal feed has greatly increased. Dayakar Rao, Reddy, and Seetharama (2007) projected that by the year 2010, the likely demand for sorghum for poultry and cattle feed would be around 3 million metric tons. The demand barley as animal feed in some counties in North Africa, Ethiopia and Yemen is also on the rise. Additionally, there is a growing demand for the grain of these three crops from the ethanol industry for manufacture of potable alcohol. The main thrust of this Project is to provide poor dryland households with the technologies, linkages, and development impetus they need to harness the “pull” of these growing markets. One such trend is increasing global demand for livestock products (meat, milk) with growing global affluence (Delgado et al. 1999), which in turn leads to increased demand for grains as feed creating derived demand. The increasing demand for livestock products will overstretch corn supplies, and therefore accelerate demand from sorghum and millets for livestock feeds. The growing demand for livestock products can either be met through imports or increased domestic production. Thus there will be an increased demand for animal feeds such as crop residues, forage and feed concentrate such as grains and oil cakes (McKinsey 1997). This strong demand is increasing the market value of dryland crop residues. Recent efforts by ICRISAT in India have emphasized the development of this market demand to further “pull” demand for sorghum, increasing the income benefits received by farmers. Knowledge of farmers and other end users will be enhanced relating to 1) the varieties/hybrids incorporating the quality attributes preferred by them for consumption or industrial use, 2) improving keeping quality of the flour and exploring health benefits and nutraceutical value, 3) exploring non-conventional uses and extrusion products, and 4) nutritional value. Methodology Review of key non-food uses in region/country for target crops ICRISAT and ICARDA will make an inventory of studies conducted on the key non-food uses of target crops in the region/country. The systematic review would synthesize the available information and assess the future outlook for increasing the demand and expanding market opportunities for alternative uses of sorghum, barley and pearl millet with special reference to alternative novel food products, livestock feed, starch and brewing/distilling industries. Based on review of key non-food uses, market supply and demand projections would be generated for selected crops in the targeted region/country. This exercise would also help in prioritization of potential non-food uses of the targeted crops. Similarly, it would also help in assessing the constraint analysis for different non-feed uses for selected crops, and in generating comparative assessment of profitability among different alternative uses for target crops. The entire process would assess existing and improved sorghum and pearl millet cultivars and hybrids for their suitability in different alternative uses. A thorough review would identify potential players and opportunities for stimulating the institutional alliances among public, private, industry, and NGO sectors to enhance alternative uses and market demand.

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Sub-sector analysis for selected non-feed uses (poultry, livestock) As indicated by various studies and researchers, sorghum and pearl millet have diverse uses in the non-feed sector in India. Recent studies conducted by ICRISAT have identified that nearly 30-40 per cent of sorghum and 50-60 per cent pearl millet production in the country was utilized by non-food purposes. These preliminary results generated from above output will be used in identification of major non-feed sub-sectors in the market respectively for sorghum and pearl millet. Each identified major sub-sector for each selected crop will be studied thoroughly and systematically. A representative sampling procedure will be designed by incorporating a sizable proportion of all stakeholders involved in that particular sub-sector. Primary data will be collected through pre-tested questionnaires from all stakeholders. The data will be analyzed with appropriate statistical tools and techniques. The costs and returns from different sub-sectors will be calculated based on the primary data and would be compared among different sub-sectors. Similarly, the producer farmer costs and returns per ha will be calculated under different sub-sectors. Ultimately, the producer share in the total profitability would be generated among alternative uses and sectors. The extent of valueaddition among different sub-sectors will be analyzed. The entire process would also obtain the preferred traits and qualities by each sub-sector, which will help in generating new cultivars/hybrids by research organizations/institutes. Willingness to pay for hybrid seed in WCA region Several studies on the structure, conduct and performance of seed markets in West and Central Africa showed that the private sector is keen to enter the seed industry particularly for crops such as sorghum and pearl millet. The informal seed system remains the major supplier of sorghum and pearl millet seed to smallholder farmers (Ndjeunga, 2002, Venkatesan 1994). This is explained by the fact that seed demand for such crops is unknown and there is little apparent potential for profits. Farmers can save their own seed from past harvests without replacement and can only participate in the market when they face seed losses due to abiotic and biotic stresses or they want to experiment new varieties. In such circumstances, the private sector cannot face the variable demand for seed and therefore cannot entry the OPV sorghum and pearl millet seed markets. Various CBOs are being tested but are not sustainable because they are not driven by the private sector. The development of sorghum and pearl millet hybrids offers several opportunities for the development of the seed industry and its sustainability. With hybrids, smallholder farmers will get more yields but will not be able to replant the seed. However, the private sector may be willing to enter hybrid seed industry because they can capture profits and there is a relatively predictable seed demand. There is currently no market for sorghum and pearl millet hybrid seed in West Africa and there are doubts that farmers will demand for such seed. There is therefore a need to assess the willingness to pay (WTP) for hybrid seed by farmers and the factors driving the WTP. Contingent valuation method (CVM) is used to value a wider range of non-market goods and services. It involves directly asking people, in a survey, how much they would be willing to pay for specific goods. Several methods are available such as 1) directly asking consumers to state their willingness to pay using an open-ended question format, 2) a Choice-Based Conjoint Analysis, which calculates willingness to pay based on consumers’ choices among several product alternatives and a “none” choice option, or 3) the Becker, DeGroot and Marschak (BDM) approach, in which the participants are obligated to purchase a product if the price drawn from a lottery is less than or equal to his or her stated willingness to pay in response to a direct question. Milestones  Identification of key non-food uses in region/country for target crops (2012)  Completed analysis of 1 subsector in each region (2013)  Completed analysis of willingness to pay for hybrid seed in Nigeria and Niger (2014)

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Output 1.3 Evidence for policy and regulations to increase demand and supply of dryland cereal grain and processed products The technological options in the coarse cereals have been quite attractive and promise good productivity generating sizeable marketable surplus. Prices and market infrastructure act as major bottlenecks in the growth of these crops. It is therefore natural that growth has stunted in the absence of proper price incentives. Given the facts that the productivity growth is satisfactory, the consumption requirements are more or less stabilized. The external demand-pull will alone exert pressure on adoption of technology. As there is a sizeable marketable surplus existing, we strongly believe that dryland cereals can be utilized to strengthen the food security system at the local level, because: (i) the dryland cereals form the dominant component of the food grain consumption in the drought-prone areas; (ii) technology has a good promise for this group of crops; (iii) there is a sizeable marketable surplus existing which can be used locally for providing food security to the landless rural poor; (iv) most of the rural households either depend on house hold production or the market for their requirements; and (v) given some price incentive these crops can do as well as any other crop. Farmers are more concerned about the prices received for the crop and they do sell some portion of their marketable surplus. Minimum Support Price (MSP) mechanism has not been effective in this respect as the marketing of the produce is not in bulk and most of the time only in local markets. In addition to MSP, there should be backing through actual and active procurement by the relevant agencies, for example in the case of India FCI and/or the Dept of Food and Civil Supplies. Mere announcement of MSP does not benefit any smallholder farmer, unless the dryland cereals are actually procured at the predetermined prices. These crops have received unfair treatment on the price front. Though there has been productivity enhancement, due to lack of economic incentives and effective demand farmers reduced area under course cereals by shifting to other crops to earn their livelihoods. While sorghum, barley and pearl millet can substantially contribute to food, nutritional and economic security of small and marginal farmers, to stimulate demand for all the three crops, value addition at micro and macro levels with technological support and market led extension through food science and nutrition is crucial. Further, publishing evidence-based policy briefs and advocating policy and institutional changes are required to promote demand and supply of dryland cereals and products that benefit smallholder farm households, as well as for the urban poor. Methodology Ex-ante impact analysis using IMPACT model The International Model for Policy Analysis and Commodity Trade (IMPACT) model offers a methodology for analyzing baseline and alternative scenarios for global food demand, supply, trade, income and population. The model can also be used to assess the impact of climate change on dryland cereal production and its impact on price, income and food security. The model simulates the behavior of a competitive world agricultural market for crops and livestock, and is specified as a set of food producing units (FPU) that can be aggregated to countries or regional sub-models, within each of which supply, demand and market clearing prices for agricultural commodities are generated for each year. The country and regional agricultural sub-models are linked through trade in a non-spatial way, such that the effect on country-level production, consumption and commodity prices is captured through net trade flows in global agricultural markets. Demand is a function of prices, income and population growth. Growth in crop production in each country is determined by crop prices and the rate of productivity growth. World agricultural commodity prices are determined annually at levels that clear international markets. The model uses a system of linear and nonlinear equations to approximate the underlying production and demand relationships, and is parameterized with country-level elasticities of supply and demand (Rosegrant et al., 2008). In addition, we will review and analyze the existing policies in order to identify the deficiencies that constrain the demand and supply of dryland cereals and also prepare evidence-based policy briefs.

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PAM to measure competitiveness of dryland cereals The Policy Analysis Matrix (PAM), a computational framework developed by Monke and Pearson (1989), will be used to assess efficiency and competitiveness of dryland cereal production in the regions. PAM measures the profitability at both private (actual market) and social (efficiency) prices. The measure of private profitability demonstrates the competitiveness of the dryland cereals, given the current technologies, prices for inputs and outputs and policy at current market prices whereas the social profits reflect social opportunity costs. A positive social profit indicates that the country uses scarce resources efficiently and has a static comparative advantage in the production of that commodity at margin. Negative social profits indicate that a sector cannot sustain its current output without assistance from the Government, resulting waste of resource. . Three important measures viz., Nominal Protection Coefficient, Effective Protection Coefficient (EPC) and Domestic resource cost (DRC) are analyzed and compared from the PAM framework. These indicators will provide the measure of competiveness and the economic efficiency of existing systems and impact of policies on those systems. Milestones  Outlook Report for dryland cereals for each region (2012)  One Policy Brief for each region disseminated to policy makers (2013)  Measure the efficiency and competitiveness of dryland cereals (2014) Partners and Their Roles Key partners for Strategic Objective 1 include counterpart groups engaged in agricultural research and development monitoring, evaluation and impact assessment. Experts from a variety of disciplines are needed to effectively undertake a participatory process involving stakeholders and users. Partners with competencies in the use of new tools, including GIS and spatial analysis, as well as data management and warehousing will be needed for the analysis, synthesis, documentation and dissemination of data and information. Major research and/or development partners with specific competencies in socioeconomic and policy analysis will also be involved. At this point, the following partnerships are envisioned:  M&E groups and socioeconomic departments of national agricultural research organizations, including ICAR in India, IAR and LCRI in Nigeria, IER in Mali, ISRA in Senegal, INRAN in Niger, INERA in Burkina Faso, and various NARES in ESA where dryland cereals are major sources of livelihood for millions of poor smallholders will be heavily involved in Strategic Objective 1. Their roles will include: identification of clusters of villages for implementing project activities; identification of key players in the value chain; baseline data collection; primary data collection and surveys relating to proposed interventions; inputting and validation of data; monitoring and evaluation coordination with private players regarding market linkages; and conducting and coordinating training programs on good agricultural practices, value addition, income-generating activities and the empowerment of women farmers. Such groups and organizations will take the lead in their respective countries, with harmonization of procedural frameworks and data aggregation being done at the regional and CRP level primarily by ICRISAT and ICARDA;  Advanced research institutions and universities, such as IRD/CIRAD (France), ACIAR (Australia), Purdue University and the University of Florida – Gainsville (USA) will be engaged to help establish and/or adjust research priorities, analyze aggregated data and information, and assess impacts and policy implications;  National seed regulatory agencies in target countries and regions will be engaged relative to developing and promoting evidence-based varietal release, seed system and phytosanitary

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policies (output 1.3), all with an eye towards ensuring seed quality and commercialization of new dryland cereal varieties and hybrids;  Public and private seed companies that can provide unique perspectives as well as data on dryland seed production, sales and marketing will be involved in producing all three outputs. They are well placed to validate data and information gathered under outputs 1.1 and 1.2, and have a strong interest in helping shape evidence-based see policies in our target countries;  Gender experts and practitioners in international and national organizations, such as partner CGIAR centers and organizations, FAO and other UN Agencies, and an array of rural development NGOs will be brought on board to help design, and in many cases implement, gender-sensitive data gathering tools and processes and ensure the validity of results obtained for outputs 1.1 and 1.2, as well as help formulate, evaluate and promote genderresponsive policies;  Local NGOs, financial institutions, farmers’ organizations and agricultural marketing agencies and firms in dryland areas will engage in capacity building and implementation of Strategic Objective 1 (mainly output 1.1), including exploration of options for development programs, market linkages, contract farming, value addition, crop insurance and so on; and  National agro-industries and private firms involved in dryland cereals processing and marketing, most of which are listed under Strategic Objectives 2 and 3, will assist in shaping research priorities related to output 1.1, and contribute their ideas and perspectives relative to policy recommendation (output 1.3).

STRATEGIC OBJECTIVE 2 - ENHANCING THE AVAILABILITY AND USE OF GENETIC DIVERSITY, GENOMICS AND
INFORMATICS TO ENHANCE THE EFFICIENCY OF DRYLAND CEREAL IMPROVEMENT

Outputs, Methodology and Milestones Output 2.1 Dynamic dryland cereal germplasm conservation, exchange and utilization Output 2.1 focuses on the status of existing germplasm collections and related data of DRYLAND CEREALS (barley, finger millet, pearl millet and sorghum) and their exchange among the principal partners of CRP 3.6, national, regional and international research institutes, NARES, public and private sector seed companies, NGOs, farmers and other individuals to enrich the existing collections globally. ICRISAT and ICARDA gene banks conserve large germplasm collections of sorghum, pearl millet, finger millet and barley accessions from many countries (Table 4-1). Best practices will be applied to ensure long-term conservation, proper regeneration and multiplication, and characterization of these DRYLAND CEREAL genetic resources. These collections contain much of the genetic diversity that forms the basis of future breeding efforts in these crops, as well as genes for traits of importance to other crops. However, for the dryland cereals, most of wild genetic diversity has been left untouched. Wild relatives growing in the center of origin/diversity often have the adaptive mechanisms to withstand ever-changing climatic conditions, while those in regions far from such centers of origin have adapted to otherwise uncommon conditions for the cultigen. To enrich the existing global gene bank collections, a critical assessment of present collections for diversity gaps is required. Based on these assessments, germplasm collection missions in priority areas will be required to fill identified gaps. Further, the acquisition of trait-specific germplasm, more extensive molecular characterization of existing accessions, development of representative subsets, and provision of all information as global public goods are critical to enable the use of the diversity contained in the collections.

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Table 4-1. ICRISAT and ICARDA germplasm collections of sorghum, pearl millet, finger millet and barley accessions
Crop Barley Finger millet Pearl millet Sorghum No. of countries 90 24 50 92 No. of accessions 55,000 5,957* 22,211* 37,949*

* Including wild relatives; core and mini core sets available

Methodology Conserving and distributing genetic resources Historically, the CGIAR Center gene banks have established effective and high-quality management procedures for the safe conservation, maintenance and distribution of the genetic resources under their supervision. During the past several years, the Global Public Goods (GPG) projects funded by the CGIAR have allowed the gene banks to upgrade many of their facilities, enhance the collections where possible and increase the information available on the collections. Recently, efforts by the Global Crop Diversity Trust (GCDT) are targeting long-term funding for the core gene bank operations, and are providing opportunities for joint discussions and planning of global crop collections. Under this Output, the partners will work together to establish gene bank operations at international standards The existing DRYLAND CEREALS collections will be maintained using the best practices of conservation, regeneration/multiplication and documentation, mainly through the development of crop registries to reduce duplications, and the proper handling of wild species for maintaining their genetic integrity during the regeneration and multiplication cycles. All accessions from the CGIAR gene banks will be distributed under the agreed-upon SMTA, as is current practice. Enriching the collections with missing diversity Gap analysis refers to a systematic method of analyzing the degree of conservation of taxa, in order to identify those locations, taxa and particular traits not secured or under-secured in conservation systems (Maxted et al. 2008). Gap analysis will be done by application of FloraMap, DIVA-GIS and other GIS computer packages to identify the gaps in collections. Such analyses will be performed in terms of representation of species, of populations within species, of land/ecological conditions sampled so far. Special GIS-facilitated approaches will be developed to permit targeting germplasm with specific adaptive traits during collection missions. Partners to the Treaty will jointly identify the gaps in all DRYLAND CEREALS germplasm collections and launch germplasm collection missions. The CRP approach will minimize duplication of collections, and the planning and conducting of collection missions in each target crop/region/country. Providing global access to genetic resources and related information Traditionally, passport and characterization data on the accessions have been made available via information systems at each Center and/or via global systems such as SINGER (http://singer.cgiar.org/). GrinGlobal (Cyr et al., 2009) is being developed by the USDA, GCDT and Bioversity as a more robust gene bank management and information system. CRP 3.6 partners plan to evaluate GrinGlobal, and if feasible, implement it as a global DRYLAND CEREALS information system. The information on the collections will be updated, particularly for location data (latitude and longitude) of collection sites. Enabling better use of genetic resource collections In the case of the CGIAR gene banks, the size of the entire germplasm collections are too large to conduct multi-location evaluation of germplasm for traits of economic importance such as yield, resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses, traits related to quality and to adaptation, which often show
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high genotype x environment interactions. Hence, to carry out meaningful evaluations, the large collections must be sub-sampled to bring the size of the sets of materials evaluated to a manageable level, as suggested by Frankel and Brown (1984). Core (10% of entire collection), mini-core (1% of entire collection) and reference sets (approximately 300 accessions selected based on optimal molecular diversity) provide useful sub-sets of the global genetic diversity for each crop, and are the material of choice for studying global diversity and assessing donors of genes and alleles (Caniato et al. 2011). Such sub-sets have been jointly developed by CIRAD and ICRISAT for sorghum, by ICRISAT for finger millet, pearl millet and sorghum (Upadhyaya et al. 2009b, 2010, 2011) and by ICARDA for barley http://generationcp.org (GCP 2008). These represent the diversity available within ICRISAT’s and ICARDA’s current germplasm collections, but will be enhanced under CRP 3.6 by including germplasm from other partners. Reference sets and minicore collections have been used in several crops to identify trait-specific germplasm for use by the breeders (summarized in Upadhyaya et al. 2009a). Similarly, the sorghum reference set has been exploited to identify superior sources of tolerance to high levels of aluminum saturation (Caniato et al. 2011). Focused Identification of Germplasm Strategies (FIGS) will be used to better target sought traits in subsets with manageable size. The principle of the FIGS approach is to use agro-climatic information, generated by Geographic Information Systems, or other types of information, to describe the environments from which genetic resources were originally collected. This in turn gives a rational basis upon which to select best-bet subsets from global plant genetic resource collections that will maximize the chances of finding the desired traits in a manageable set of genotypes and thus greatly enhancing the efficiency and timeline associated with gene discovery (Bhullar et al., 2009; El-Bouhssini et al., 2009, 2010). Algorithms will be developed to select subsets with high probability of finding adaptive sought traits (Mackay and Street 2004; Endresen et al. 2011). Selected subsets developed via these different strategies will be multiplied, information provided on-line, and seed and DNA made globally available to provide scientists with easier access to the breadth of diversity represented in the entire collections. By screening such reduced but diverse sets, scientists can maximize the probability of finding appropriate entry points to global germplasm collections when seeking useful diversity for research and breeding programs. Barley, finger millet and sorghum are seed-propagated and largely self-pollinated, which allows ready use of their mini-core and reference sets of uniform pure line accessions in linkage disequilibrium (LD) mapping studies to identify associations of DNA sequence variation with trait variation. However, this is much more difficult with cross-pollinated seed-propagated species such as pearl millet as most of the genetic variation in such species is found within accessions. There, development of an inbred association panel, having most of the genetic variation distributed between accessions, would make it substantially easier to apply LD mapping methods to pearl millet. Milestones  Location data (latitude and longitude) updated for all DRYLAND CEREAL accessions in ICARDA and ICRISAT genebanks (2012)  GRIN-Global implemented as a global DRYLAND CEREAL management and information resource (2012)  Mini core, reference and/or FIGS sets of DRYLAND provided to partners for evaluation in stressful environments and assessment of quality traits (2012)  Reference sets and minicore collections of DRYLAND CEREALS updated (2013)  Crop registries for DRYLAND CEREALS genetic resources developed and gaps in existing exsitu germplasm collections of barley, finger millet, pearl millet and sorghum identified (2013)  DRYLAND CEREAL germplasm collection missions completed in priority areas in Africa and Asia to fill gaps and to collect trait-specific germplasm (2013)  Pearl millet inbred germplasm association panel developed, conserved and available for dissemination (2014)
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Output 2.2. Characterized dryland cereal genetic resources for key traits and future use This output will efficiently deliver novel sources of genetic variation to enhance productivity, production stability, and product quality of grain and crop residues from DRYLAND CEREALS. Exploiting existing germplasm resources, new approaches to identifying the genes underlying phenotypic variation (including TILLING and Eco-TILLING), will focus on traits having the greatest potential to enhance DRYLAND CEREAL performance across sites and years as identified by crop modeling (Hammer et al. 2006). For example, more effective phenotyping of barley, pearl millet, and sorghum for adaptation to low soil phosphorous is needed as field heterogeneity frustrates these efforts. Geo-spatial analysis of past and on-going phenotyping studies in West Africa (with McKnight Foundation and BMZ support) will be used to design more effective evaluation methods. Rainoutshelter lysimetric pot testing methods, developed at ICRISAT-India, are being evaluated at ICRISATNiger for pearl millet and sorghum. Hydroponics-based Al-toxicity screening is to be installed at ICRISAT-Mali. Controlled-environment and on-station field results will need to be validated with onfarm testing. Sharing experiences of abiotic stress testing from different ecological zones within (Sahelian zone and Sudanian zone studies in West Africa) and between regions, and across DRYLAND CEREALS will stimulate and enhance our efforts. Methodology Identifying novel diversity While the existing genetic resources collections and breeding populations of DRYLAND CEREALS contain a large amount of genetic diversity, new methods are available to create additional diversity and/or screen existing diversity more efficiently. TILLING (McCallum et al. 2000) uses chemical mutagenesis to produce allelic series of point mutations for virtually all genes; and such allelic series can be used to efficiently determine the functions of individual genes. The process involves first identifying DNA sequence variants (alleles) for a particular gene from the population of point mutations, and then comparing the phenotypes associated with different alleles. TILLING is of particular value for essential genes where sub-lethal alleles are required for phenotypic analysis. TILLING populations are currently available for barley, pearl millet and sorghum (Xin et al. 2009). Where these are not available in the Center’s collections, seed will be obtained, increased and placed in the germplasm collection. DNA samples will be taken to provide ready access for screening for unique phenotypes. A related methodology, Eco-TILLING, uses the high-throughput mutation detection methods of TILLING to seek naturally occurring variants in specific genes using sets of genetically diverse germplasm accessions (e.g. Mejlhede et al. 2006). The reference collection sets mentioned above will serve as excellent Eco-TILLING resources. DNA samples will be extracted from all reference collection entries, pooled, and these DNA pools made available, along with seed, for screening for unique alleles and phenotypes. As available, the DNA sets will be screened with candidate gene sequences to identify sequence variants determine possible phenotypes based on altered genotypes at the candidate gene loci. Initial target genes will include key abiotic stress tolerance, disease resistance and end-use quality genes. Identifying traits of value for targeted improvement Before characterizing mini-cores, reference sets, and TILLING population progenies of DRYLAND CEREALS for a range of traits potentially related to yield performance under stress conditions, it is critical to undertake detailed physiological examinations of traits and mechanisms of plant adaptation to stress and constraints on these. This is particularly the case for tolerance to complex abiotic constraints such as drought. Recent research indicates that specific traits, like limiting plant water use under non-stress conditions, can be particularly important (Kholova et al. 2010 a, b; Vadez et al. 2011a). After identifying such traits, crop simulation modeling will be used to test their effects on yield across a range of environments and weather conditions. This follows recent work demonstrating the proof-of-concept and value of this approach (Hammer et al. 2006), in which it
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was demonstrated that crop ideotypes with different leaf area indices are adapted to specific rainfall conditions. In another study, Sinclair et al. (2010) showed the criticality of several traits for soybean yields across years and environments (e.g. transpiration sensitivity to VPD), and the limited importance or negative effects of others (e.g. speed of root growth), providing a stochastic assessment of the value of each of these traits to help breeders more effectively improve adaptation and yield performance. Once critical traits are identified in each crop, i.e. those traits and mechanisms related with drought adaptation under specific conditions and that are proven to have a yield benefit in a majority of the years in a relevant number of locations, diversity for these traits will be sought (initially from minicore, reference, or FIGS sets) for subsequent inclusion in breeding programs. A particular focus in these activities will also be to explore the traits related to adaptation to changes in the climatic conditions (Vadez et al. 2011b). Here also, a similar approach will be taken with crop simulation modeling being used to estimate the value of specific traits/mechanisms before seeking variants for these. Refining high-throughput phenotyping procedures Improved methods now in use to assess abiotic stress tolerance have been described at length in recent publications (Vadez et al. 2007a, 2008, 2011a, 2011b; Zaman-Allah et al. 2011a, 2011b; Kholova et al. 2010a, 2010b, 2011; Ratnakumar et al. 2009; Bhatanagar-Mathur et al. 2007, 2008, 2009a, 2009b). Our approach will be to tackle traits and mechanisms that are believed to contribute to the adaptation of DRYLAND CEREALS to the most important abiotic stresses. For the case of drought, two areas of work will be followed, one assessing the contribution of roots, the other one focusing on the control of plant water use. The work on roots will use a large lysimetric facility recently developed at ICRISAT (http://www.icrisat.org/bt-root-research.htm), which allows assessment of the functionality of root systems and their contributions to drought adaptation. Compared to previous platforms, this facility allows a much higher throughput for investigate rooting traits and provides much more informative data on the role of roots. Such data are sometimes counterintuitive, but can then prove critical to making breakthroughs in drought tolerance improvement (e.g. Zaman-Allah et al. 2011a, 2011b; Ratnakumar et al. 2009). For the control of water use, several high throughput protocols are described in the above mentioned publications that essentially focus on leaf conductance, conductance response to vapor pressure deficit (VPD) (Kholova et al. 2010b), leaf development aspects (Kholova et al. 2011), and transpiration response to soil drying (Kholova et al. 2010a). Protocols for the assessment of salinity tolerance at large scale are also routinely used (Vadez et al. 2007b, 2011c; Krishnamurthy et al. 2011), along with those for low P tolerance (Valluru et al. 2009; Karanam and Vadez 2010). However, methods for assessing heat tolerance need to be improved. While effective protocols have been developed to identify sources of resistance to major insect pests (Sharma et al. 2003) and diseases (Singh et al. 1993, 1997; Thakur et al. 2007), there is a need to refine screening techniques for emerging pests and diseases such as aphids in sorghum and blast in pearl millet and finger millet, including the use of molecular techniques to identify diverse sources of resistance to key pests. Sources of resistance have been identified against key insect pests and diseases, but there is a continuing need to identify new sources of resistance for diseases such as downy mildew in pearl millet, blast in finger millet, and rusts in barley, and sources with higher levels of resistance to shoot flies and stem borers (Sharma et al. 2003; Thakur et al. 2009). The material will be screened in hot spot locations and/or under artificial infestation/inoculation in the greenhouse and in the field to identify new sources of resistance and to phenotype segregating prebreeding materials and mapping populations for identification of resistance (and QTLs or major genes controlling them) for subsequent introgression into high yielding cultivars in Strategic Objective 3. The identified sources and improved cultivars will be tested across locations for stability of resistance and to identify/monitor evolution of virulent strains of diseases and/or insect pests.

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Obtaining genome-wide genotypic information An assembled whole-genome sequence of a crop species greatly facilitates exploitation of genetic information gained from better-studied model systems like Arabidopsis, Medicago, and rice. A nearly complete aligned genome sequence of sorghum is available (Paterson et al. 2009), but the larger genomes of other DRYLAND CEREALS have not yet been sequenced. Sequencing the gene space at a fraction of the cost of a whole genome sequence would be beneficial, but would likely miss many regulatory regions and the thin scattering of genes in regions distant from gene-rich distal ends of chromosome arms. Near-complete aligned genome sequences of barley, finger millet and pearl millet will be developed, and followed up with re-sequencing efforts for a modest number of genetically diverse wild and cultivated accessions, to identify the most common alleles at nearly all loci for each DRYLAND CEREAL. Identifying trait-marker associations for more efficient breeding selection Establishment of marker-trait associations for priority traits in each DRYLAND CEREAL greatly enhances the efficiency of pyramiding of favorable alleles at multiple loci contributing to abiotic stress tolerance, biotic stress resistance, and enhanced yield and product quality in elite genetic backgrounds (Varshney and Dubey 2009). Using conventional bi-parental mapping populations, multi-parent advanced generation intercross populations (MacKay and Powell 2007), and association panels including introgression lines generated by backcrossing (Jordan et al. 2011), high throughput phenotyping, and high-density haplotype data sets such as those produced using genotyping-bysequencing (GBS) approaches (Elshire et al. 2011), we will identify and validate marker-trait associations for genes and quantitative trait loci contributing to priority traits for all DRYLAND CEREALS. Proof-of-concept studies will be conducted with sorghum (which has the best genomic tools among dryland cereals), and the best approaches will then be implemented in barley, pearl millet and finger millet as well. Milestones  Re-sequencing and genotyping-by-sequencing (GBS) approaches identify >1 M single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) markers in sorghum (2012)  Publically available DRYLAND CEREAL association panels, TILLING populations, MAGIC populations and bi-parental mapping populations inventoried, priorities for their assembly in ICARDA and ICRISAT gene banks determined, and likely costs for their assembly estimated (2012)  Phenotyping network established for DRYLAND CEREALS across partners and crops (2012)  Effective field phenotyping methods for adaptation to low-P identified (2013)  Sorghum backcross nested association mapping (BCNAM) populations available for evaluation in genetic backgrounds for two production systems in WCA (2013)  Recessively inherited genetic male-sterility backcrossed (to BC1) into backgrounds of at least 5 genetic genetically diverse, agronomically elite cultivars of barley, finger millet and sorghum for each priority target production system as tool for genetic diversification (2013)  High-throughput phenotyping platform, including imaging facility (infra-red and RGB imaging), based on existing lysimeter facility established at ICRISAT-India (2014)  Draft genome sequences produced for additional DRYLAND CEREALS (2014)  Protocols to screen for resistance to blast in finger and pearl millet, and aphids in sorghum refined and shared with NARS; and protocols to screen barley for resistance to barley gall midge established (2014)  At least ten new sources of resistance to downy mildew, blast, and head miner in pearl millet; grain molds, foliar diseases, shoot fly, and aphids in sorghum; major diseases and insect pests in barley, and blast in finger millet identified and distributed to NARS (2014)

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 Mini core and reference collections of pearl millet, sorghum, and finger millet evaluated against key biotic and abiotic stresses and for quality traits (2014) Output 2.3. Modern genomic and information-based platform for more efficient and integrated breeding The power of genomics, up-to-date information technology, and systems biology enable large increases in the efficiency of dryland cereal research and breeding efforts globally. This is motivated largely by the revolution in the biological sciences brought by genomics and information technology, and offers a ‘window’ for the entire CRP to exploit new opportunities through advanced science. DNA sequencing technologies, for example, have evolved to the point where ‘personalized’ genomics is now possible and very high density haplotype fingerprinting (Elshire et al. 2011) is becoming practical for genome-wide association studies. Thus, sequencing the genomes of dryland cereals would not only be a reasonable proposition but also an imperative if we are to fully capitalize on developments in molecular biology. The full power of marker-assisted selection – from simple backcrossing of single-gene value-addition traits into popular DRYLAND CEREAL cultivars to genomewide selection in rapid-cycling breeding populations – can be exploited more effectively as next generation sequencing (NGS) technologies and associated data analytical platforms drive down the costs of marker-data generation and management. Coupled with this is the urgent need to use information technology and bioinformatics to provide crop breeding programs a centralized and functional portal to access information and analytical tools, as well as the services that enable use of genomic-level information efficiently (a good example of such a portal is the Integrated Breeding Platform (IBP) from the Generation Challenge Program). Such integrated portals should also incorporate geo-spatial information, genetic resource mapping and the characterization of different agro-ecological and crop utilization options or domains present in dryland farming systems, especially the sites of intervention for dryland farming systems as identified in CRP 1.1. The most efficient way to achieve this will be to build on the IBP being developed by the Generation Challenge Program. The IBP’s goal is to serve as a one-stop shop providing access to modern tools, applications, and services for integrated breeding. The vision, as part of the CGIAR redesign, is to have the IBP operate as a crosscutting platform that will service the needs of all CRPs. Thus this portal will serve many of the needs outlined above, and additional needs more specific to CRP 3.6 could be added to it as needed. This output is an ambitious but necessary undertaking if the partners are to meet the urgent need to more effectively mine genetic diversity from germplasm collections, broaden the genetic base of breeding populations using primary, secondary and tertiary gene pools, increase abiotic tolerances and biotic stress resistances, and expand research on and utilization of DRYLAND CEREAL species. Methodology Exploiting new information technology capabilities New information technology capabilities enable efficient documentation and utilization of breeding data for dryland cereals. Utilization of these capabilities by large plant breeding companies is advanced, but application for dryland cereals is lagging and very uneven. Strengthening data management capacities for dryland cereal breeding is essential, and will increase value of ongoing and previous research investments. Developing, promoting, and integrating marker-assisted breeding methods Molecular markers including diagnostic and/or functional markers are now available for many traits that underlie abiotic and biotic stress tolerance in barley, pearl millet and sorghum. While many markers for quantitative trait loci (QTLs) have been published, limited numbers are actually deployed in breeding. The challenge for breeders is how to integrate marker systems with phenotypic selection to enhance the rate and cost-effectiveness of creating of new parental lines

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and target genotypes. Strategies for efficient pyramiding of alleles at multiple quantitative trait loci will be implemented including the use of marker-assisted recurrent selection (MARS), markerassisted population improvement (MAPI), and genome-wide selection (GWS) to accumulate desirable alleles for complexly inherited traits. Modern breeding platforms that integrate genetic, genomic, and phenotypic information have the potential to accelerate plant-breeding progress. Thus, it is imperative that conventional and molecular breeding approaches are better integrated and implemented for more effective improvement of complex traits in productive, adapted backgrounds. To achieve this objective the GCP is coordinating with a broad set of partners, including CGIAR Centers and NARS the development of an Integrated Breeding Platform (IBP). This platform is envisioned as a sustainable, web-based, one-stop-shop for information, analytical tools, data management and related services to design and carry out integrated breeding projects and boost crop productivity and resilience for smallholders in drought-prone environments by exploiting the economies of scale afforded by collective access to cutting-edge breeding technologies and informatics hitherto unavailable to developing country breeders. Milestones  Analysis pipeline for genotyping-by-sequencing data implemented at ICRISAT (2012)  New marker-based breeding projects initiated with national breeding programs and links with Integrated Breeding Platform facilities established (2013)  Marker-assisted recurrent selection (MARS) demonstrated in sorghum (2013)  Genome-wide selection (GWS) method evaluated for at least for one trait in each DRYLAND CEREAL crop (2014)  Marker-assisted population improvement (MAPI) demonstrated in pearl millet (2014)

Partners and their roles A large number of specific partners have been identified for participation in producing the outputs associated with Strategic Objective 2:  ICARDA and ICRISAT will contribute to output 2.1 by conserving and distributing genetic resources, establishing crop registries for and identifying and filling gaps in existent ex-situ collections of barley, finger millet, pearl millet and sorghum and their wild relatives, and enhancing genebank information and information access (implementing GRIN-Global), as well as refining and disseminating mini-core and reference germplasm sets of these cereals;  ICARDA will contribute to Output 2.2 by exploring use of barley TILLING population and EcoTILLING using the barley reference germplasm set; identifying traits of value for targeted improvement of abiotic stress tolerance and assessing their potential utility via crop simulation modeling; enhancing phenotyping facilities and refining screening protocols; coordinating mini-core and reference set characterization to establish marker/gene-trait associations and identify entry points to the larger germplasm collections for specific target traits related to yield, yield stability and product quality; developing and using high density genetic fingerprinting methods combined with high quality phenotyping data sets to establish marker/gene-trait associations; and allele mining and pre-breeding efforts to bring favorable alleles for high priority traits from diverse un-adapted germplasm into locally-adapted backgrounds to facilitate their wider use in breeding programs;  ICRISAT will contribute to Output 2.2 by exploring use of the new pearl millet TILLING population and Eco-TILLING using the sorghum reference germplasm set; identifying traits of value for targeted improvement of abiotic stress tolerance and assessing their potential utility via crop simulation modeling; enhancing phenotyping facilities and refining screening protocols; coordinating mini-core and reference set characterization to establish marker/gene-trait associations and identify entry points to the larger germplasm collections

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for specific target traits related to yield, yield stability and product quality; instigating development of nearly complete aligned genome sequences of finger millet and pearl millet, and contributing to sorghum re-sequencing efforts to establish SNP-based haplotype maps; developing and using high density genetic fingerprinting methods combined with high quality phenotyping data sets to establish marker/gene-trait associations; and allele mining and prebreeding efforts to bring favorable alleles for high priority traits from diverse un-adapted germplasm into locally-adapted backgrounds to facilitate their wider use in breeding programs; ICARDA and ICRISAT will contribute to Output 2.3 by exploiting new information technology capabilities to improve the efficiency of documentation and utilization of breeding data; and developing, promoting and integrating marker-assisted breeding methods with links to the GCP’s Integrated Breeding Platform to improve efficiency of regional and national breeding programs; The Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) and its affiliates will contribute to Outputs 2.1, 2.2 and 2.3 in nearly all barley, finger millet, pearl millet, and sorghum activities targeting South Asia; in particular, ICAR’s National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR) will contribute to Outputs 2.1 and 2.2 via its efforts on germplasm assembly, exchange (import and export) and evaluation of barley, finger millet, pearl millet and sorghum germplasm mini core, reference and FIGS sets; Generation Challenge Program (GCP) will contribute: to output 2.1 validation of genotyping of the sorghum reference sets; to output 2.2 phenotypic assessment of the reference set, and the development of sorghum BCNAM populations that can combine genetic diversification with establishment of marker-trait associations; and to output 2.3 via the sorghum MARS project and Integrated Breeding Platform (note that, although not direct partners in Strategic Objective 2, Wageningen University, IRRI and CIMMYT are partners in the IBP and will contribute to developing its electronic field books and data analysis pipelines, while iPlant will provide the cyber-infrastructure for hosting components of the Platform); INTSORMIL will contribute to output 2.2 via improvements in screening methodologies for Striga resistance and key sorghum insect pests in WCA and ESA, and to outputs 2.2 and 2.3, in particular via post-graduate training and mid-career training of sorghum and pearl millet scientists from/for national programs in Africa; CIRAD will contribute to output 2.1: by characterization of the genetic diversity of sorghum and pearl millet managed in situ by farmers, and definition of indicators for assessing genetic diversity (FFEM-2 project); by dynamic in situ conservation of sorghum genetic resources through enrichment of breeding program genetic basis from a wide range of donor parents (GCP BCNAM project); and by validation of the GCP sorghum reference genotyping characterization and development of a SINGER-based portal to access DRYLAND CEREALS reference set information (GCP IBP project). CIRAD will contribute to output 2.2: by exploring sorghum genetic diversity for key quality traits for 1st and 2nd generation biofuels, and identification of sorghum genes/markers associated with stem fiber components and digestibility, sugar content, and juiciness; and by identifying favorable alleles from a wide range of donor parents for important adaptation and quality traits in sorghum (GCP BCNAM project). Relative to output 2.3, CIRAD will contribute: by implementation of the marker assisted recurrent selection (MARS) methodology with the national sorghum breeding program in Mali (GCP MARS project); and by developing genetic material with combined properties of high-resolution genetic analysis and direct breeding applications in sorghum (GCP BCNAM project) CIRAD/IRD will contribute to output 2.1 by new sampling and genetic characterization for sorghum, pearl millet germplasm in West Africa (ARCAD project); to output 2.2 by identifying genes/markers associated with adaptation to climate variation in sorghum and pearl millet 222

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(ARCAD project); and to output 2.3 by developing genomic resources for pearl millet and sorghum (20,000 to 50,000 ESTs, thousands of SNPs, and resequencing) for cultivated and wild species (ARCAD project) Alberta Agriculture, Food and Rural Development (AAFRD) will contribute to output 2.2 by evaluating barley germplasm for disease resistance and agronomic performance; The Australian Center for Plant Functional Genomics will contribute to output 2.2 for barley, evaluating abiotic stress tolerance (including drought, heat and salinity tolerance) using both conventional quantitative traits and other genomic approaches, and the use of highthroughput phenotyping platforms; Cornell University will contribute to output 2.2: by establishing genotyping-by-sequencing (GBS) protocols for sorghum and barley; by development of the analytical pipeline for GBS data sets with and without a reference genome sequence and transfer of this pipeline to ICRISAT; and by transferring hydroponic screening protocols, establishment of gene-trait associations, and allele mining for aluminum tolerance in sorghum; The Department of Employment, Economic Development and Innovation (DEEDI) will contribute to output 2.2, providing guidance on sorghum BCNAM population development and exploitation as a pre-breeding method for introgressing useful genetic variability into genetic backgrounds meeting local/regional adaptation and product quality requirements (this will include the transfer of genetic-male-sterility to diverse elite backgrounds to facilitate introgression-based pre-breeding programs for self-pollinated dryland cereals (barley, finger millet and sorghum); EMBRAPA will contribute to output 2.2 via its involvement in establishing gene-trait associations for of aluminum tolerance and low phosphorus tolerance in sorghum and subsequent allele mining; The Global Crop Diversity Trust (GCDT) will contribute to output 2.1 by providing support for genebank operations, safety backup at the Svalbard Global Seed Vault in Norway, and NARS collections at ICARDA and ICRISAT; The Japan International Research Center for Agricultural Sciences (JIRCAS) will help with output 2.2 phenotyping to establish marker-trait associations for sorghum biological nitrification inhibition; The Millennium Seed Bank will contribute to output 2.1 via its conservation research on germplasm of barley, finger millet, pearl millet and sorghum wild relatives; The NORDIC Gene Bank (NGB) will contribute to output 2.1 by providing safety backups of barley, finger millet, pearl millet and sorghum germplasm collections at the Svalbard Global Seed Vault; Oregon State University (USA) will contribute to output 2.2 by molecular mapping of barley within the North America Barley Genome Mapping project and identification of molecular markers associated with resistance to barley diseases; The Scottish Crop Research Institute (SCRI) will contribute to output 2.2 related to genetic analysis of barley drought tolerance; The United States Department of Agriculture Agricultural Research Service (USDA-ARS) will contribute to output 2.1 via its role in development and implementation of the GRIN-Global crop germplasm collection database; it will also contribute to output 2.2 by developing genotyping-by-sequencing protocols and data analysis pipelines, as well as transfer of refined aluminum tolerance screening methods to ICRISAT-Mali; University of Adelaide, Waite Institute (Australia) will contribute to output 2.2 by joint evaluation of barley germplasm for low rainfall environments, and for salt-stressed environments;

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 University of Georgia (USA) will contribute to output 2.2 sorghum re-sequencing and establishment of marker-trait associations in finger millet, pearl millet and sorghum;  University of Hohenheim (Germany) will contribute to output 2.2 characterization of sorghum and pearl millet germplasm for adaptation to conditions of low soil P availability, and to characterization of a pearl millet inbred germplasm association panel; it will also contribute to output 2.3 exploration of the potential of marker-assisted population improvement (MAPI) in pearl millet;  University of Kassel (Germany) will contribute to output 2.2 characterization of sorghum and pearl millet germplasm for adaptation to conditions of low soil P availability;  University of Queensland (Australia) will contribute to output 2.2 by enhancing crop simulation models for evaluation of the utility of drought tolerance-related traits across a range of environments and weather conditions;  University of Sydney Plant Breeding Institute (Australia) will contribute to output 2.2 by evaluation of barley germplasm for resistance to barley stripe (yellow) rust at the Cobbittybased cereal rust research facilities;  National programs, including NARES, LDC universities and NGOs will contribute in various ways:  Burkina Faso will contribute to output 2.2 by phenotyping of sorghum and pearl millet germplasm, including activities related to establishment of marker-trait associations for tolerance to low P conditions in pearl millet and sorghum, and for Striga resistance in pearl millet;  China will contribute to output 2.2 by screening barley Fusarium Head Blight nurseries in Hangzhou and Shanghai;  Ecuador will contribute to output 2.2 by screening barley germplasm for yellow rust resistance;  Ethiopia will contribute to output 2.2 by screening barley germplasm for resistance to net blotch, scald, powdery mildew, and stem rust; screening sorghum germplasm for drought tolerance and Striga resistance, and screening finger millet germplasm for blast resistance and drought tolerance;  Mali will contribute to output 2.2 activities related to establishment of marker-trait associations for tolerance to low P conditions in pearl millet and sorghum; and to output 2.3 activities related to GCP sorghum MARS and BCNAM projects linked to the Integrated Breeding Platform;  Morocco will contribute to output 2.2 by screening for barley stem gall and midge resistance;  Mexico will contribute to output 2.2 by screening barley germplasm for Fusarium head blight, yellow rust and scald;  Niger will contribute to output 2.2 by screening sorghum germplasm for aluminum tolerance, and development of pre-breeding populations for this trait, as well as evaluation of pearl millet germplasm for food processing traits;  Nigeria will contribute to output 2.2 by evaluation of sorghum germplasm for midge resistance and Striga resistance, and contributing to establishment of marker-trait associations for pearl millet Striga resistance;  Senegal will contribute output 2.2 activities related to establishment of marker-trait associations for tolerance to low P conditions in pearl millet and sorghum; and  Tunisia will screen barley for scald and BYDV resistance, contributing to Output 2.1.  NARS, Universities and NGOs in different countries will contribute to Output 2.1 by their involvement in germplasm assembly, exchange and evaluation of sorghum, pearl millet and
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finger millet germplasm (mini-core, reference and trait-specific germplasm sets including FIGS) to identify promising sources of traits for utilization in crop improvement; they will also contribute to exchange of information through publicly accessible crop information systems

STRATEGIC OBJECTIVE 3 - DEVELOPING IMPROVED DRYLAND CEREAL VARIETIES AND HYBRIDS FOR INCREASED YIELD, QUALITY AND ADAPTATION IN SMALLHOLDER FARMERS' FIELDS Outputs and Milestones Output 3.1. High grain and fodder yielding varieties and hybrids with desired end-user quality attributes Dryland cereals are mostly staple crops, and thus the quantity produced, especially in poor years is an essential criterion for variety adoption. Thus breeding varieties with higher grain, straw or stover, or whole plant value productivity is the overriding goal for dryland cereal breeding programs. When targeting farm households, who mostly do not produce sufficient staple foods to last for the whole year, without many options for producing income-generating crops, it is necessary that grain or stover are produced even under the most adverse conditions. Thus yield stability is an important consideration, as well as storability of the grain, and the efficiency of preparing food from it, i.e. minimizing losses during processing, from decortication for example. We thus plan to produce new breeding materials, parental lines, varieties or hybrids, which provide farmers with options to increase the productivity of their staple cereal crop(s) beyond what they traditionally achieve. We will use a range of methods, and will work towards improving the effectiveness and efficiency, with which productivity and its stability can be improved within the context of the targeted production systems in each region. In production systems, where farmers tend to commercialize their dryland cereal production, the productivity goals are similar, but issues of profitability become more prominent, also in the context of the competition with other cash crops grown in the same systems. In such situations responsiveness to inputs, and superior quality, meeting market demands or preferences will be crucial. Large genetic variability exists for a range of traits in the germplasm collections and breeding materials, and effective breeding methodologies exist to substantially improve dryland cereal yield potential. For instance, hybrids have been shown to out-yield varieties by 25-30% both in pearl millet and sorghum (Reddy et al., 2004). Consequently pearl millet and rainy season sorghum hybrids are now the predominant cultivars in India in those farming systems where serious efforts in the past were made to develop such cultivars. Similar gains through hybrid technology can be expected in these crops in the African regions as well as in the post rainy season sorghum. While pearl millet breeding efforts in SA will continue to be confined to the development of high-yielding and disease resistant hybrid parents, leaving the actual hybrid development to NARS and the private sector (as per the practice so far), ICRISAT in India will accelerate the development of hybrids for post rainy season sorghum. In finger millet and barley, genetic improvement for developing highyielding varieties will be strengthened. Methodology Assembly of appropriate germplasm In close collaboration with Strategic Objective 1 and Strategic Objective 2 we will assemble germplasm that has high chances to contain useful target traits, and the required combination of adaptation traits for specific target environments. This is particularly important for finger millet where breeding programs are still young. This is also appropriate when entering into a new target set of environments, especially if abiotic and biotic constraints can cause severe harvest losses. This
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approach has been successfully used in several dryland cereal breeding program targeting harsh environmental conditions (Weltzien et., 1989, Ceccarelli et al., 1991, Weltzien et al., 1997) Pedigree breeding This is the most widely used method for creating new experimental varieties in self-pollinated crops, like barley or sorghum. Developing inbred hybrid parents of pearl millet also relies on pedigree breeding. The method is particularly useful for introducing specific single genes into elite breeding material or lines, such as dwarfing genes or specific resistances. Trait-based breeding to develop potential hybrid parents of sorghum and pearl millet has proved useful to NARS and private sector in the SA region to broaden the genetic base of their programs and help in breeding increasingly productive hybrids as evidenced from the continuing genetic grain being made in both sorghum and pearl millet in India (Rai et al., 2006, Reddy et al., 2006) In finger millet we will evaluate different techniques for generating crosses. The success rate so far is low, and a few breeders have been relying on selection between and with landrace varieties to identify new options for farmers. Identification genetically well differentiated, heterotic groups Heterosis tends to manifest itself between distinct, unrelated, genetically well-differentiated groups of germplasm or breeding material. Maintaining the groups for breeding male and female parents separately tends to allow for long-term genetic gains from hybrid breeding. No hard rules exist in choosing and delineating such groups, and experience and knowledge of the breeding material tends to play an important role. With the option for conducting genome wide marker analyses at relatively low cost, using genetic distances between different groups of breeding material, or germplasm. This approach is being developed for sorghum and pearl millet in West Africa, where hybrid breeding is just beginning. The heterosis thus identified can also be exploited when developing synthetic varieties, or broad based populations (Rattunde and Clerget, 2008). Identifying target groups of environments with similar adaptation and use requirements The large datasets available from previous performance trials has been successfully used to identify sufficient and representative evaluation environments for effective testing of breeding materials and for collaborating with farming communities and processors of grain and stover, in order to identify priorities for variety development and seed delivery within a specific target zone or production system (Ceccarelli et al., 1996; Christinck et al., 2005; Weltzien et al., 2007; Weltzien et al., 2008a; Weltzien et al., 2008b) Population improvement by progeny based recurrent selection Among the dryland cereals pearl millet lends itself most easily to recurrent selection. Several milestones – varieties of pearl millet India are the result of recurrent selection in broad based populations [WCC75 (Andrews et al. 1985), ICTP 8203 (Rai et al. 1990)]. The effectiveness of single plant based, mass selection type procedures has been shown for improving local adaptation of broad based populations, and for reducing the frequency of undesirable, dominant alleles. Model calculations, based on genetic parameters estimated from progeny trials conducted largely in SA, indicated that under most circumstances the genetic gain from full-sib recurrent selection is higher than for other methods. One reason is that only two generations per selection cycle are required, and another reason is that experimental errors tend be lower, and thus heritabilities higher, when testing non-inbred progenies (Schipprack, 1993). This is specifically relevant when targeting more marginal, high stress environments. We will continue to compare these methods, especially for new traits, such as Striga resistance in pearl millet. (Schipprack, 1993; Von Brocke et al., 2008; Rattunde et al., 1997; Rattunde et al., 2009) We are applying recurrent selection procedures also to broad based sorghum populations, built by using the ms3-gene for male sterility, to facilitate random mating. Methods for effective recurrent selection will be tested, and linkages with efficient variety development procedures developed.

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Increasing yield potential Increasing yield potential is the underlying target of this research, for a wide range of production conditions, including those with higher input availability. Experience of the past 30+ years by barley, pearl millet and sorghum breeding programs has been that this requires most effective integration of selection for key adaptation traits, as well as capacity for effective testing of yielding ability. Experience shows that it is essential:  To conduct disease resistance selection in whole segregating populations and not only among advanced lines. Breeding populations should be planted in hotspot areas, preferably where natural conditions make escapes minimal, and inoculation-misting irrigation may be used in case the natural conditions are not enough to generate optimum levels of diseases.  To perform at least two generations per year under full selection.  To be based in a country where the majority of economically important diseases for the target environment can be addressed, where yield trials can be carried out under target input conditions, and where quarantine barriers do not block or delay germplasm movement across borders. Marker assisted breeding and population improvement. Use of molecular markers contributes to efficiency in breeding, in a variety of crops and target regions. Among the dryland cereals these tools are best developed for barley, mostly targeting industrialized farming conditions. Similarly for sorghum rapid advances are being documented (Jordan et al., 2011). It is essential that these tools and opportunities be exploited for and with dryland cereals breeding programs targeting the farming conditions described in this CRP. Based on results and outputs from Strategic Objective 2, the full-scale application of these tools will be developed for key crops, NARS and other partners, as well key traits for priority production systems (Tables 6 and 7) The improvement of the popular Indian hybrid ‘HHB 67’ by introgressing new genes for downy mildew resistance is one of the first examples of creating a commercial cultivar using genetic markers (Hash et al., 2006). We expect that marker assisted backcrossing will start to become a routine for dryland cereal breeders, especially once farmers’ needs and preferences are better understood, and will evolve. We are starting to experiment with using markers to support population improvement, with a rather broad based pearl millet population, and a bi-parental population in sorghum. Application of marker and direct sequencing approaches that are or will become extremely useful in the near future for increasing the efficiency of multiple trait focused breeding methods, as well as for correcting or improving very specific characteristics of farmer preferred cultivars, e.g. “HHB 67 improved”. Breeding and improving hybrids and hybrid parents For sorghum and pearl millet, hybrids are commonly used in commercial agriculture. The breeding programs for sorghum and millet focus primarily on breeding female parents, while the private sector does develop their own male parents. In SSA, the first locally bred sorghum hybrids were released in 2009 in Mali (Diallo et al., 2009), and are starting to attract the attention of producers, extension agents and private local seed producers. Demand by large industrial grain processers (malt, starch) in Nigeria for hybrids is high to assure more dependable supply of uniform product. Sorghum hybrids in Mali show average yield superiorities of 20% on-farm are achievable; need for different hybrids for specific rainfall/maturity zones and attention to grain quality/mold resistance necessary. Actions: develop first hybrids with adaptive- and grain quality-traits appropriate for Nigeria; develop hybrids for distinct maturity zones; and MET yield testing.

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Diversifying male-sterility inducing cytoplasm The success of hybrid breeding in dryland cereals depends on reliable genic cytoplasmic malesterility systems for hybrid seed production. For both, sorghum and pearl millet several such cytoplasms have been identified – and could be used. We will be exploring options for diversifying the cytoplasms use by the private sector in India, to reduce potential vulnerability. Milestones  At least ten superior hybrid parents for diversification of for hybrid breeding options for sorghum and pearl millet in SA and starting hybrid breeding in WCA identified (2012)  At least two new finger millet, sorghum and barley varieties identified for promotion in at least two target production systems (2012)  Pearl Millet and Sorghum populations initiated for recurrent selection for adaptation to at least two specific new target conditions (2013)  Analysis of genetic diversity patterns of prior studies combined with new studies for improved identification of heterotic groups for breeding hybrid parents of sorghum and pearl millet (2013)  Methods tested for improving efficiency of crossing in finger millet (2013)  Superior sorghum parents for total biomass yield and specific quality trait identified (2014)  Populations of barley developed with increased out-crossing rate using recurrent selection, and morphological as well as biochemical markers (2014)  Efficiency of recurrent selection schemes for sorghum and pearl millet for target production systems with high variability and poor predictability of abiotic constraints assessed (2014)  At least 200 genetically diverse, high-yielding and locally well adapted early-generation restorer progenies of A4 and A5 CMS systems developed in pearl millet and female and male parents for A1, A2 and A4 CMS systems for sorghum for at least two target production systems (2014) Output 3.2. Varieties and hybrids with better tolerance to heat, drought, salinity and low soil fertility Adaptation to drought and heat during key growth stages Dryland cereals, by definition, are well adapted to drought and heat stress during key stages of crop development, and can produce grain and straw/stover when other crops fail. However improved adaptation to drought and heat conditions is necessary for improved yield stability over years, to reduce the negative effects of increasing unpredictability of rainfall and water availability on food security and income of dryland farmers, in view of climate change. Field evaluation protocols for drought tolerance during specific growth stages in specific target environments (Bidinger et al., 1987), Reddy et al. 2009,) have been developed for all cereals except finger millet, and will continue to be refined and adapted to ensure that new breeding materials perform consistently well in their target environment. The concept of plant ideotypes will continue to be applied, in conjunction with crop modeling research (in collaboration with Strategic Objective 1 and Strategic Objective 2) to identify new selection criteria (Van Oosterom et al., 2006) and trait combinations to enhance drought tolerance of highly productive genotypes. The pleiotropic effects of specific traits associated with drought tolerance, e.g. ‘stay green’ will be evaluated for their effects on grain yield and total plant value under diverse growing conditions. As genetic marker tools become more accessible to breeders, a range of agronomic traits will be used to support variety development programs, including root traits (Grando and Ceccarelli, 1995). Close interaction with Strategic Objective 2 will enable breeders to improve the rate of genetic gain for these complex traits. A broad range of germplasm, including wild relatives will be explored to identify sources of tolerance that can effectively increase drought tolerance of target genotypes (Baum et al., 2003; Lakew et al., 2010;
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von Korff et al., 2010; Varshney et al., 2008a; 2008b; Eleuch et al., 2008; Jilal et al. 2008; Guo et al. 2008, 2009). Low soil phosphorus availability, low pH and potential Aluminum toxicity As world phosphorus reserves are rapidly declining, and dryland cereal farmers even now can rarely afford to purchase fertilizers, we are exploring the diversity within dryland cereal species for adaptation to low P availability. In addition to field trials under low soil P conditions, we are including root traits to the characterization data, which will be used for an association study to identify genes associated with phosphorus efficiency, building on recent advances in rice (Wissuwa et al., 1998, 2002; Heuer et al., 2009). Simultaneously we are developing breeding populations including known source materials with good adaptation to low soil P availability and with known Altolerance (Magalhaes et al., 2007), adapted to specific target zones across SSA. We expect useful learning experiences across crops for breeding for root, and soil adaptation traits. Improved understanding of the control of flowering responses of dryland cereals Experienced dryland cereal breeders estimate that 80% of the variability for yield under drought conditions tends to be due to differences in flowering response. ‘Flowering date’ tends to be regarded as a simply inherited trait, and single genes governing some aspects of it, especially earliness, are known for most dryland cereals (Von Korff et al., 2010, Wang et al., 2009). We will be improving our capacity to use specific photoperiod responses to achieve more predictable flowering in specific target zones, e.g., post-rainy season sorghum, winter barleys, or sorghum for the Sudan savannah of West Africa (Clerget, 2004, Clerget et al., 2008). Evaluation protocols, including methods for recording farmers’ assessments are being adapted to the specific requirements. We have initiated studies to improve insights into interaction with other abiotic stress, temperature, high and low and phosphorus availability in the soil. This improved understanding of flowering responses will help to better delineate expected adaptation domains for specific varieties. Temperature extremes Pearl millet and sorghum, to some extent, have extraordinary adaptation to heat, during the seedling stage up to 60+ Co (Peacock et al., 1987); during flowering up to 42 Co (C.T. Hash, pers. Comm.), As global warming is predicted to lead to significant temperatures increases in the dryland cereal and maize growing areas of SSA interest in this trait is increasing. We have started to develop field-screening procedures for some of the cereals, and will characterize more of the diversity available in current breeding materials. We plan to expand this work to include a wider range of germplasm, before deciding about the feasibility of genetic studies on this trait. Cold tolerance, during key growth stages is an issue being addressed for dryland cereal cultivation during the cool season. For barley there are good prospects of strengthening the breeding for cold areas in collaboration with NARS of Central Asia and Iran. For post rainy season sorghum a screening protocol is being refined and germplasm from other cool-season sorghums will be evaluated, for possible use in variety development programs. Salt tolerance Sorghum area of late is being extended to saline soils for fodder purpose. Hence in collaboration with NARS, materials developed for rainy season and post rainy season adaptations will be screened for tolerance to salinity following the methods described by Krishnamurthy et al. (2007). Barley is the most salt-tolerant of the cereal crops. The development of salt tolerant varieties remains the only sustainable solution for reliable yield advantages. To respond to increased request from NARS, research on salinity tolerance will be initiated in collaboration with NARS and ARIs. ICARDA has established a high throughput screening facility for salt tolerance in seedling stage that can also be used for other crops. Procedures for evaluating salt tolerance for other crops at ICRISAT will be tested.
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Methodology Coordination across species Research in several crops indicates some clear commonalities in how crops species adapt to common abiotic stresses. For example pearl millet and chickpea, both facing terminal water stress, adapt thanks to water saving mechanisms (Kholova et al., 2010a, 2010b; Zaman et al., 2011a, 2011b). Similarly, salinity appears to affect mostly reproduction in groundnut (Srivastava et al., under review) and chickpea (Vadez et al., 2007, Krishnamurthy et al., 2011). So, there are common aspects in the crop adaptation to stress across species and the most efficient and synergistic way to tackle it is to have an initial coordination effort of the protocols and approaches that are used to assess plant performance. The intention here is to have a broad spectrum of expertise, going beyond the CGIAR system, being brought in to refine research on this topic. This will include collating experiences with specific field screening procedures and whole plant observations and sites. We expect to create communities of practice around specific abiotic stress factors. Allele mining for flowering response Merging of high-density genotyping-by-sequencing haplotype data with previously generated multienvironment flowering time response data from > 40 managed and natural photoperiodtemperature environments for a panel of 120 sorghum landraces from the full range of production environments globally will permit detection of allelic variants in essentially all major genes contributing to photoperiod-temperature response of flowering in this species. These allelic variants will then be used to breed for appropriate flowering response in a range of climate change scenarios, reducing the likelihood of exposure to terminal drought stress. We expect that with this information we shall be better able to understand interactions between grain and stover yield potential of photoperiod sensitive sorghums (Clerget, 2004). This may prove useful for pearl millet improvement as well. Interdisciplinary efforts for nutrient efficiency Improvements of the field phenotyping capacity for adaptation to low phosphorous availability and Al-toxicity, developed by IER, INRAN and ICRISAT in Mali and Niger will continues with support from soil scientists. These experiences will inform other crop teams. We will add capacity for root trait analyses, starting with field-based observations, following the model developed for maize and soybean. Should they not yield the expected results, we will explore 2D, or possibly 3D imaging tools for roots grown in vitro in standardized media (Kupper and Kochian, 2009). With a diversity of phenotypic observations on a panel of 120 sorghum varieties, we plan to conduct association studies for the identification of useful alleles, for use in breeding. Verification of concepts, tools and traits in multi-location trials The extensive experiences of all partners in this CRP with field performance evaluation under target production conditions for dryland cereals, including some of the harshest climates for crop production is a unique opportunity for “ground truthing” new developments, traits, combinations and populations. Experiences with such long-term trials show that they also provide new insights, and give rise to testing hypotheses about adaptations to extremes of specific abiotic stress, and their importance to farmers (Weltzien and Fischbeck, 1990; Bidinger et al., 1994; van Oosterom et al., 2006; Reddy et al., 2009; Ceccarelli et al., 2010). Similarly such experimentation can lead to the identification of new varieties for release and dissemination, especially if farmers get involved in the evaluations. Using the large germplasm collections held by the CRP partners has been instrumental to these successes. Application of marker based tools for breeding Barley is one of the few crops with well-documented genomic tools available. These experiences will guide work on the other crops, in collaboration with Strategic Objective 2. QTLs associated with

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abiotic and biotic stresses will be assembled and favorable alleles pyramided using MAS. Where applicable, MAB would be employed to fast track defect elimination in elite germplasm, preferred by farmers. Similarly, information from historical datasets from the barley breeding program especially the germplasm that have been characterized with markers would be utilized in targeted genome wide selection to accumulate small effect QTLs associated with complexly inherited traits conferring tolerance to drought and heat. ‘Ground- truthing’ will be done using existing field screening facilities, such as the off-season screening facility for pearl millet and sorghum, developed at ICRISAT in India (Bidinger et al., 1987) Milestones  QTLs identified for traits related to drought tolerance for at least two species (2012)  Analyses of genotype by environment interactions of variety performance trials of dryland cereals linked to water availability estimates for specific production systems and zones for at least two dryland cereals (2012)  Protocol for drought tolerance screening developed for finger millet in ESA (2012)  At least 10 parental lines of pearl millet, sorghum, finger millet and barley adapted to arid conditions developed (2013)  Core set of genetic stocks representing effective sources of drought, heat-adaptation and salinity tolerance traits assembled in barley, pearl millet and sorghum (2013)  Stability of at least one specific drought tolerance trait assessed in a range of target genotypes in naturally drought-prone environments, for at least two species (2014)  Markers identified for genomic regions conferring P efficiency in sorghum (2014)  Salinity tolerant varieties of sorghum and barley (3) and hybrids of sorghum (2) with high biomass and grain yield in at least two target production systems developed (2014) Output 3.3. Varieties and hybrids with improved resistance to diseases and pests Biotic stresses of dryland cereals are as diverse as the crops and their production systems. Insect pests and diseases of dryland cereals have very specific and evolving distribution patterns, which are likely to change with climate change and the intensification of certain production systems. They cause an estimated loss of over US$ 2.5 billion annually, excluding barley and finger millet (Sharma, 2006). Varietal resistance is the most important option for reducing losses due to biotic constraints, often supported by crop management measures to arrive at more sustainable IPM options (Strategic Objective 4). Tolerance to insect pests and to the parasitic weed Striga tends to be more complex and requires improved understanding of the parasite’s biology, population dynamics and epidemiology to improve chances of finding durable levels of resistance or tolerance, as well as developing integrated management options for sustainable crop production (Strategic Objective 4). The key to their sustainable genetic management will lie in the monitoring of spatial and temporal variability in the pathogens, and identification of new resistance sources. Screening protocols for many diseases and insect pests of dryland cereals have been developed over the past 30 years, and used successfully to identify sources of resistances, as well as for breeding resistant varieties for dissemination (Sharma, 2006; Haussmann et al., 2000). However, refinement of these tools will be required to improve efficiency, and adapt to the changes in pathogenicity of the specific pests. Field and controlled environment screening procedure will increasingly be managed by individual NARS, accounting better for pathogen diversity. Achieving durable disease resistance remains a key challenge. We will increase emphasis on the use of non-race specific resistance. In barley for example, there are reports (Chen at al., 2010) on the identification of QTLs for non-race specific resistance in fungal diseases such as stripe rust and leaf blotch. Integrating marker-assisted (MAS) selection with conventional breeding approaches will
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enhance the capacity to develop dryland cereal germplasm with enhanced levels of durable disease resistance. As new loci/genes for disease resistance are mapped, it will be possible to pyramid these resistance alleles by MAS. Pyramiding of multiple resistance genes through MAS may result in more durable or higher levels of resistance. Similarly MAS shall improve our capacity to produce lines with resistance to multiple diseases and pests. Methodology Identification of new sources of resistance, and refining screening protocols New sources of resistance are required for fungal diseases, as well as Striga, because of high levels of genetic diversity, or adaptability to the host plant’s spectrum of resistance genes, e.g., in downy mildew in pearl millet (Thakur and Sharma 2009; Singh et al., 1993), blast in finger millet, and lately also on pearl millet in SA, anthracnose in sorghum, and rusts in barley. While screening protocols for these diseases exist, they require refinement, detailed analysis and documentation, and adaptation to the specific conditions of specific regions and production systems. We will focus efforts on the following host-pathogen systems:            Field screening for Striga resistance in pearl millet needs to be documented for WCA; Downy mildew screening facilities for pearl millet need to be established in WCA; Sorghum and barley aphid resistance protocols need to be refined (SA, CWANA); Develop Striga screening facility for Finger Millet in ESA; Blast on pearl millet in SA; Blast on Finger millet in ESA; Charcoal rot in post rainy season sorghum in SA; Foliar diseases (scald, Net botch) for barley; Barley Yellow dwarf virus in relation to drought in barley; Wheat stem saw fly and barley gall midge in barley for CWANA; and Rusts on barley for SA and ESA

Monitoring the pathogen diversity and improved understanding of resistance mechanisms Understanding of underlying mechanisms of resistance is required to identify diverse sources of resistance for gene pyramiding, and develop high yielding cultivars with adaptation to different agroeco-systems. While host plant resistance is an effective tool to manage certain pests (e.g. midge in sorghum and downy mildew in pearl millet, foliar diseases in sorghum and finger millet and barley), there is need to develop other tools of IPM for managing other pests, please see Strategic Objective 4. Improving the understanding of the diversity patterns of priority fungi, insect pests, and Striga will help targeted deployment of known sources of resistance. As we have observed in the past, that the pressure of a specific pest may not be evident, when basing diagnostics solely on local landrace varieties. In cases where “exotic” sorghum, pearl millet or barley materials were introduced into an area, they were devastated by insects which had not even been identified as pests before, e.g., head bugs on caudatum race sorghum in the Sudanian zone of West Africa. Thus breeding experiments will require regular monitoring by entomologists to avoid increasing production risks to farmers. We therefore will focus our efforts on the following:  Sorghum midge resistance screening results need be globally compared, to identify regional differences;  Stability of resistance to stem borers across different species between ESA and SA;  Shoot fly and aphid resistance in post-rainy season sorghum in SA;  Identification of genetic differentiation of Striga strains in relation to their virulence in WCA;  Blast of pearl millet in SA;
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   

Blast of finger millet in ESA; Virulence analysis of populations of foliar diseases of barley in CWANA; Interaction of BYDV and drought in barley in CWANA; and Biotype variation of Russian Wheat Aphid on barley in CWANA.

Tools to transfer new resistance genes into farmer preferred varieties The effectiveness of transferring newly identified resistance sources into elite breeding materials is a key element for demand responsive breeding programs. We plan to improve tools for marker assisted transfer of specific resistance QTLs into target materials, as well as improve tools for identifying progenies from bi-parental crosses as well as broad-based breeding populations with resistance or tolerance to specific pests. Marker assisted transfer of Striga resistance QTLs into farmer preferred sorghum varieties Marker assisted transfer of shoot fly resistance in to farmer preferred cultivars Phenotyping procedures and RILs for aphid resistance in sorghum in SA Identification of QTLs for Striga resistance in pearl millet We plan to conduct research on the feasibility of transferring the Striga control options based on a herbicide tolerant crop from maize to sorghum and possibly pearl millet Milestones  Sources of resistance to fungal leaf and root diseases identified in both cultivated and wild barley (H. vulgare subsp. Spontaneum and H. bulbosum), including parents of existing mapping populations, as well as for finger millet (blast and Striga) assembled and multiplied (2012)  Screening protocols refined to identify sources of resistance or tolerance to specific pests and diseases (head miner in pearl millet; midge on sorghum, aphids on sorghum and barley), diseases (blast in pearl millet and finger millet; grain molds in sorghum, net blotch, mildew, scald, and BYDV and Wheat stem sawfly and barley gall midge in barley in CWANA, rust in SA and ESA (2012)  Elite composites of pearl millet with combined resistance to downy mildew and blast developed (2012)  Hybrid parental lines or varieties with resistance to downy mildew in pearl millet (WCA, SA), blast in pearl (SA) and finger millet (ESA, SA); Striga on sorghum in WCA, foliar diseases and grain mold in sorghum and barley; and shoot fly, stem borer, and aphid in sorghum, and aphid in barley identified and distributed to NARS (2013)  Off-season downy mildew screening facilities for pearl millet installed in at least one country in WCA (2013)  Genetic diversity of Striga hermonthica samples from WCA assessed using molecular markers (2013)  Evolution of virulent strains of downy mildew in pearl millet, blast in finger and pearl millet, and net blotch, powdery mildew, scald and rust in barley monitored, and the information shared with NARS (2014)  Marker assisted transfer of specific resistance/tolerance alleles into farmer preferred varieties documented (Downy mildew on pearl millet, Striga and shot fly on sorghum, foliar diseases for barley) (2014)  QTLs or allele markers identified for the transfer of specific resistances/tolerances into target genotypes (Striga on pearl millet, aphids on sorghum, foliar diseases of barley) (2014)     

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Output 3.4. Varieties and hybrids with enhanced green forage, stover and straw varieties for fodder and other uses The increasing demand for livestock products along with decreasing availability of arable land and water will not only increase the demand for green forage but especially for dry stover/straw, that is crop residues after grain harvest, to feed livestock. We will bring about a paradigm shift in drylandcereal variety development to breed concomitantly for superior grain and green forage/stover/straw traits, to maximize total plant value for dryland cereal farmers. Given the substantial and largely untapped genetic variability present for feed/fodder quality traits in all species included in this CRP, and the ready availability of high-throughput, breeder-friendly selection technologies (NIRS), significant genetic progress for fodder quality and the development of successful dual-purpose cultivars adapted to dryland farming systems are likely to occur rapidly. Marker-assisted selection (MAS) will be used to increase the efficiency of selection for green forage/stover/straw quality traits (Grando et al., 2005). This research component will create new varieties with enhanced quality and greater total value that possess new trait combinations by building on currently available genetic variability for food and feed in the major dryland cereals. Methodology Exploit existing varietal diversity for food-feed traits in dryland cereals Expanding our shared knowledge of straw and stover fodder traits in existing varieties, breeding lines, including sweet stem sorghums and populations is needed. Promising sets of farmer identified varieties and materials from national and international breeding programs will be evaluated for stover/straw/fodder quality and agronomic traits. Evaluations of materials from gene banks and core collections would be pursued where necessary to and expand the diversity for targeted traits. Drawing on preliminary work by CIMMYT, ICARDA, ICRISAT and ILRI, we will use Near Infrared Spectroscopy (NIRS) to characterize lines for a range of traits targeting improved intake and digestibility (Bluemmel et al., 2009). The centers’ with compatible NIRS laboratories will exchange NIRS equations to ensure that progress can be made in all target regions. We will improve and adapt evaluation methodology and identify sets of varieties with superior stover/straw quality, as a basis for identifying lines and varieties with optimized total plant value. Varieties will be identified for dissemination, characterization and quantification of any trade-offs between straw and stover fodder traits with grain traits. Develop true multipurpose dryland cereals that optimize grain and fodder production under farmers’ growing conditions In specific cases, post-rainy season sorghum in SA, barley for the dryland mixed systems in CWANA, and sorghum for the Cereal Root Crop Mixed systems of WCA, we will pursue targeting breeding of new dual or multipurpose types by exploiting the genetic diversity and integrating the new traits into ongoing recurrent selection and variety development programs, assisted by genetic markers. This we will create novel plant types, improved populations and varieties with superior quality or quality and agronomic trait combinations that surpass previously available materials. Targeted breeding for high fodder/stover/straw quality will require breeding for resistance to foliar diseases, e.g. blast and rust for pearl millet, anthracnose and specific leaf spots for sorghum, which have shown to significantly reduce fodder quality. Comparisons of effectiveness of alternative breeding methods will be part of the program. We will conduct farmer participatory breeding and varietal evaluations of new materials in the context of their production objectives, physical environments and resource constraints. This will create opportunities to jump-start adoption and linkage with value chain enhancement identified (Strategic Objective 6).

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Milestones  Review of options for improving total plant value of dryland cereals conducted by CRP partners, across crops and production systems (2012)  Experimental varieties of sorghum, pearl millet and barley characterized for components of total plant value for specific production system scenarios (2012)  NIRS protocols transferred to all target regions, and available for breeding programs for analyzing straw/stover quality components (2013)  Sweet sorghum germplasm accessions (3) for multicut trait identified in SA from the global collection (2013)  High biomass sweet sorghum lines (3) introgressed (to BC2) with low lignin bmr genes (2014)  Dual purpose varieties identified for at least 2 dryland cereals in different target production systems combining superior grain yield with increased straw/stover value (2014)  Marker assisted selection successfully applied to increase quality and value combined of stover and grain beyond released cultivars for at least one dryland cereal (2014) Output 3.5. Varieties and hybrids with enhanced grain qualities for food, feed and industrial uses Grain quality includes those traits that are apparently visible in the grains (size, shape, color, texture, storability) and are of direct immediate value to farmers and consumers. These will continue to remain integral part of genetic enhancement of all the dryland cereals. However, many quality traits of considerable nutritional and industrial significance are invisible. Considering the widespread iron and Zn deficiency (FAO, 2002) and its serious health consequences, genetic enhancement of the concentration of these two micronutrients will have the highest priority. This area of research has reached the stage of breeding and it is gradually being integrated with the mainstream breeding in pearl millet targeted to India, which is included in subcomponent 1 of component 2 of the CRP 4. In other dryland cereals, the research will be confined in the medium terms to identify and validate sources of high iron and zinc content among advanced breeding lines and cultivars, and to undertake strategic research to investigate their inheritance, stability and character associations. The commercial and pipeline cultivars will also be evaluated to assess the extent of variability for other traits affecting nutrition and health (e.g. protein, fat, phytates, bioactive compounds) and industrial and pharmaceutical values (starch). For barley, and increasingly sorghum malting quality is an important industrial trait, increasing requested by NARS, and other stakeholders. Selection for malting quality requires expensive infrastructure, therefore the program will establish linkages with the private sector and ARIs to develop high malting quality barley germplasm, from which sorghum may also benefit. About 75% of production of barley, and increasingly sorghum and pearl millet (Parthasarathy Rao et al. 2010) is utilized for animal feed, in the target production systems of this CRP due to very high levels of small ruminant animals in these production systems. The global shortage of feed grains and concomitant increase in price combined with threats from climate change make improvements in feed quality in addition to productivity and stability (Output 1) the dominant breeding objectives. Methodology Near Infrared Spectroscopy (NIRS) has been used effectively for screening for Fe and Zn content. Recently an XRF method has been tested for pearl millet under the HarvestPlus Challenge Program (now included as a sub-component in CRP 4) and found even more effective than NIRS. Its correlation with ICP values both for Fe and Zn is generally very high (r > 0.85), it is non-destructive analysis, can handle 250-300 samples a day and costs < US$ 1/day. Its standardization for other dryland cereals can greatly enhance the breeding efficiency for these minerals. Grain hardness (Bean et. al., 2006) and diameter measurement shall be an important quality parameter to be monitored for establishing suitability for milling of grains to produce high quality
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flour. Functional properties (Vijayakumar and Mohankumar, 2009) such as diastatic activity, germinating power, water solubility index, water absorption index, water holding capacity, oil absorption capacity, thermal and pasting properties (using Rapid Visco-analyser-RVA) shall be used for characterization of the grains for various processing applications. In vitro digestibility (protein, starch) of the grains shall also be looked into using standard methods of analysis in order to explore their use in both the food and feed processing industry. Nutritional profiling along with profiling for key amino acids (Ejeta et. al., 1987) shall be carried out as part of profiling the grains for use in the food and feed industry. In addition measurement of starch for identifying suitable candidates for extraction of starch to be used in various industrial applications covering the pharmaceutical, paper, food, petroleum etc. industries shall be carried out. Rapid methods (Mccleary et. al., 1994) for measurement of starch using enzyme assay kits are available for this purpose. Profiling of bioactive compounds such as phenols, condensed tannins, flavan-4-ols and anthocyanins shall be carried out. The phenolic compounds present in grains are phenolic acids, flavonoids, and condensed tannins. The following phenolic acids shall be quantified, using standard HPLC methods (Hahn et al., 1983); gallic acid, Protocatechuic, p-Hydroxybenzoic, Vanillic, Caffeic, p-Coumaric, Ferulic and Cinnamic acid. The major class of flavonoids in dryland cereals is the anthocyanins. Anthocyanins in sorghum are unique since they do not contain the hydroxyl group in the 3-position of the C-ring and thus are called 3-deoxyanthocyanins. This unique feature increases their stability at high pH compared to the common anthocyanins that confer to these compounds the potential to serve as natural food colorants. In addition, these compounds have antioxidant activity. Other flavonoids reported are Flavan-4-ols (Luteoforol, Apiforol), Flavones (Apigenin, Luteolin), Flavanones (Eriodictyol, Eriodictyol 5-glucoside, Naringenin), Flavonols (Kaempferol 3-rutinoside-7-glucuronide), Dihydroflavonols (Taxifolin, Taxifolin 7-glucoside). Condensed tannins are measured using the vanillin/HCl or the butanol/HCl assays. In vitro antioxidant activity shall be measured using the 2,2’azinobis(3-ethyl-benzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid (ABTS), 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), and oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC) methods (Awika et. al., 2003). The poultry feed is supplemented with methionine to increase the efficiency of poultry diets, and millets being rich source of methionine with balanced amino acid profile have shown better results than maize when used as broiler diet. The methods are available to study amino acid profiling, especially methionine content; oil, fiber and protein content which are important components of poultry diets and if improved can significantly enhance the quality and production potential of poultry-based products. This will apply to barley as well. Milestones  Rapid and cost-effective screening protocols for mineral analysis in grain (Fe, Zn and Ca) of sorghum and millets standardized (2012)  Finger millet grain profiled for key nutrients and minerals, based on a range of cultivars and advanced breeding lines from ESA and SA (2012)  Decortication losses of a range of sorghum and pearl millet cultivars quantified, also for the consequences for Fe and Zn concentration, and indications for their bioavailability (2013).  Source materials with high mineral content identified among advanced breeding lines, and commercial/pipeline hybrids/varieties of sorghum (pearl millet in CRP 4) (2013)  Commercial and pipeline cultivars of pearl millet and barley characterized (at least 40 in each crop) for poultry and small ruminant feed quality traits, including anti-nutritional factors (2013)  Screening protocols for screening barley germplasm for malting quality (2013)  Commercial and pipeline cultivars (at least 40 in each crop) characterized for processing and value-addition related nutritional traits, and starch and bio -active compounds (2014)

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Partners and Their Roles Direct collaboration between researchers from a wide range of disciplines from different partner institutes for solving a priority problem will be essential to implementing Strategic Objective 3. The key to engaging partners will be to focus on the common goal of enhancing cereal farmers’ livelihoods and to put mechanisms in place to ensure that activities are needs based and demand driven. Research partnerships with universities and advanced research institutes for specific technical, social and institutional issues are needed as well. Regional cooperation within the same agro-ecological zones, involving the exchange of germplasm, concomitant diversification of national breeding materials (to increase heterozygosity and therefore hybrid vigor in the hybrids), and joint multi-location hybrid evaluation trials within similar agro-ecological zones (across countries) will enhance hybrid breeding efficiency in SSA.  GCP/CIRAD will contribute to output 3.1: by development of new sorghum varieties from “good x good crosses” representing new allelic combinations of QTLs for productivity, adaptation, and grain quality (GCP: MARS project); and by development of sorghum varieties from elite backgrounds incorporating favorable alleles for adaptation, productivity, and grain quality (GCP: BCNAM project);  ICRISAT will contribute to output 3.1: through its sorghum and pearl millet variety development expertise and facilities for multi-location testing all priority production systems listed in ESA, WCA and SA, as well screening and monitoring of locally important pests and diseases important for adaptation; and through its finger millet breeding expertise and facilities in ESA;  ICRISAT will contribute to output 3.2: through its off-season drought nursery for pearl millet and sorghum in SA; its rainout shelter with lysimeter-based screening facility for water use efficiency, and other physiological observations for drought, heat and salinity tolerance evaluations in SA (and now being established in WCA); and through low phosphorus field testing facilities for sorghum and pearl millet in WCA and Al-tolerance field testing facilities being established for sorghum an pearl millet in WCA;  ICRISAT will contribute to output 3.3: by providing controlled environment, as well as field screening facilities for pearl millet downy mildew in SA (which is now being established in WCA, as well); via use of its sorghum entomology and grain mold screening facilities in SA; through its Striga screening facilities in WCA; through its capacity for monitoring midge infestations and foliar and grain diseases on sorghum in WCA; and through its blast screening facilities for finger millet in ESA;  ICRISAT will contribute to output 3.4: by conducting laboratory analyses for Fe and Zn (atomic absorption spectroscopy and XRF) in SA, through its capacity for assessing decortication losses and culinary qualities of sorghum and pearl millet in WCA, and via the Nutriplus food processing business incubator facilities in SA;  ICRISAT will contribute to output 3.5: by conducting biomass assessments in all regions on sorghum, pearl millet and finger millet; through its stover milling capacity in SA and WCA; and through its capacity for sweet sorghum characterization (sugar yield) in SA and WCA;  ICARDA will contribute to output 3.1 by breeding for high potential areas (spring types) – with a focus on the development of germplasm for favorable environments with a strong focus on yield potential and biotic stresses in areas with more favorable levels of inputs. This component will also coordinate the work on malting barley. Target countries will include South and East Asia, Latin America, as well as the more favorable areas in other regions.  ICARDA will contribute to output 3.2 by breed for low potential areas (spring types) – with a focus on adaptation to abiotic stress such as drought, cold, heat, and salinity, and associated biotic stresses. Target countries are West Asia, East and North Africa, Central Asia (spring types), as well as less favorable areas in other regions. Screening facilities at ICARDA

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headquarters will be used for identifying salt tolerance in the seedling stage. Breeding for winter barley will be done both for high and low potential areas – with a focus on winter hardiness and other associated abiotic and biotic stresses. Target countries are Iran, Central Asia and the Caucasus, as well as winter growing areas in other regions. ICARDA will contribute to output 3.3 by testing segregating populations and fixed lines in hot spots for different diseases and pests. Sources of resistance will be characterized at headquarters and transferred into the breeding material with the help of conventional and marker-assisted selection. Controlled environment facilities, a biosafety facility as well as field-testing facilities are available at ICARDA headquarters. ICARDA will contribute to output 3.4 though its cereal quality laboratory, which will conduct tests for micronutrient (mainly Fe and Zn), beta-glucan, and protein content, in addition to standard assessments of physical grain quality using NIRS; ICARDA will contribute to output 3.5 by conducting cereal grain quality analyses for traits related to malting quality at the ICARDA laboratory, in collaboration with ARIs; ILRI will contribute to output 3.4 by: advancing methodology development for using NIRS to predict relevant fodder and feed quality parameters for use by dryland cereal breeding programs in SA, WCA and ESA; and by conducting research on options for fodder densification and marketing, focusing on SA, but expanding to WCA, for sorghum. CIRAD will contribute to output 3.1 by: development and intensive evaluation of photoperiod-sensitive sorghum and pearl millet varieties with reduced plant height, improved harvest index and adequate grain quality for Mali (FFEM-2 project); and to output 3.5 by developing: improved food-feed-fuel and feed-fuel sorghum germplasm for semi-arid conditions and acid soils (SweetFuel project); INTSORMIL will contribute to output 3.1 by contributing methodological experiences on pearl millet and sorghum variety development; to output 3.2 by providing sorghum germplasm identified for specific abiotic stress tolerance components for use in ESA and WCA; to output 3.3 by providing sorghum and pearl millet germplasm with identified components of Striga resistance for use in ESA and WCA, by contributing to improvements in screening methodologies for key sorghum insect pests in WCA and ESA, and by contributing identified sources of anthracnose resistance, and new tools for disease screening; to output 3.4 by providing expertise in cereal processing technologies and analytical methods, and via its experience with managing cereal processing business incubators; and to output 3.5 through their experience with forage use and forage variety development, primarily of pearl millet. Overall, INTSORMIL will contribute by providing advanced/degree training opportunities for African students and scientists. Kansas State University, Department of Grain Science and Technology (USA), will contribute to output 3.5 by validating results on nutritional and functional properties of pearl millet grains, especially with regard to utilization of the grains for industrial processing, and through the development of value-added products from pearl millet grain; University of Hohenheim (Germany) will be contributing to output 3.1 by supporting research on heterotic grouping in both sorghum and pearl millet with a focus on WCA; to output 3.2 by contributing to research methodology development for breeding for adaptation to low P conditions in WCA, the identification of markers for photoperiod sensitivity in sorghum and pearl millet in WCA, and breeding methodologies for finger millet in ESA; and to output 3.3 by conducting ecological studies on Striga distribution in West-Africa; University of Wageningen, Department of Nutrition (Netherlands), will contribute to output 3.5 by facilitating the coordination of the INSTAPA project, and thus bioavailability studies of sorghum and pearl millet grains and processed food products, as well as efficacy studies, using als biofortified sorghum and pearl millet varieties;

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 University of Pretoria, Department of Food Science (South Africa) will contribute to output 3.5 by validating of the results involving nutritional, functional and bioactive analysis of the grains;  Alberta Agriculture, Food and Rural Development (AAFRD-Canada) will contribute mainly to 3.1, 3.3, 3.4 and 3.5 by evaluating and selection of barley germplasm for disease resistance and agronomic performance; they offer excellent NIRS analysis capacity as well, which will contribute to feed, food and malting quality testing;  Oregon State University (USA) will contribute to 3.1 and 3.3 through molecular mapping of barley within the North America Barley Genome Mapping project and identification of molecular markers associated with resistance to diseases of barley;  The Scottish Crop Research Institute (SCRI): will contribute to 3.1 and 3.2 through genetic analysis of drought tolerance and adaptation in barley;  University of Adelaide, Waite Institute (Australia) will contribute to 3.1, 3.2, and 3.5 through joint evaluation of barley germplasm for low rainfall environments, and for salt stressed environments;  University of Sydney Plant Breeding Institute (Australia) will contribute to outputs 3.1 and 3.3 through evaluation of barley germplasm for resistance to barley stripe (yellow) rust at the Cobbitty-based cereal rust research facilities;  University of Bedfordshire (UK) will contribute to output 3.3 by working on the genetics of the blast pathogen, and the resistance to it in finger millet;  University of Georgia, Athens (USA) will contribute to output 3.3 by working on the genetics of the blast pathogen and resistance to it in finger millet and pearl millet;  EMBRAPA’s Sorghum and Maize program will contribute to output 3.2 by providing support and training for Al-tolerance and testing for low P adaptation, as well as marker applications;  The All India Coordinated Pearl millet Improvement project will contribute to outputs 3.1, 3.2, and 3.3 by conducting field trials to generate yield, and biotic/abiotic resistance/tolerance data, and by contributing to in scientific capacity building and impact assessment as well as organizing annual consultation meetings among pearl millet stakeholders, and by coordinating variety release procedures for India;  The Directorate of Sorghum Research (DSR), Hyderabad, India, will contribute to outputs 3.1, 3.2, and 3.3 by conducting field trials to generate yield, and biotic/abiotic resistance/tolerance data, and by contributing to in scientific capacity building and impact assessment as well as organizing annual consultation meetings among sorghum stakeholders, and by coordinating variety release procedures for India;  The All-India Coordinated Small Millets Project will contribute to outputs 3.1, 3.2, and 3.3 by coordinating all activities for finger millet improvement in SA, including field trials to generate yield, and biotic/ abiotic resistance/tolerance data, and by contributing to in scientific capacity building and impact assessment as well as organizing annual consultation meetings among finger millet stakeholders, and by coordinating variety release procedures for India;  Directorate for Wheat Research (DWR) coordinates wheat and barley research in India and will contribute to outputs 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4 and 3.5 by coordinating all activities for barley improvement in SA, including field trials to generate yield, and biotic/abiotic resistance/tolerance data, by contributing to in scientific capacity building and impact assessment as well as organizing annual consultation meetings among finger millet stakeholders, and by coordinating variety release procedures for India;  The National Institute of Nutrition (NIN), Hyderabad, India, will contribute to output 3.5 by conducting studies on bioavailability of Fe and Zn studies of pearl millet grains and their value-added product;

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 The Central Institute of Post Harvest Engineering and Technology (CIPHET), Ludhiana, India, will contribute to output 3.5 by developing and testing of prototypes of procedures and machinery for characterization of grains for processing traits such as hardness, efficiency of threshing, decortication, and milling, etc.;  The Central Food Technological Research Institute (CFTRI), Mysore, India will contribute to output 3.5 by studying food system components (chemical, nutritional, toxicological, biomolecular, biophysical, microbiological, physiological and sensory profiling and food engineering), and by developing commercially viable processes and consumer friendly products. CFTRI will be involved in projects to understand the nutritional, functional and bioactive traits of pearl millet grains, as well as products developed from these grains.  The Indian Institute of Crop Processing Technology (IICPT), Thanjavur, India, will contribute to output 3.5 by providing expertise both in post-harvest technology as well as food science and will be involved in developing and testing of prototypes that can be used to characterize the grains with respect to certain processing traits such as hardness, efficiency of threshing, decortication, milling etc., and also on nutritional and functional analysis;  China, through its screening of barley Fusarium Head Blight nurseries and adaptation in Hangzhou and Shanghai, will contribute to outputs 3.1, 3.3, 3.4, 3.5;  EIAR, Ethiopia will contribute to outputs 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4 and 3.5: by breeding and screening barley for netblotch, scald, powdery mildew, and stem rust, adaptation to several abiotic stresses; and by breeding and screening sorghum for Striga resistances, and productionspecific biotic and abiotic stresses;  NARO, Uganda, will contribute to outputs 3.1, 3.2, 3.3 by developing screening protocols and screening of sorghum and finger millet materials for its priority production systems;  KARI, Kenya, will contribute to outputs 3.1, 3.2, 3.3 by developing screening protocols and screening sorghum and finger millet of materials for its priority production systems;  Moi University in Kenya will contribute to output 3.2 by creating a sorghum locally adapted random mating population with increased frequency of alleles for Al tolerance, as well as phosphorus efficiency;  DRD, Tanzania, will contribute to outputs 3.1, 3.2, 3.3 by developing screening protocols and screening of materials of sorghum pearl millet and finger millet for its priority production systems;  Mozambique will contribute to outputs 3.1, 3.2, 3.3 by developing screening protocols and screening sorghum materials for its priority production systems;  Zimbabwe will contribute to output 3.1, 3.2, and 3.3 by developing screening protocols and screening of sorghum materials for its priority production systems.  Zambia will contribute to output 3.1, 3.2, and 3.3 by developing screening protocols and screening of sorghum materials especially for their respective priority production systems.  Institut d’Economie Rurale (IER), Mali will contribute to outputs 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4 and 3.5 through its facilities and capacity for multi-location evaluation of sorghum and pearl millet breeding materials and experimental varieties, by screening sorghum and pearl millet for Striga resistance, as well as resistance for key diseases and insect pests. IER will also contribute its capacity for food technological observations on sorghum grain, as well its growing food processing business incubator, as well analytical capacity for fodder and feed qualities. IER is presently also coordinating variety release in close cooperation with LABOSEM, and the Ministry of Agriculture of Mali;  Institut National d’Environement et Recherche Agricole (INERA), in Burkina Faso, will contribute to outputs 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4 and 3.5 by contributing facilities and capacity for multilocation evaluation of sorghum and pearl millet breeding materials and experimental

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varieties, by screening sorghum and pearl millet for resistance to key diseases and insect pests; Institut National de Recherch Agricole au Niger (INRAN), in Niger, will contribute to outputs 3.1, 3.2, 3.3 3.4 and 3.5 by contributing facilities and capacity for multi-location evaluation of sorghum and pearl millet breeding materials and experimental varieties, by screening sorghum and pearl millet for resistance for key diseases and insect pests. INERA will also contribute its capacity for food technological observations on sorghum and pearl millet grain, as well its growing food processing business incubator. Lake Chad Research Institute (LCRI), Maiduguri, Nigeria, will contribute to outputs 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4 and 3.5 by contributing facilities and capacity for multi-location evaluation of pearl millet breeding materials and experimental varieties, by screening pearl millet for downy mildew resistance, as well as resistance to other important diseases and insect pests. LCRI will also contribute its capacity for food technological observations on pearl millet grain, and its growing food processing business incubator (in close collaboration with the University of Maiduguri), as well analytical capacity for fodder and feed qualities. Insititute for Agricultural Research (IAR), Samaru, Nigeria will contribute to all Strategic Objective 3 outputs relating to sorghum, as LCRI will do for pearl millet in Nigeria; Institut Senegalese de Recherche Agricole (ISRA), Dakar, Senegal will contribute outputs 3.1,.3.2, 3.3 as are other West African NARES. In collaboration with the Institut de Technology Alimentaire (ITA) at Dakar, Senegal they shall contribute to output 3.5; Similar collaboration exists with the Savannah Agricultural Research Institute (SARI), Tamale, Ghana for sorghum and pearl millet improvement; Makerere University, Uganda will contribute to output 3.3 by working on finger millet blast and training graduate students; Maseno University, Kenya will contribute to output 3.3 by working on finger millet blast and training graduate students; Egerton University, Kenya will contribute to output 3.3 by working on finger millet blast and training graduate students; University of Free State, South Africa will contribute to output 3.3 by training postgraduate students on different aspects of blast reaction; Regional bodies like ASARECA and CORAF facilitate networking among NARS with smaller sorghum, pearl millet or finger millet programs, and thus contribute primarily to output 3.1; COMESA and East African Community, INSAH (Institut du Sahel) and ECOWAS in West Africa will contribute to output 3.1 by facilitating the harmonization of policies, like seed policy, variety releases procedures, and trade policies; AGRA (Alliance for a Green Revolution in Africa) will contribute to outputs 3.1, 3.2, 3.3 and 3.5: by supporting NARES breeding programs in ESA and WCA that focus on dryland cereals; by providing advanced degree training to NARS who are working on dryland cereals; and by supporting private seed sector development in ESA and WCA. Iranian Agricultural Research, Education and Extension Organization (AREEO) will contribute to outputs 3.1., 3.2, 3.3, 3.4, 3.5 through: generation of barley lines and varieties adapted to the drylands and highlands of West Asia; its excellent laboratory facilities for food, feed analysis, controlled environment facilities for the analysis of abiotic stress tolerance (cold, salinity) at the Dryland Agricultural research Institute (DARI), Tabriz and Seed and Plant Improvement Institute of Iran (SPII), Karaj; and through doubled haploid production genetic analysis, and marker-assisted selection at the Agricultural Biotechnology Institute of Iran (ABRII), Karaj;

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 The Institute National Agronomique de Tunisia (INAT) and National Agricultural Research Institute of Tunisia, Tunisia (INRAT) will contribute to outputs 3.1, 3.2 and 3.3 by screening barley for scald and BYDV, adaptation, and abiotic stress tolerance; the Centre de Biotechnololgy of Sfax (CBS) and Centre de Biotechnologie de Borj-Cédria (CBBC) will contribute to 3.2 and 3.3 through the application of biotechnological tools;  The Institute National de la Recherché Agronomique (INRA), Morocco, will contribute to all Strategic Objective 3 outputs through screening for barley stem gall midge, testing barley germplasm for biotic and abiotic stress tolerance, adaptation and yield, and contributing laboratory analysis for marker assisted- selection and genetic analysis  ICAMEX (Mexico) will contribute to all Strategic Objective 3 outputs through generation of barley lines and varieties adapted to the agro-ecological conditions and industrial needs of the State of Mexico;  Ecuador and Peru will contribute to all Strategic Objective 3 outputs by screening for yellow rust, and providing laboratory facilities for the analysis of food and feed and malting quality.  The two Hybrid Parents Research Consortia in India will be involved in Strategic Objective 3 activities in SA. They unite practically all relevant private breeding and seed companies working with dryland cereals, primarily sorghum and pearl millet, so individual companies are not listed separately here;  The Sorghum Hybrid Parents Research Consortium in India will contribute to output 3.1 primarily and may contribute to the others based on economic opportunities and targets of specific members of the consortium by providing partial funding support for hybrid parents research, evaluation of trait specific nurseries/trials for field performance, hybrid development and marketing of hybrid seed (by the members of the consortium) and impact assessment;  In much the same way, the Pearl Millet Hybrid Parents Research Consortium in India will contribute to output 3.1 primarily and may contribute to 3.2, 3.3, 3.4 and 3.5;  Al Shark Malting Company (Syria) will be involved in the selection and testing of new malting barley varieties (objective 3.5);  Seed companies in ESA (Namburi, Subra Agro, Tanzania; Victoria, Uganda and Kenya Seed, Kenya) will contribute to output 3.1 by identifying varieties for dissemination, in cooperation with Strategic Objective 6.  Industrial grain processors (Unga, Kenya; Nyeri Farm, Tanzania and Maganjo millers, Uganda) and farmer groups will help with variety selection (output 3.1, and Strategic Objective 6);  Kenya, Tanzania, Nigeria and Ghanaian malting and brewing companies will contribute to outputs 3.1 and 3.5 by identifying sorghum varieties adapted to their zones of grain sourcing, as well conducting specific grain quality analyses;  Farmer organizations, such as: Fuma Gaskya and Mooriben in Niger; UGPCA (Union des groupement des producteurs pour la commercialisation agricole) and AMSP (Association Minim Song Panga) in Burkina Faso; and ULPC (Union Locale des Producteurs de Cereals de Dioila) and UACT (Union des Agricultuers du cercle de Tominian) in Mali will contribute to output 3.1 primarily, by conducting evaluations of breeding material and experimental varieties in their zones of action, as well as by producing and commercializing seed of preferred varieties;  Agricultural development NGOs, like the Aga Khan Foundation (Mali), Action contre la Faim (Mali and Niger), as well as local NGOs like ASEDES and Adaf Galle in Mali and others, are seen as potential partners in achieving output 3.1, by evaluating experimental varieties;  Large agricultural or integrated development projects in Burkina Faso (PDRD, funded by IFAD and AfDB), Niger (PPILDA, funded by IFAD) and Nigeria (CBARDP, funded by IFAD and others)

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will also contribute to achieving output 3.1 by testing varieties on a large scale, and by following through with large scale seed production and dissemination (Strategic Objective 6).

STRATEGIC OBJECTIVE 4 - DEVELOPING SUSTAINABLE CROP, PEST AND DISEASE MANAGEMENT OPTIONS TO CAPTURE
GENETIC GAINS FROM IMPROVED DRYLAND CEREAL VARIETIES AND HYBRIDS

Outputs, Methodology and Milestones Output 4.1. Gender responsive crop management options to optimize crop productivity in smallholder farmer fields The primary purpose of Output 4.1 is to provide technologies to farmers that are directly linked to maximizing the yield of existing cultivars and exploiting the genetic gains of new cultivars generated elsewhere in this CRP. Yield gap analysis shows very clearly that yield and production of dryland cereals can be increased, even by smallholder farmers in harsh environments, often with existing technology and at affordable prices (Cooper et al., 2009). These technologies include for example seed priming, micro-dosing, nutrient management, within field water management, reduced tillage and their interactions with cultivar in different farming systems. Water and fertilizer are regarded the major limitations to yield and are usually best dealt with in an integrated manner. Ex-ante modeling of crop management options will be used to target options in different systems and regions, and also to provide estimates of risk (Cooper et al., 2009). Likewise, analogue locations for climate variability and change will be used as testing and knowledge sites to develop and generate options, including building upon indigenous knowledge. Synergies will be sought with CRP 1.1 for testing new cultivars in integrated systems (e.g. conservation agriculture, crop-livestock-tree systems) and to ensure that products and their testing is gender-sensitive and appropriate for the targeted farming and livelihood systems. Women have an important role to play both as adopters of technology where they are farmers in their own right, and as farm laborers who undertake many crop management activities. Wherever possible, these technologies will be tested with/by male and female farmers using participatory methods such as the cluster based farmer field school CBFFS or Mother & Baby trials. Strategic local partnerships with extension agents or NGOs will be vital for this process, both as translators of technologies and information to farmers, and as change agents capable of delivering scaling-up at local and in some cases national and regional levels. These partnerships will by design involve other organizations in the impact pathway to address wider system issues and constraints; for example the need for input supplies chains for fertilizer. Methodologies Seed priming Seed priming – soaking seeds in water for a pre-determined duration before surface drying and sowing, is a simple but proven technology that can increase resource-use efficiency (Harris, 2006). The benefits are greatest in drier more marginal environments (Harris et al., 2001). Seed priming can also be supplemented with micronutrients (e.g., zinc, molybdenum) and with starter doses of P, with low investment costs and low labor costs. Seed priming combined with microdosing has also proved very effective (Aune and Ousmane, 2011) and the low costs help farmers who are risk averse to consider this technology. Site-specific nutrient management (SSNM)/integrated soil fertility management (ISFM) Nutrient deficiencies are widespread in the SAT, with more than 70% of the fields in semi-arid tropics of India being deficient in key macro- and micronutrients. Likewise, in SSA, phosphorus (P) in particular is often deficient. In South Asia soil-test based nutrient application has proven very successful, raising yields across a wide range of states and systems. Water-use efficiency is also usually increased by the application of nutrients. However, nutrient × cultivar interactions have not been explored or exploited in SA and there maybe opportunities for higher nutrient use efficient
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cultivars. In SSA, ISFM and microdosing have been widely tested, with small quantities of organic (handful per planting basin) and/or inorganic (bottle top fertilizer per basin) fertilizer used to raise yields, even in drier years. There is some evidence that some cultivars respond better to microdosing than others and activities will be established to identify such cultivars. Fertilizer microdosing Microdosing of mineral fertilizers during critical growth stages for dryland cereals is proving to be an effective tool for increasing profitability of fertilizer for dryland cereals (Buerkert et al., 2001, 2002; Valluru et al., 2006, 2009; Karanam and Vadez, 2010). This approach is being taken up and disseminated on a large scale by AGRA and several large development actors in Africa. Participatory evaluation of fertilizer micro doses (small doses of fertilizers) will also be tested. Data will be collected on cost of all on farm activities and the cost of inputs and product outputs for a cost benefit analysis to establish the most profitable system and determining of optimal inputs combinations. Crop water productivity improvement Increasing the productivity of water means in its broadest sense, getting more value or benefit from each drop of water used (Kijne et al., 2003). Crop water productivity means raising crop yields per unit of water consumed. Crop water productivity varies with location, depending on such factors as cropping pattern, climate conditions, field water management, labor and fertilizer, e.g., water productivity of cereals other than rice range from 0.2-2.4kgs/cubic meter. Within field water capture and management technologies are available and there are a range of options for increasing water capture in field (as opposed to larger scale watershed capture which is under CRP 1.1 and CRP 5). These include tied ridges, zai pits, planting basins or semi-lunes, surface residue and contour farming. These will be tested in different farming systems and for the different dryland cereals Cropping systems and cropping patterns Cropping system refers to an arrangement in which various crops are grown together in the same field. The cropping systems followed in dry lands differ from those followed under better endowed conditions. Only those crops can be grown under dry land conditions which require less water to complete their life cycle or which can stand or yield under drought conditions. This can include drought resistant and drought tolerant species /cultivars. In addition, plants can be grown only where some water is available to sustain the growth of plants. Mixed cropping is also followed to minimize the effect of unpredictability of rain. Mixed cropping may have low yield potential but it works as a buffer against failure under possible unfavorable conditions. Mixed cropping may be defined as sowing of two or more crops simultaneously on the same piece of land in separate rows. Cropping pattern is defined as sequence of growing crops in a particular field at a particular period. The following recommendations should be followed for an efficient soil and water conservation targeting improved crop productivity:  Tillage requirements of the crops – Tillage starts with the seedbed preparation and ends with mulching and control of weeds. Deep plowing during summer helps in destroying weeds and suppressing insect pests and diseases. It also helps in an efficient root penetration into soil. Placement of seed at 5 cm and fertilizers at 7.5 cm in the same furrow followed by soil compaction have resulted in better germination, plant vigor, extensive root development and higher crop yields.  Selection or crops and varieties – There are a number of improved varieties of different crops that are drought tolerant or resistant to water stress. The most commonly grown crops in dry lands are sorghum, pearl millet, finger millet, wheat, barley, pulses, oilseeds, etc. The improved varieties of these crops are available in the targeted regions and countries for integration in the cropping system.

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 Sowing of crops – Sowing of crops deals with several associated factors namely sowing time, method of sowing, and depth of sowing. Sowing time can markedly influence the production and productivity of dry land crops. Early sowing of rainy season crops results in early crop maturity and thereby it facilitates early sowing of succeeding post-rainy season crops. Early sowing of post-rainy season crops helps in overcoming the moisture stress at later stages of plant growth, particularly at grain filling stage. Broadcasting of seeds should be avoided as it involves several losses and seed does not properly come in contact with moisture. To get an ideal plant population it is necessary that about 25% higher than required seed rate should be applied. Care must be taken to reduce plant competition for moisture by removing excess plant population about 2-3 weeks after the sowing depending upon the crops. Crop rotation For resource-poor farmers engaged mainly in subsistence production, low-external-input technologies are usually a more affordable way to improve soil productivity. Crop Rotation is known as the practice of growing different crop in succession chiefly to preserve the productivity capacity of the soil. It is a system of cultivation where crops such as cereals and legumes that need different nutrients and/or management are grown one after the other. The advantages of rotating crops are firstly that pests particular to one crop are discouraged from building up and spreading, and secondly that some crops actually benefit the soil. Cereal /Legumes rotation can increase the nitrogen content of the soil if their roots are left in the soil after harvesting. If the rotation includes a ley, the system is known as alternative husbandry or mixed farming. Crop rotation is an essential part of weed management. It allows herbicide rotation and weed control by cultivation. Chemical control of grass weeds is best achieved in broadleaved crops. In cereals, adjusting sowing date, cultivations and herbicides all help to reduce problems with grass. Rotation can prevent carry-over and buildup of pests between susceptible crops. Crop rotation is also the first line of defense against diseases carry-over and development Crop rotation can be integrated with compositing as an integrated fertility management approach. In addition, the potential of composting to turn on-farm waste materials into a farm resource makes it an attractive proposition. Composting offers several benefits such as enhanced soil fertility and soil health – thereby increased agricultural productivity, improved soil biodiversity, reduced ecological risks and a better environment. Even though the practice is well known, farmers in many parts of the world especially in developing countries find themselves at a disadvantage by not making the best use of organic recycling opportunities available to them, due to various constraints which among others include absence of efficient expeditious technology, long time span, intense labor, land and investment requirements, and economic aspects. The interventions points here would be to have diverse rotation plans which profitably meets market needs, manage soil, pests, diseases and weeds and suit the farms by crop/faming system and agro-ecology as well as the socio economic conditions of the farms families. Integrated management options Dryland Cereals with the exception of barley and finger millet are usually grown in combination with other food or cash crops – an association that minimizes risks, optimizes land use and maximize labor input per unit area of land. The dryland cereals are grown as a single crop, especially by largescale farmers. In Ethiopia farmers mix faba bean in barley fields since they do not have enough land to allocate to the legume. Sorghum and Pearl millet are often intercropped/mixed cropped with legumes such as cowpea, green gram, pigeon peas, groundnuts, chickpea and lablab bean by smallholder farmers to provide the protein that supplement the carbohydrates and starch from the dryland cereals as well as animal fodder. Rural families invariably derive food, animal feed, and cash, together with spillover benefits to their farmlands for example in improving soil fertility through in situ decay of root residues and legume leaves. In addition, because the legume grain is widely traded out of the major production areas, it provides income and serves as a cheap and nutritious food for

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the relatively poor sections of urban communities. This Strategic Objective 4 will bring to the mainstream legume crops with inherent resilience to drought and hence enhance the food basket for households in the dry areas. There will also be close collaboration with the CRP 3.5 on Grain Legumes. Milestones  Studies conducted to identify available crop cultivars and management options for each dryland cereals per region and per farming system and a brochure of the same published and made available (2012)  On-station and on-farm testing of different rates of micro-doses of fertilizers evaluated and optimum rates established and options for soil-water management demonstrated for each dryland cereals by region and farming system (2012)  Training needs for stakeholders identified and disaggregated by gender (2012)  Implementation of CBFFS for development and testing of integrated management of the main abiotic and biotic constraint(s) in two countries for two the two most important farming systems in each region (2013)  Protocols for testing integrated crop cultivar and management using participatory approaches developed and tested to determine three methods for scaling out to other areas with similar production systems (2013)  At least three best-bet crop management options identified using large-scale, gender-specific, farmer-participatory multi-location testing approaches for increasing hybrid productivity (grain and stover) in drought prone environments (2013)  Location-specific improved production technologies tested (crop cultivars and soil-waterfertility management) for productivity and weed management (2014)  Guidelines developed for optimization of soil fertility/organic matter management, including weeds, in at least three specific dryland cereal production systems, with varying levels of livestock integration (2014)  Management options identified on a barley cropping system to minimize the detrimental effects of salinity (2014) Output 4.2. Integrated Striga, disease, pest and weed management options to meet the social, environmental and ecological sensitivities of dryland cereals Experience shows that the use of improved varieties alone is not adequate to attain the productivity levels required to meet farmers’ food and income needs. Insect pests, Striga, diseases, non-parasitic weeds are serious constraints of dryland cereals productivity and production and utilization. Crop losses due to these pests have been estimated at over US$ 7.4 billion annually (Sharma 2006). Striga, grain molds, shoot fly, stem borers, midge and head bugs are important pests in sorghum across the SSA and SA regions whereas downy mildew, blast, stem borer and head miner are important in pearl millet. Finger millet blast and stem borers are important in SA and ESA and elsewhere where finger millet is produced. Chemical control of shoot and panicle feeding insects on cereals is beyond the reach of resource-poor farmers in the SSA, SA and CWANA. Current sensitivities about environmental pollution, human health, and pest resurgence are a consequence of improper use of synthetic pesticides. Host plant resistance, natural plant products, bio-pesticides, natural enemies, and agronomic practices are potentially viable options for integrated pest management (IPM). They are relatively safe for non-target organisms and human beings. Foliar disease including cereal rusts (mainly leaf, stripe (yellow) and stem rust), foliar diseases caused by Septoria leaf blotch (Mycosphaerella graminicola), leaf rust (Puccinia hirdei), and stem rust (Puccinia graminis) are widespread.

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The new stem rust race Ug99 and its derivatives are considered as global threat to wheat and barley production. In experimental resistance screening at Njoro, Kenya more than 95% of barley genotypes from USDA and ICARDA were fully susceptible to Ug99 indicating vulnerability of barley varieties to Ug99. Despite the global efforts and supports given to wheat: rust research and development, there has been very little attention to the barley-rust pathosystem. Since the first detection in Uganda, Ug99 has been reported in Ethiopia, Sudan, Yemen and Iran. Other globally important foliar diseases of barley are scald (Rhynchosporium secalis), net blotch (Pyrenophorateres), leaf rust (Pucciniahordei), powdery mildew (Erysiphe graminis f. sp. hordei) and barley yellow dwarf virus. Crown and dry land root rot diseases caused by Fusarium spp. (F. graminearum and F. culmorum) are also important diseases of barley and wheat in the Maghreb countries. Research on this major barley disease has focused on identifying various sources of resistance. Sunn pest is the most widespread of cereal insect pest in CWANA. The term sunn pest refers to a group of insects representing several genera of the 'shield bug' (Scutelleridae) and 'stink bug' (Pentatomidae) Families, with the species Eurygasterintegriceps being the most economically important. Sunn pests are found in parts of North Africa, throughout West Asia and many of the New Independent States of Central Asia. The Russian wheat aphid (RWA), Diuraphisnoxia (Mordvilko), is a new insect pest of cereals in CWANA. The aphid injects a toxin into the plant that destroys the chloroplast membrane, causing total plant loss. Even though yield losses due to this pest have not been estimated, heavy plant damage has been observed, especially in dry years. A background to some of the critical issues and interventions points to address the same is given below: Integrated striga management Striga as a pest is difficult to control because of complex interactions between the host cereal, the parasite, the soil fertility and the cropping system. Striga develops into a serious problem when fields are continuously cropped with susceptible cereals and when the fields are not adequately fertilized. Various options exist for keeping Striga under control and below damaging levels, namely: (1) application of different types of organic fertilizers, (2) localized application of different types of mineral fertilizers, (3) rotating or (4) intercropping with non-cereal crops such as cowpea, groundnut, soybean, cotton, sesame or sorrel, (5) use of cereal varieties that are resistant or tolerant to Striga and/or low soil fertility, (6) frequent or timely weeding or hand pulling during early flowering of Striga (before it sheds its seeds), and (7) ridging and hilling around the cereal stands to cover up emerged Striga plants. Several other traditional control methods exist, such as the treatment of seeds with dried fruit powder of locust bean tree (Parkia biglobosa) or Baobab (Adansonia digitata) dried leaf powder, as well as localized application of ash (by burning stalks in spots where Striga plant density was high the previous year). Although familiar with some of these options, most farmers in West Africa tend to implement only one or two at the most of these options, while a combination of methods would be far more effective for dealing with Striga and soil fertility. Even those farmers who are aware of a range of traditional and ‘modern’ options for managing Striga and soil fertility seldom implement an integrated approach. But by resorting to as many different options as is practical under the local circumstances, it is indeed possible for a farmer to achieve efficient Striga control and thus bring about improved crop yields, increased profitability, and long-term reduction of the Striga seed bank in conjunction with increased soil fertility. There are two main obstacles preventing farmers in sub-Saharan Africa from efficiently combining their strategies and effectively managing Striga. Firstly, most farmers lack the necessary understanding of Striga biology: how it parasitizes and affects the host cereal, how it reproduces and how it spreads. Secondly, many farmers are not aware of all the different options available for controlling Striga or minimizing its negative effects. Equipped with this knowledge, a farmer is automatically in a better position to make more practical decisions on how to manage a field with Striga infestation and a poor soil.

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The CBFFS approach mentioned above will allow for the development of site-specific combinations and adaptation of the options available to farmers and a participatory evaluation of these options. The CBFFS system at the same time permits many farmers to participate in the development, testing and evaluation of integrated Striga management and actively encourage farmer-to-farmer extension and knowledge sharing. Integrated pest management Several management practices have been developed and tested in farmers’ fields. Farmers both in Africa and Asia have adopted components of IPM packages. Major successes, for example are in pearl millet, where HPR and seed dressing with metalaxyl has significantly reduced the incidence of downy mildew. This simple technology has helped increase millet yield and farmers’ incomes in Mali. In India, many private seed companies treat pearl millet hybrid seed with metalaxyl to protect the crop from downy mildew and prolong the commercial life of hybrids. However, there is a need for the judicious use of fungicide in combination with host plant resistance to avoid the emergence of fungicide-resistant strains of the pathogen. Natural enemies are important in the control of major insect pests and are an important component for the management of stem borers and armyworm. Quantifying the effect of borer-resistant cultivars and effectiveness of natural enemies will be a major concern in future pest management programs. In addition, natural plant products and biopesticides offer a potentially viable alternative to synthetic insecticides since they are relatively safe to natural enemies, non-target organisms, and human health. Natural enemies Natural enemies are important in the control of major insect pests. Natural enemies are an important component for the management of stem borers and armyworm. Quantifying the effect of borer-resistant cultivars and effectiveness of natural enemies will be a major concern in future pest management programs. Bio-pesticides Current sensitivities on environmental pollution, human health hazards and pest resurgence are a consequence of improper use of synthetic pesticides. Natural plant products and bio-pesticides offer a potentially viable alternative to synthetic insecticides since they are relatively safe to natural enemies, non-target organisms, and human health. There have recently been exciting developments in the field of natural products for pest management. Several bacterial and fungal isolates have been identified as potential bio-control agents. Effective integration of HPR, agronomic strategies and alternative natural pesticides requires an analysis of multi-trophic interactions in the context of benefits versus crop damage and yield loss. There has been tremendous interest from public and private institutions, both national and international, in natural plant products. New cultural practices that can reduce pest incidence and damage need to be investigated. Bio-pesticides (both botanicals and microorganisms) identified earlier as promising were used for crop protection under field conditions. This also involved reduced use of urea, and use of trap crops and intercrops. The expertise gained was shared with the bio-fertilizer/bio-pesticide industry in India, with a view to developing public-private partnerships for bio-pesticide research. Judicious use of pesticides Pesticides are still the most reliable and economic way of protecting crops from pests. While accepting this, we need to find ways to maximize the efficacy of pesticide use, while minimizing harmful effects on the environment, and slowing down or reversing the rate of development of resistance in target pest species. Efforts have been made in the past to implement insecticide resistance management strategies in cotton in several parts of the world – but no attention has been paid to resistance management and efficacy of control operations in other crops that play an important role in pest population dynamics. Therefore, pest management efforts should focus on developing a comprehensive approach to the management of these pests that affect DC. Adequate
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knowledge of economic importance, farmer perceptions of pest losses, harmful effects of insecticides on the environment, and the potential benefits of IPM technologies for sustainable crop production is critical for setting priorities and making rational decisions on pest management. Several chemical control methods for Striga were evaluated – fumigants, germination stimulants, antitranspirants, seed hardening, seed treatments and herbicides. It was concluded that of these methods, the use of herbicides is best suited for Striga control. Evaluation of new herbicide formulations will remain an important activity. In addition, collaboration with farming-systems teams is important to develop control technologies that are adapted to local conditions, and economically feasible. Methodology Insect and disease modeling, decision support systems, and remote sensing could contribute to upscaling and dissemination of IPM and IDM technologies. Therefore, already developed integrated crop management options will be tested and validated in combination with available varieties as a key strategy to enhance crop productivity. This will include striga and weed management, and validation of integrated improved varieties with crop and fertility management options. The most cost effective technological combination options will be identified. Farmer-participatory approach will be the main strategy for technology testing. This approach will bring men and women farmers close to the technology during the development and validation stages and their feedback will be used in recommending appropriate technologies for release and widespread dissemination for adoption. Weed management, while being the primary bottleneck for yield increases for smallholder farmers, has been neglected by researchers in recent years. As patents for key herbicides (such as glyphosate and atrazine) have expired, their availability and use in dryland cereal production areas is increasing, in many areas without technical guidance or insights. Research support is thus needed to guide safe and efficient use, and to develop alternative options. A similar situation presents itself with respect to seed treatments. Emergence of specific pesticide resistant strains will be closely monitored and new molecules with diverse mode of action will be identified. The parasitic weed Striga is of particular importance in poor soil conditions and its control requires integrated genetic and crop-management interventions. A suite of crop management options have been identified that contribute to Striga control and local choice of specific components through farmer participatory processes is ongoing and will be enhanced. Several bacterial and fungal isolates have been identified as potential bio-control agents. Effective integration of HPR, agronomic strategies and alternative natural pesticides requires an analysis of multi-trophic interactions in the context of benefits versus crop damage and yield loss. There has been tremendous interest from public and private institutions, both national and international, in natural plant products. New cultural practices that can reduce pest incidence and damage will be investigated. Bio-pesticides (both botanicals and microorganisms) identified earlier as promising will be used for crop protection under field conditions. In addition, interaction of micronutrients, bio-agents and host genotype will be studied to select the nutrient and bio-agent combinations that provide enhanced levels of resistance in the host to the key pests. Milestones  CBFFS for development and testing of integrated management of Striga and soil fertility in at least two countries for the two most important farming systems in each region (WCA and ESA) (2012)  Intensive training on IPM and IDM options conducted with special emphasis on bio-pesticide production and utilization for at least three crop pest/disease combinations in specific production ecologies (2012)  Integrated management of Russian wheat aphid on barley developed and tested in two countries for the CWANA and ESA each regions for the dryland cereals infested by striga (2012)  Integrated shoot fly management options fine tuned for various production areas (2013
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 Weed management options compared in at least two farming systems, disaggregated by gender needs, including monitoring health and environmental effects of increasing herbicide use in dryland cereal cultivation (2013)  200 farmers/country participate in Farmers Field Schools (FFS) on integrated Aphid management on barley in Ethiopia and Eritrea (2013)  Interaction of nutrients and bio-agents with host genotype studied to select combinations that elicit systemic resistance against the key pests in sorghum and pearl millet (2014)  Integrated Striga management options developed and tested in ESA and WCA, and shared with the NARS partners and integrated shoot fly management options fine tuned for various production areas (2014)  IPM/IDM systems for the management for at least three crop pest/disease combinations developed for specific production ecologies (2014)  Lessons learned and best practices for effective large-scale participatory integrated crop management practices published, and selected women and men farmers’ knowledge in assessing the cultivars and management practices enhanced (2014) Partners and their Roles Strategic Objective 4 partners will be based primarily on the ability of each to make significant and timely contributions to the activities in which they are involved. NARES and NGOs that often work with the different CG centers in evaluating new crop management practices will be extensively involved, as will ARIs and the private sector organizations with a strong interest in developing crop management options for dryland cereals:  ICRISAT will contribute to outputs 4.1 and 4.2 by:  Collating and publishing available crop cultivars and management options for further testing across the different farming systems;  Developing protocols and designing on-station and on-farm trials for testing individual and integrated crop cultivars and management technological combinations;  Data analysis and synthesis to identify best bet integrated crop management options for scaling out  Identifying training needs for all stakeholder groups and organize/explore partners to provide the required capacity for better crop management options for the DC (for 4.1 and 4.2);  Testing practicality of DC seed priming in the different farming systems and feasibility to supplement it with micronutrients and study its impacts on grain micronutrients contents;  Establishing crop water productivity for the 3 crops as affected by cultivars, cropping patterns, climatic conditions, field water management, labor and fertilizer;  Collating and synthesizing data from site specific nutrient microdosing trials;  Synthesizing and publish gender concerns in dryland cereal crop management and identified technologies and strategies a that are gender responsive and women-use friendly;  Providing intensive training on IPM and IDM with emphasis on production and utilization of bio-pesticides for the 3 crops and different farming systems;  Develop protocols and fine tune shoot fly management option in the targeted farming systems;  Identify and test a wide range of bio-pesticide for their effectiveness in pest control;  Develop ISM options and organize for testing targeting the 3 crops and different farming systems;
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 Testing different herbicide formulations for effectiveness in controlling weeds in each of the 3 crops in the different farming systems;  Conducting studies on interactions of nutrients and bio-agents to select combinations that elicit systemic resistance against key pests for the 3 crops;  Monitoring health and environment effects on increasing herbicide use in the three crops  Enhancing utilization of men’s and women’s knowledge in assessing cultivars and management practices; and  Publishing lessons learned and best practices for integrated crop management and approaches for scaling out.  ICARDA will contribute to outputs 4.1 and 4.2 by:  Identifying and publish available barley varieties and management options for testing across the different farming systems;  Developing protocols and design on station and on farm trials for testing individual and integrated crop varieties and management technological combinations for managing salinity in barley dryland farming;  Data analysis and synthesis to identify best bet integrated crop management options for scaling out;  Identifying training needs for all stakeholder groups and organize/explore partners to provide the required capacity for better barley crop management options;  Identifying best barley cropping sequence for the different barley farming systems to minimize the detrimental effects of salinity;  Establishing barley crop water productivity as affected by varieties, cropping patterns, climatic conditions, field water management, labor and fertilizer;  Synthesizing and publishing gender concerns in barley crop management and validate the gender responsiveness and women-use friendliness of the technologies;  Developing protocols for testing integrated management options of Russian wheat aphid on barley;  Developing protocols for testing integrated aphid management on barley in Ethiopia and Eritrea using FFS;  Monitoring health and environment effects of increasing herbicide use in barley cultivation;  Publishing lessons learned and best practices for integrated crop management and approaches for scaling out;  Enhancing utilization of men’s and women’s knowledge in assessing barley varieties and management practices; and  Publishing lessons learned and best practices for integrated crop management and approaches for scaling out.  NARES in WCA, ESA, CWANA, SA will contribute to 4.1 and 4.2 by:  Implementing crop management on farm and on station trials on the respective crops and in the targeted farming systems as per agreed protocols and procedures;  Production of agronomic, performance, environmental; and input price information for building a geospatial information bank;  Promoting and scaling up and out the integrated crop management options as informed by geo-spatial tools;  Conduct crop management demonstrations, e.g., on seed/fertilizer/herbicide in collaboration with farmers;

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 Providing gender disaggregated feedback from collaborating partners to facilitating fine tuning of technologies; and  Lobby/advocate for policy support in adoption of new technologies such as microdosing.  ARIs will contribute to 4.1 and 4.2 by:  Providing expertise in geospatial modeling, In collaboration with ICRISAT and ICARDA; and  Conducting capacity building, especially postgraduate training that is linked to dryland cereals (INTSORMIL is seen as a particularly important partner here).  Private sector organizations will contribute to 4.1 and 4.2 in several ways:  Agro-dealers at community, regional and national level will facilitate easy access to inputs such as fertilizer, herbicides and pesticides;  Agro dealers will be linked to national input subsidies to avail inputs at subsidized and affordable prices where such schemes are operational;  Support the use of inputs such as fertilizer by linking input with output marketing, e.g., processors of food, feed and beverages (breweries);  Facilitate uptake of fertilizer by encouraging agro dealers to enhance small packs of fertilizer and herbicides, e.g., Monsanto now sells small packs (100 gram sachets) of roundup and Dow are marketing 50 g sachets of Spintor dust for control of weevils; and  Encourage grades and standards of grain by offering premium prices for high quality, e.g., disease free products.  NGOs will contribute to 4.1 and 4.2, as well:  International Fertilizer Development Cooperation (IFDC) will help in promotion of fertilizer use;  Conduct capacity building on fertilizer use;  Farm Inputs Promotions (FIPs) and agro dealers will: ‒ Promote usage of small packs of fertilizer along with improved seeds, improve farmers understanding of different fertilizer blends; ‒ Train agro dealers in book keeping and stock management and in advising farmers the type of fertilizer to use; ‒ Develop protocols for identifying nutrients limiting productivity; and ‒ Raise awareness among farmers on the potentials for using fertilizers.  CBOs and farmers (and their organizations) will contribute to 4.1 and 4.2 by:  Providing feedback and lessons learned over the years on factors most limiting productivity; and  Using mini-packs and simple protocols, farmers (men and women) will conduct farmer managed on farm trials to identify best bet crop management technological options STRATEGIC OBJECTIVE 5 - ENHANCING EFFECTIVE SEED AND INFORMATION SYSTEMS FOR BETTER DELIVERY OF
IMPROVED TECHNOLOGY PACKAGES TO SMALLHOLDER FARMERS

Outputs, Methodology and Milestones Output 5.1. Integrated technology packages for dryland cereals In order to increase yield and adoption in farmer’s fields, varieties need to be diffused together with appropriate and improved crop management practices that can integrate in to farmers’ production systems. It is understood that in many of the dryland cereal production systems, soil fertility and water management are the key to improving production (grain and stover/straw). In most of SSA, it

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is usually not a single factor that reduces yield, but multiple factors that lead all together to the observed yield reductions (i.e., a combination of factors such as striga, low soil fertility and drought; late planting, midge and possibly drought). Agricultural technology packages also need to be tailored to the different socio-economic conditions of each region. They also should respond to gender differences. For example, developing integrated technologies such as microdosing to improve soil fertility, integrated striga and soil fertility management (ISFM) and headminer management, agronomic management of cereal legumes associations are crucial. Microdosing of mineral fertilizers during critical growth stages for dryland cereals is proving to be an effective tool for increasing profitability of fertilizer for dryland cereals (Buerkert et al., 2001, 2002; Valluru et al., 2006, 2009; Karanamand Vadez, 2010). Methodology The approach includes participatory technology selection with farmers and economic evaluation of technology packages coupled with adoption studies of the new technologies by farmers. The approach combines three levels: participatory technology development with farmers, economic evaluation of technology packages and adoption studies of the technology packages. Participatory technology development: From the outset, diagnostic surveys will be carried out to identify constraints of cropping systems to guide the choice of technologies for testing schemes. Once constraints have been identified participatory approached will be employed to evaluate the new technologies with farmers for example using Farmer Field School approaches for ISFM in countries like Mali, Nigeria and Burkina Faso. Large number of mini-kit variety trials could also be conducted to introduce farmers with new varieties and associated technologies in collaboration with partner organizations (NGOs, farmer organizations). Furthermore demonstrations of varieties and hybrids will be linked to input suppliers. It is also possible to evaluate varieties (groundnut or cowpea associations) in West Africa particularly targeting women farmers. Economic evaluation of technology packages: The newly introduced integrated technology packages will be evaluated in farmer’s fields. Therefore the cost benefits for application of ISFM and other crop management (micro-dosing, compost production and application, etc.) practices will be monitored and evaluated with farmers. In order to measure changes baseline surveys will be conducted to determine benchmark indicators against which achievements or changes would be measured. Adoption studies of technology packages: Farmers adoption of new technology and its diffusion is monitored technological changes documented. Ex-ante and ex-post adoption studies would be conducted to identify likely factors influencing adoption and provide appropriate policy recommendations. Milestones  Variety and hybrid demonstrations linked to input suppliers in SSA (2012)  Integrated technology packages tested in three regions tested (2014).  At least one technology package specifically adapted to meet women farmers’ needs in each region developed (2014)  Economic evaluation for integrated technology packages completed (2014)  Impact assessment for one cereal crop in each region conducted (2014) Output 5.2. Innovations to strengthen seed and input delivery systems In most of the developing world, the agricultural sector remains a public domain in terms of research and seed delivery. Past efforts in strengthening the public agricultural research and seed delivery along the ‘seed chain’ remain limited and focus on seed supply side lacking market-orientation. Inherently weak institutional linkages along the chain, in which different and sometimes independent institutions handle variety development, seed production, seed marketing and seed
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extension, is an impediment to progress (Bishaw and Kugbei, 1997). The success of seed industry however has often resulted from integration of agricultural research, production technology, input supply, market support, and extension information driven by the private sector. For example, private seed companies tend to reduce transaction costs through vertical integration of research-seed production-seed distribution continuum to recoup their investments (Morris, 2002). These realities call for a paradigm shift in seed sector development that favors liberalization, deregulation and diversification to promote the emergence of competitive seed industry that aims to satisfy the need of broad range of farmer groups. The dryland cereals seed sector is at different stages of development in different countries, and within and among regions. While sorghum and millet hybrid seed technology took root in India, the dryland formal seed sector is non-existent in many countries of sub-Saharan Africa. Comparative and critical assessments of the status of the seed sector of dryland cereals and case studies in selected countries would help to draw lessons and design alternative models. Fast tracking variety release linked to variety popularization and accelerated seed multiplication will reduce the time lag between variety release and availability of and access to seed of new varieties and its adoption by farmers (Osborn and Bishaw, 2010). Lack of institutional arrangements and functional seed units due to inadequate capacity and infrastructure is exacerbating the problem and hindering quick access to seed of new crop varieties by public and private seed producers and ultimately by the farmers. Lack of seed infrastructure or equipment is not only restricted to NARS for early generation seed production, but also equally apply to both the existing public seed enterprises, emerging private sector and local level seed initiatives for certified seed production and regulatory agencies where critical needs assessment are necessary to increase capacity in seed production and marketing (Bishaw and Kugbei et al., 1997). Understanding the seed market is essential to identify determinants for seed demand of improved varieties. An assessment of the seed market will be conducted to measure the volume of the seed market than purely focusing on seed supply side. Critical analyses of technical efficiency and marketing capacity of public- and private-sector seed producers is also important to develop alternative models (centralized or decentralized) for certified seed delivery of dryland cereals. Restructuring large public seed sector into autonomous centers have been tried in some countries for self-pollinated crops (Zakhary and Ismail, 1997). Moreover, any alternative seed delivery model envisaged should be technically feasible and economically viable to ensure sustainability of the seed business (Srinivas et al., 2010). The diversification of the seed sector requires enabling policies and regulatory frameworks that are flexible and inclusive of all stakeholders. Lack of participation, flexibility, efficiency and transparency in variety release, seed certification, etc., appears to be problematic (Tripp, 1999). Policies and procedures should be reformed internally and harmonized regionally to create better choices for farmers by accelerating varietal release and access to seed. Similarly, a review of input delivery systems should be made in terms of policy and institutional arrangements and marketing services to identify constraints (credit, etc.) that hinder availability and access, and to provide recommendations for improvement. Methodology The aim of this work will be to assess the functioning of seed systems in order to derive successful models with potential spillovers for adaptation to specific country situations. The variation in seed sector development among countries will provide a wealth of information for comparative analysis, with lessons learned being used to design better seed delivery options. A number of case studies would be employed targeting some countries where policy reforms made tremendous impact through private sector participation (e.g. in India) and where the policy lags behind and the public sector continue to dominate the seed sector in several countries in Africa. For dryland cereals, despite the availability of improved varieties in some countries, it is yet unclear whether lack of effective demand or lack of seed is the foremost constraint (Diakité et al., 2008). Country case studies will be conducted on the technical efficiency of seed production and marketing in countries
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where the public sector remain to dominate the seed sector in Africa (e.g., East Africa, North Africa, West Africa) to identify critical bottlenecks for improvement. Understanding the seed markets and developing effective distribution networks involving local agro-input dealers or traders or developing alternative innovative options where infrastructure is limiting to reach farmers remain critical in building seed delivery. In addition, needs assessments for critical infrastructure must be made to strengthen the capacity of the public and emerging private sectors including farmer-based seed production and marketing units to enhance the availability, access and use of seed of new dryland cereal varieties at the farm level. In the absence of formal seed delivery, a broad range of local seed production enterprises have been initiated and implemented by development projects and NGOs (Thijssen et al., 2010). Information is limited as to the sustainability of such initiatives once external support is completed. Selected case studies will provide insights on technical performance and sustainability of local-level seed production involving farming communities. Furthermore the functioning of informal seed sectors will be studied to understand farmers’ local knowledge and management of seed. The lessons from reviews and studies will help to design alternative seed production and marketing models (e.g. village-based seed enterprises) that are ‘owned’ and managed by farmers (Tavva et al., 2010). These enterprises, established through multi-stakeholder processes, will be provided with key facilities (e.g. mobile cleaners, storage facilities), trained in technical aspects and business management, and linked to formal sector institutions (e.g. for source seed, etc.). These pilot alternative seed/input delivery models will be monitored and evaluated for their profitability and sustainability. In another effort using variety trials and variety test kits as innovations will be initiated to sustain seed delivery systems (continuous choice of varietal diversity) by combining variety test kits trials and seed production and marketing efforts to improve farmers’ access to new varieties as well as combining variety testing and seed diffusion through mini-pack sales. In recent years, while technological or market dimensions took center stage in investment for seed sector, the policy debate has been largely ignored and needs to be integrated (Alemu, 2010). Rationalizing and harmonizing of policy and regulatory frameworks pertaining to variety release mechanisms, IPRs, seed certification schemes, phytosanitary measures and biosafety issues will require multi-stakeholders consultation process within and between countries in the region. This would facilitate cross-border movement of varieties and seeds within and between economic trading blocks and create opportunities for the domestic and foreign seed companies to enter regional seed markets, particularly in areas where commercial opportunities exist. Harmonization may promote the expansion of national and regional seed industries by stimulating the private sector investment (Rohrbach and Howard, 2004) allowing the flow of varieties emerged from international collaborative research. Efforts should be made building on already existing initiatives in SSA (SADC, ECOWAS, and COMESA) and CWANA (ECO) regions for the integration of the seed sector. Milestones  Review of existing alternative seed delivery models conducted and results made available, and technically and economically viable pilot farmer-based seed production and marketing enterprises established and their sustainability evaluated in at least one country in each region (2012-13)  An in-depth analysis of national seed system for dryland cereals completed in at least one country in each region and lessons drawn and recommendations made to national governments (2013-14)  Review of early generation seed production completed and functional seed units and procedures established in at least one country in each region to ensure availability and access to foundation seed working with public sector, seed cooperatives and private sector (201213)

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 Review of infrastructure and equipment needs completed in at least one country in each region and critical needs addressed in partnership with development partners and personnel trained in seed science and technology (2013-14)  National studies on the technical efficiency of public- and private-sector dryland cereals seed production completed in at least one country in each region including seed cooperatives in Mali, Burkina Faso in WA (2012-14)  Support to harmonized regulatory framework on variety release, seed certification, phytosanitary measures, etc. within regional economic blocks (COMESA, ECOWAS, SADC, etc.) implemented (2014-15)  Existing agricultural input supply systems (fertilizers, etc.) is conducted, results become available and systems strengthened to increase farmer access to inputs for dryland cereals in Mali, Niger, Burkina (2013)  Assess the efficiency of diffusion schemes targeted on women (2012) Output 5.3. Better communication and knowledge sharing for improved awareness and use of dryland cereal technologies The majority of farmers, especially smallholder farmers, still do not benefit fully from the information and knowledge generated by Centers and partners. This is attributable partly to poor agricultural extension systems and limited, uncoordinated international and national support for knowledge dissemination, and partly to the limited capacity of national programs to take advantage of advances in information and communication technologies (ICT) in order to acquire, manage and disseminate knowledge. The communications strategy and action plan for this project will be developed in a consultative process that is part of the research planning process and linked to the monitoring and evaluation framework. The strategy and plan will be designed to get research and the new ideas generated, into use as a part of the program’s research project cycle – defining specific activities, outputs and outcomes planned during the program. The approach will be based on action plans for strategic communication – engaging specific groups of people to achieve a specific, defined, result; and knowledge sharing – sharing experience and learning together as a part of the project, both among the project team and with partners, and capturing and sharing this learning as the program progresses. Farmers, agricultural officers and scientists need awareness on improved crop varieties and production technologies. However, a CTA (Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation) sponsored study has identified variation in agricultural information among institution within countries and the common priority information needs across institutions (Assigbley and Kebede, 2009). CRP 3.6 recognizes that it must improve its learning capacity, in tandem with its partners, to put research results into use by improving the capacity of national agricultural extension systems and enhancing information delivery using conventional and modern ICT tools. The strong partnership and co-learning processes of knowledge management an dissemination would allow and motivate the rural poor to share the responsibility and decision making process and will allow the communities to negotiate action plans that reflect their priority needs for approaches and technical, institutional and policy options that enhance their livelihoods. Rural radio appears to be an effective means to diffuse information to farmers, as they operate in all regions and use local languages. Farmers are learning about agricultural issues as well as market price information. Farmer cooperatives in Niger estimate that more than 50% and in some regions up to 90% of seed sales are due to information broadcasted in the local radio (Dr. Ignatius Angarawai, pers. Comm.). Video messages are another means to diffuse information on a large scale. Several farmer organizations and NGOs were trained in Mali and Niger to produce farmer-tofarmer video messages

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Methodology The ideal way to design the strategy is in a special communication workshop to design an “influence pathway” and specific outcomes for each key group, and a series of outcomes that the program will target to engage with these groups and achieve the planned results. This process will make clear the types of information products and services that the program and its communications plan need to produce to achieve the desired outcomes. These will include: special meetings, targeted information campaigns, specific types of documents (policy, technical, and media information), activities to engage and influence policy makers and extension staff, building the capacity of seed systems managers in countries, exchanging knowledge and experience from the research through case studies and relevant internet resources. The workshop will result in a shared vision by research leaders on the communication goals and priorities of the program, and an action plan, developed together my program management and relevant partners, with a clear indication of what is to be done and who is responsible for implementing communication and knowledge sharing activities for the program on effective seed and information delivery systems. The CRP will help develop the capacity of national and regional systems to benefit from advances in information and communication technologies, enabling them to store and retrieve data effectively and to promote knowledge sharing between stakeholders – farming and herding communities, civil society organizations, NARS, donors and ministries. It considers how the stakeholders (rural communities, public and private sectors, scientists, civil society organizations, etc.) can be brought together in coalitions to facilitate mainstreaming of up-scaling, out-scaling, of verified key agricultural knowledge and technologies. This involves designing and operating an information repository system that is accessible to users by collating, analyzing, assembling, storing and retrieving agricultural information on crop varieties and agricultural production technologies, agricultural inputs and agricultural produce markets. The need for developing the skills of the ICM staff particularly revolves around developing and managing websites, databases, and networks; application of ICTs in agricultural communication; packaging of information in a language and format appropriate to target audiences; and the development and implementation of ICM policies and strategies (Assigbley and Kebde, 2009). These efforts could be augmented with training in how to use rural radios to diffuse information on seed, variety tests and mini-pack availability. In addition, training in producing video messages on agricultural issues in local languages should be done and other information delivery systems using technologies easily accessible for farmers should be explored, such as mobile telephone information systems Milestones  Agricultural extension systems reviewed, key gaps identified and recommendation made to NARS (2012-13)  ICM policies and strategies for agriculture and rural development sector formulated and implemented (2012-13)  Web-based information repository on seed sector including variety catalogues, field and seed standards, directory of key seed sector stakeholders, etc. initiated along coupled with newsletter for sharing information and creating awareness across the regions (2014)  Develop web-based information repository on agricultural technologies for dryland cereal production and shared on open and collaborative mode (2014)  Market information system for agricultural inputs developed including fertilizer providers, etc. (2014)  Market information system for agricultural products developed including dryland cereals products, agro-processors, etc. (2014)  Train farmer organizations, NGOs and NARES in developing and producing radio and video messages
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Partners and Their Roles The major research and/or development partners include:  National agricultural research systems and sub-regional research organizations will work with international crop improvement centers to develop well-adapted and farmer-preferred dryland cereal varieties and provide early generation seed (breeder and foundation seed).  National agricultural extension systems, working with key national partners, will promote improved dryland cereal varieties and appropriate crop management practices.  National seed regulatory agencies dealing with crop variety release mechanisms, seed certification schemes, phytosanitary measures and biosafety protocols will focus on enhancing varietal and seed choices for farmers.  Public sector organizations, emerging domestic private sector companies, and local farmerbased seed enterprises (farmer groups, cooperatives) involved in dryland cereals seed production and marketing will strive to ensure availability of and access to seed of new varieties.  National and regional seed trade associations representing the interests of the seed industry in their respective countries and regions will encourage private sector investment in commercial seed markets.  Regional blocs (COMESA, SADC, ECOWAS, etc.) advocating economic integration will work with international development partners (such as FAO, OECD, ISTA, ISF, UPOV, and various NGOs) to promote harmonized procedures in seed sector development.  National networks of agro-input dealers will be tapped to supply agricultural inputs and services to farmers.  National and regional agro-industries involved in dryland cereals processing and marketing creating demand for sorghum products and stimulating farmers investment in production of dryland cereals STRATEGIC OBJECTIVE 6 - ADDING POST-HARVEST VALUE AND IMPROVING MARKET ACCESS OF DRYLAND CEREALS TO PROVIDE SMALLHOLDER FARMERS MORE BENEFITS FROM DRYLAND CEREALS Outputs, Methodology and Milestones Output 6.1. Improved storage and processing technologies to reduce post-harvest losses in quantity and quality For effective storage of grains after harvesting, proper drying is considered to be one of the important factors. Grains are often heaped on the field after harvesting for drying or shifted to a drying yard. With these methods, there is a lack of air movement, leading to sprouting, discoloration and microbial damage resulting in deterioration of grain quality. In addition, the grain is exposed to spoilage by rodents, birds and insects. Thus, effective and affordable drying technologies and practices need to be identified and implemented. Further, in most cases threshing is done by hand and involves women. The panicles are either placed in bags or kept on a threshing platform and then beaten repeatedly with long sticks until the grains are separated. In some cases, cattle are used for threshing. Such methods are inefficient, slow, laborious and complete recovery of grain is not achieved. Losses occur during threshing by spillage; incomplete removal of grain from stalks; by damage to the grain during threshing, by poor separation of grain cleaning or winnowing after threshing (Hamilton, 1980). The grain and chaff are then gathered together and hand winnowed using small winnows. Appropriate storage of grains after harvesting is an important post-harvest operation that also contributes to the post-harvest losses is attributed to the lack of appropriate storage technologies and practices. A recent FAO study reports post-harvest losses of sorghum and millet to be 6% in Mozambique (FAO, 2010). A major amount of losses is attributed to the lack of
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appropriate storage technologies and practices. During storage, grain is also subjected to qualitative and quantitative losses due to several agents including insects, fungi, rodents and mites. Insects and rodents eat the grain and also contaminate the grain with their eggs, exoskeleton (insects) droppings, hairs and urine in the case of rodents. Traditional methods of treating grains are widespread, but may not be always effective. Methodology Among the various drying methods previously tested, affordable solar dryers need to be explored and designed, along with improved conventional and other non-conventional options for drying of grain after harvesting. Such dryers must be tested at the farm level for the respective farm produce. Economic feasibility in terms of machinery and processing costs, energy efficiency and end grain nutritional quality shall be the deciding parameters in the final selection of the appropriate drying technology. Appropriate farm-level drying yards to minimize pest and microbial losses will be studied. Threshing, winnowing, grading and decorticating pearl millet and sorghum are important post-harvest activities, and traditionally involve women. Development of suitable prototype devices, for the above-mentioned post-harvest operations, suited for smallholder farm operations will be an important research and development activity. The activity will focus on developing prototypes having ease of operation, processing capacity, and ability to efficiently produce clean, unbroken, quality grains. Most importantly the processing steps and prototypes to be used will be evaluated based on cost-benefit analysis. Prototypes will be designed in order to deliver higher capacity and superior quality as compared to traditional threshing, winnowing processes without adding substantial costs. Decorticating devices should not result in broken grains. Existing technologies already available will also be evaluated (Wilson, 2008) and modifications and improvements shall be carried out to suite the specific requirements of each grain type. Storage of grains, in smallholder farms, involves first storage of the grains into bags or bins and then keeping these bags in storage yards. Innovative methods of primary storage shall be evaluated in order to provide cheap and inexpensive options which are easy to maintain, provides ease of movement between the farms to temporary storage structures\markets thus reducing drudgery and is readily accepted in the marketing system. Innovations in order to improve the quality of the secondary storages structure shall focus on development to protect against rain, insect and rodents. Use of appropriate grain protection and preservation technologies, appropriate pest management practices shall be explored and promoted among the farmers. The above-mentioned interventions will be made after carrying out appropriate loss assessment studies. Milestones  Loss assessment due to storage pests and technology gap analysis in post-harvest management and storage completed for each crop and region (2012)  Available drying technologies evaluated and compared with new innovative technologies and appropriate technology shortlisted based on cost-benefit analysis and implemented for each crop and region (2013)  Appropriate equipment for threshing, winnowing, grading and decortication of each crop in each region identified and shortlisted, based on cost-benefit analysis of newly developed prototypes and comparison with existing technologies (2014).  Varieties with resistance to storage pets in each crop identified, and other options for the management of storage pests evaluated (2014)  Storage technologies for primary and secondary storage of grains evaluated and at least one technology implemented in each region for each crop and training in grain protection technologies and pest management practices imparted to farmers in the selected regions (2014) Output 6.2. Novel and diverse dryland cereal-based products to stimulate demand for grain

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Utilization of dryland cereals, in the food and feed industry, can be increased by various processing treatments, including blanching, malting, dry heating and acid treatment, that can improve their shelf-life, nutritive value, sensory qualities, etc., and make them more amenable for development of value-added food products. For example, sorghum flour is traditionally known to have reasonable level of shelf life up to 2 months, whereas pearl millet for only 5-6 days at the household level. This is a major barrier in the commercialization of sorghum and pearl millet flour and products. Recently, it was reported that moist heating of the grain followed by drying to 10-12% moisture level and decortication increases the shelf-life of pearl millet flour to about 3-4 months and sorghum to 8-10 months, though this needs to be validated for commercialization (Sehgal et al., 2003). Thus, this research output will address the effect of pre-treatments and processing on nutritive traits. Also, the effects of processing on the phytate and other micronutrient contents needs to be understood in order to develop acceptable and healthy food products from these grains. With appropriate technological interventions, sorghum and millets can be used to produce various food products. These include, traditional products (porridges, flat breads, chips, bhakri, suhali, kichri, dalia, etc.), baked products, extruded products, health products, weaning and supplementary foods. Evidence available in the literature confirms that sorghum and millets besides being gluten-free and important sources of protein, fiber, vitamins and minerals, are also rich sources of antioxidants due to the presence of phenolic compounds (Chandrasekara and Shahidiv, 2011; Dykes and Rooney, 2006) Using food processing technology, such as fermentation, malting, extrusion, parboiling etc. nutritive products, based on sorghum and millets, with enhanced nutritional and functional quality (enhanced starch and protein digestibility), and improved shelf life have been reported. Thus, it is now possible for the food industry to develop and commercialize health products (for different consumer segments), based on sorghum and millets by use of the versatile extrusion technology and advancements in research in this area, which until now was constrained due to the non-availability of efficient processing technologies. Also, present health concerns are attributed to poor nutrition in low-income segments of the population, whereas the affluent strata of the society need to address health issues that emerge from changing lifestyles and food habits. Demand, for more healthy food products that can take care of consumer health needs due to changing life-styles, is driving the growth of the global neutraceutical industry. This has led to demand for nutritious and functional foods based on sorghum and millets (Dykes and Rooney, 2006; Taylor and Emmambux, 2008; Taylor et. al., 2006). With respect to the commercialization efforts for these value added products, entrepreneurship development linkages with the food and feed industry shall also be explored to develop a value chain for the dryland cereals crops. Increasing the market value of these dryland cereals through value addition and entrepreneurship development is essential to directly impact the lives of people, including smallholder farmers in the semiarid tropics. Methodology The value-added products based on sorghum and millets will be developed using suitable varieties, having desirable nutritive and processing traits, identified as part of the activities under Strategic Objective 3 (Output 3.5). Development of shelf-stable flour for commercialization shall be carried out through well designed experiments to evaluate the effect of various grain pre-treatments (blanching, dry heating, acid treatment, etc.) to inactive enzymes responsible for hydrolytic rancidity along with packaging options to further reduce oxidative rancidity. Parameters such as acid value, peroxide value and free fatty acid shall be used to establish the effectiveness of each pre-treatment in improving the shelf life. The phytate content in flour and products obtained from pre-treated grains shall also be evaluated. Formulation and process development for each product category will be undertaken using grain or flour, obtained after each pre-treatment. Appropriate processing technology (puffing, popping, parboiling, baking, roasting, frying, extrusion, spray drying, drum drying, malting, fermentation, etc.) will be explored for value-addition. The products developed will be profiled for their nutritional and sensory attributes, and wherever profiling required for bioactive components (detailed under Strategic Objective 3, Output 3.5) will be carried out. Sensory evaluation shall be carried out using both trained and untrained panels using established protocols
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(Merck and Company, 1963). Capacity building in the form of training and entrepreneur development programs (EDPs) for service providers (individual entrepreneurs, farmer organizations, small and medium scale entrepreneurs, food processing industries etc.) to deliver information on the innovations, marketing and technology targeting will also be an activity linked to this output, where emphasis will be on promoting women entrepreneurs. Milestones  Pre-treatment and packaging options optimized, using suitable varieties of sorghum and millets having desirable nutritive and processing traits, leading to shelf-stable sorghum and millets flour (2012)  Pre-treatment and food preparation methods that maintain the nutritional value, improve digestibility and reduce anti-nutritional factors optimized and at least two value added products, targeting women and children (weaning foods etc.) from each cereal developed using these optimized methods in each region (2013).  At least five different processing technologies evaluated resulting in the standardization of at least 2 value added food products each from sorghum and millets involving formulation optimization, nutritional and sensory profiling (2014).  Packaging technologies and labeling protocols developed for commercialization of sorghum and pearl millet based food products (2014).  At least two value-added food products based on sorghum and millets formulated and validated for retention of activity of their bioactive components, under optimized processing conditions (2014). Output 6.3. Institutional innovations to improve linkages between smallholder farmers and markets Growing demand for high-value and ready-to-cook food is opening up opportunities for smallholder dryland cereal farmers to participate in value chains, confectionary and bakery products. The derived demand for coarse cereals like sorghum, millets, maize etc. are also increasing to meet the demand from the livestock/poultry sector and other sectors like alcohol, biofuels (Aksoy, 2005; von Braun, 1995). There are however, apprehensions about the capability of smallholders to participate in the market-oriented production for high-value commodities and coarse cereals due to their scattered and small-scale production, lack of access to markets, capital, inputs, and technology and extension services. Processors need bulk quantities of raw materials of specified quality at competitive prices. Also, farmers need information on quality and prices that empowers them to bargain for a better price for their produce in the market place. Besides market information, market linkage mechanisms to enable the farmer to actually sell their produce or purchase needed inputs on time and at competitive prices are important. Food procurement and marketing systems are thus witnessing institutional innovations like contract farming and bulk marketing through producers’ associations and cooperatives, which not only provide additional marketing channels but also reduce transaction and marketing costs by eliminating a large number of middlemen (Warning and Key, 2000; World Bank, 2002; Shiferew et al., 2006). These channels also ensure that the quality requirements of end users (processors, consumers) are met as per specifications/requirements. Thus, institutional innovations in marketing improve not only access to markets, but also to quality inputs, technology, information and services. Some of the existing institutional innovations that are having potential in involving small farmers of dry-land cereals would include the following:  Full vertical integration: In contrast to spot markets, full integration would prevail when there is very high degree of asset specificity, uncertainty and externality. The firm has a complete control over the processes of production, marketing, processing and distribution.

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 Cooperatives: Cooperatives are the structures owned and managed by producers but have to work under strict functioning framework set up by the government. They improve the bargaining power of producers in situations of both high and low asset specificity and uncertainty.  Contracting: This is an organizational arrangement in which a firm contracts a producer to produce a specific commodity. Through contract farming the firm exerts considerable influence over producers’ decision making without owning or operating the farms. The firm may provide inputs and technology, and share production and market risks. There are a number of models to choose from depending on the requirements of the contracting parties (for details see Eton and Shepard, 2001).  Growers’ associations: These are informal collective bargaining groups set up and managed by farmers themselves. In Eastern Kenya, the assessment of producer marketing groups (PMG) revealed that the PMGs have the potential to simplify and shorten marketing chains, better coordinate production and marketing activities and facilitate farmer access to production inputs at fair prices (Shiferaw et al., 2006). In India, Karnataka State Farmers’ Association (KSFA) that was established in 1965 by a group of 5 farmers, the membership of KSFA is now estimated to be around 10 million farmers and this association is active in linking farmers to markets at all levels – local, regional and international.  ICT-enabled supply chains: Many developing countries witnessing a revolution in Information Communication Technology (ICT). Its applications in linking farmers to markets are on the rise. Okello et al. (2010a) identified alone 34 agricultural projects with ICT components in Kenya. For example the Kenya Agricultural Commodity Exchange (www.kacekenya.co.ke) is a private sector firm that makes price information available on cell phones nationwide. In India, the e-chaupal initiative of the Indian Tobacco Company provides information on market prices, agronomic practices, inputs, weather, etc. through Internet kiosks, free of charge. There are similar initiatives that are run by non-profit or research organizations as well. For example DrumNet is a project run by the research and development organization Pride Africa, which delivers market, finance, and information services to agricultural supply-chain actors in Kenya. Several such ICT-based MIS projects have also been reported in Malawi, Ghana, Uganda, Benin, and Madagascar (Okello et al., 2010b). Methodology Transaction cost analysis –Transaction costs can be defined as the costs of acquiring and handling the information about the quality of inputs, the relevant prices, the supplier’s reputation, and so on. Specifically, Strategic Objective 6 transaction costs analyses will include: reduced cost of bargaining and negotiation; acquiring and establishing contracts; communication; monitoring and enforcing transactions/contracts; market search; information flow; costs of gathering data on price, quality of commodities and labor inputs; identifying potential buyers and settlers; actor behavior; and enforcement against defaulting and protection of rights against third party encroachment and leakages. Market margins –The proportion of the consumer price that goes to the food-marketing firms is referred to as the marketing margin. Marketing margins may be defined in two ways: 1) as the difference between consumer retail prices and what farmers receive, and 2) as the price of marketing services provided. One of the main objectives of improving the efficiency of marketing systems is to increase farmers’ share of consumer prices. Consumer price comprise of marketing components and production components. Marketing margins of all stakeholders and all marketing channels will be quantified and scope for reducing the marketing margins will be examined. There are two methods which gives information about the various components of the costs, structure and financial situation of marketing firms: i) The Functional Method: Analyzes the different economic activities or function associated with each level of the system – e.g. farming, wholesaling,

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retailing, etc., and ii) The Vertical or Product Focused Method, which follows the product through the marketing process, prices, quantities, cost, etc. on each transaction. Reducing the marketing costs of the dry land cereals through innovative institutions mentioned above will increase efficiency in the system and increase farmers share in consumer’s price. It will help in increasing the overall profitability of cultivation of dry land cereals. We will assess the marketing margins by using both the functional method and the product focused methods for all existing marketing channels/activities and proposed new marketing channels and institutional innovations which will be cost effective by using the above framework for different end uses of grain like food for human consumption, feed for cattle and poultry industry and as raw material for starch and alcohol industry etc. A few pilot projects will be evaluated to test for scaling up in wider areas both in SSA and SA. Milestones  Existing institutional arrangements linking small holder farmers to grain and fodder markets identified and documented in each region, with special attention to women farmers/ processors (2012)  At least two crop/region specific models for grain and fodder linking farmers to markets tested and evaluated on equity, social and efficiency parameters (2013)  Establish at least two crop/region/commodity specific communication platform that allows the flow of information among the diverse stakeholders (2013)  Capacity building activities regarding the functioning and up-scaling of alternative institutional innovations carried out among all stakeholders (2014) Partners and Their Roles Contributions from a number of traditional and entirely new partnerships are anticipated for Strategic Objective 6. Private sector companies in the dryland cereal processing sectors, as well as in the seed sector, will be key partners. In any particular value chain context it will be essential to involve key actors, such as input suppliers, extension services, development actors, credit institutes, and possibly consumer organizations. Success in creating significant new opportunities for market integration of smallholder dryland cereal farmers, specifically women, will rest on the effectiveness an array of new, non-traditional partnerships. Relative to this strategic objective, key partners will include:  INTSORMIL, especially on cereal grain processing;  CIRAD, with its capacities for feed quality analysis, as well as cereal markets research experience in West Africa; and  IRD, for basic research in pearl millet, including food processing, primarily focused on West Africa;  Malting companies, e.g., Modelo and Cuauhtemoc Moctezuma in Mexico, Heineken in Mexico and Egypt, MOSA in Uruguay, Kenya Breweries, Nigeria Breweries, Assela Malt Factory and Ethiopian Breweries. Al-Shark in Syria);  Industrial grain processors and their supply chain contributors: Unga flour mills, Kenya;  Aba Malting Plant, Nigeria;  The Hybrid Seed Parent Consortium, India;  Local entities, such as well-established and emerging farmers’ associations, to identify farmers’ needs and opportunities in specific zones or regions, as well as technology testing;  Processing industries and potential large-scale buyers, such as the World Health Programme’s Purchase for Progress initiative (P4P);

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 Service and input providers (local banks, extension services, agro-dealerships, and radio stations);  Machinery developers and providers, maintenance specialists, to ensure that processing equipment functions correctly and efficiently;  Engineering specialists in research, and in agricultural-related manufacturing and agribusinesses;  Business incubators for sorghum and pearl millet food processing in Mali and Niger, in collaboration of INRAN, and IER, with INTSORMIL (Purdue University) and ICRISAT;  National Agricultural Research and Extension Systems to bring in region-specific expertise and resources;  Other CRPs, including CRP 1.1, CRP 2, CRP 7, and in particular CRP 4’s agriculture, nutrition, and health platform;  Processing and food sectors to test the laboratory-developed technologies for feasibility of application at community and commercial scales, and promotion of concerned technologies through entrepreneur development activities and test marketing; and  Nutrition Foundations and Public Health Organizations, which can provide nutrition and health related information, facilitate nutritional studies, conduct assessments of health consequences of technology adoption, and engage in advocacy for the promotion of nutritious dryland cereals.

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APPENDIX 5: PROFILES OF INITIAL R4D PARTNERS
Each DRYLAND CEREALS partner provides an interdisciplinary team of scientists to address the key dryland cereal research objectives proposed and has established strong collaborative relationships with the many public and private partners where various research and development activities will be conducted. The Generation Challenge Program (GCP) is considered an Initial R4D Partner in this CRP, given the major investment it has made in characterizing genetic resources, including the dryland cereals, and in establishing integrated breeding platforms that are critical for the rapid development of improved varieties. Further details on each initial R4D partner are provided in the following. The International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT, www.icrisat.org) holds the CGIAR mandate for sorghum and millets, and operates in South Asia (SA), Eastern and Southern Africa (ESA) and West and Central Africa (WCA). These crops support the livelihoods of the poor people in the semiarid tropics encompassing 48 countries by providing food and incomes. ICRISAT has pioneered in innovating and testing a number of farmer-participatory research and delivery methods to facilitate technology development and impact. It brings to this CRP expertise in sorghum and millet breeding, biotechnology, agronomy, entomology and plant pathology, seed systems and participatory approaches for technology development and dissemination. The Centre has close ties with such Sub-Regional Organizations as ASARECA, CORAF and SADC in SSA, APAARI in South Asia, and with the national research institutes responsible for these dryland crops. Most of ICRISAT’s crop improvement research is directed at ‘least-favored areas’, and at an aggregate level, there is evidence from India and elsewhere compiled through independent assessments that its research is having favorable productivity and poverty impacts in these areas. Two major science-based breakthroughs attributed to crop improvement research at ICRISAT relate to pearl millet and pigeonpea. The Centre developed the first public sector-bred hybrid pearl millet, HHB 67, developed using marker-assisted selection. This new hybrid was released in India in 2006, and has spread quickly due to its superior agronomic performance and improved tolerance to terminal drought. ICRISAT researchers produced the first public sector-bred hybrid of pigeonpea as well, and since its release in 2008 it too appears to be spreading quickly. The International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA, www.icarda.org) has a global mandate for the improvement of barley in developing countries. ICARDA barley improvement has three principal themes:  Breeding for stressful environments – with a focus on adaptation to abiotic stress such as drought, cold, heat and salinity, and associated biotic stresses;  Breeding for favorable high potential areas; and  Breeding for cold winter areas – with a focus on winter hardiness, and other associated abiotic and biotic stresses. ICARDA's mission is to improve the welfare of poor people and alleviate poverty through research and training in dry areas of the developing world, by increasing the production, productivity and nutritional quality of food, while preserving and enhancing the natural resource base. The Center pursues this mission through partnerships with national agricultural research systems in developing countries and with advanced research institutes in industrialized countries. The Center has developed participatory plant breeding methodologies to build on the indigenous knowledge of farmers and to make them full partners in research. ICARDA has a fully established molecular marker laboratory and the capacity to undertake field evaluations under different environmental conditions. It also maintains one of the largest global collections of barley germplasm. The Generation Challenge Program (GCP, www.generationcp.org) was created by the CGIAR in 2003 as a time-bound 10-year program. Its mission is to use genetic diversity and advanced plant
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science to improve crops by adding value to breeding for drought-prone and harsh environments. This is achieved through a network of more than 200 partners (as of 2009) drawn from CGIAR Centers, academia, regional and national research programs, and capacity enhancement to assist developing world researchers to tap into a broader and richer pool of plant genetic diversity. GCP’s network advances the frontiers of knowledge and develops practical tools such as molecular markers for desirable genes, for efficient field selection in plant breeding. Through its network of partners in the CGIAR, ARIs, NARS and private sector, GCP implements programs that bring together plant scientists from different disciplines to improve crops for the ultimate benefit of resource-poor farmers. GCP works with cutting-edge plant biology research partners, and augments the efforts of the CGIAR and the broader agricultural research-for-development community. In the context of this CRP, GCP’s efforts to develop an Integrated Breeding Platform and associated innovative breeding projects on various crops will be of tremendous value. This platform will comprise a one-stop-shop providing access to genetic stocks, pre-breeding materials, high throughput services for marker and trait evaluation, informatics tools, support services, capacity development and community support for conducting genomics research and integrated breeding projects. The Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR, www.icar.org) is an autonomous organization under the Department of Agricultural Research and Education (DARE), Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India. Formerly known as Imperial Council of Agricultural Research, it was established on 16 July 1929 as a registered society under the Societies Registration Act, 1860 in pursuance of the report of the Royal Commission on Agriculture. The ICAR has its headquarters at New Delhi. The Council is the apex body for coordinating, guiding and managing research and education in agriculture including horticulture, fisheries and animal sciences in the entire country. With 97 ICAR institutes and 47 agricultural universities spread across the country this is one of the largest national agricultural systems in the world. ICAR has played a pioneering role in ushering Green Revolution and subsequent developments in agriculture in India through its research and technology development that has enabled the country to increase the production of food grains by 4 times, horticultural crops by 6 times, fish by 9 times (marine 5 times and inland 17 times), milk 6 times and eggs 27 times since 1950-51, thus making a visible impact on the national food and nutritional security. It has played a major role in promoting excellence in higher education in agriculture. It is engaged in cutting edge areas of science and technology development and its scientists are internationally acknowledged in their fields. ICAR works in partnership with a number of national and international agricultural research and development organizations:  CGIAR centers, CABI, FAO, NACA, APAARI, UN-CAPSA, APCAEM, ISTA, ISHS, and others;  MoUs and work plans have been established with over 30 countries for bilateral cooperation in agricultural research, training and study visits; and  ICAR offers quality and cost-effective agricultural education to international students at under-graduate and post-graduate levels. And need-based short-term training programs in specialized areas are also offered. Special concessions for SAARC students. The Iranian Agricultural Research, Education and Extension Organization (AREEO, www.areeo.ir) is the largest responsible body for agricultural research and education in Iran. In 1975, the Agricultural and Natural Resources Research Organization (ANRRO) was established as a central entity to formulate policies, make decisions on research priorities and coordinate the activities of the existing research institutes. In 1990, ANRRO was reorganized and merged with Agricultural Education Organization and Extension Directorate, creating a new organization naming Agricultural Research, Education and Extension Organization (AREEO) with the responsibility in the fields of Research, Education and Extension.
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The two Ministries of Agriculture and Jihad Construction merged in 2001, creating the new Ministry of Jihad-e-Agriculture, and the responsibility of research institutes of the two Ministries, comprising 23 research institutes, was entrusted to AREEO. AREEO’s mission is to contribute to enhance the food security and improve well-being of the people of Iran through research and training and related activities to increase agricultural production, improve food quality, saving biodiversity and sustainably manage natural resources. AREEO plays a pivotal role in the sustainable development of agriculture sector by generating appropriate technologies for sustainable food, feed and fiber production through its affiliated research and training institutes and centers. It also provides comprehensive information for optimum utilization of natural resources. The first collaboration agreement between ICARDA and the Ministry of Jihad-e-Agriculture was signed in 1984 with the Agricultural Research and Education Organization (AREEO) as the focal national institution. This agreement, successively updated, was developed between ICARDA and various institutions under the umbrella of AREEO, lately renamed Agricultural Research, Education and Extension Organization (AREEO). The AREEO-ICARDA collaboration involves many of the AREEO research institutes, the three main partners in this CRP are:  The Dryland Agricultural Research Institute (DARI) whose mission is the improvement of agricultural productivity and rural livelihood in the dry areas of Iran, including the genetic improvement of several crops including barley in dryland areas;  The Seed and Plant Improvement Institute (SPII), responsible for the genetic improvement of various crops including barley in moisture-favorable areas, and for the management and maintenance of a genebank;  The Agricultural Biotechnology Research Institute of Iran (ABRII) was originally established as a department of physiology in the Seed and Plant Improvement Institute in Karaj. In 1999 the Ministry of Jihad-e-Agriculture decided to create the Agricultural Biotechnology Research Institute of Iran (ABRII). In 2008 ABRII became the most important Agricultural Biotechnology Research Institute in Iran. The major goals of the Institute are: 1. Strengthening and expansion of research in the area of agricultural biotechnology and genetic engineering; 2. Promotion of national and international collaborations in the area of agricultural biotechnology and genetic engineering; 3. Solve the main agricultural problems such as biotic and abiotic stresses; and 4. Increase crop production in Iran. The L'institut de recherche pour le développement (IRD, www.ird.fr) is a public French science and technology research institute under the joint authority of the French ministries in charge of research and overseas development. Through three main missions (research, consultancy and training), the Institute conducts scientific programs contributing to the sustainable development of Mediterranean and tropical regions, with an emphasis on the relationship between man and the environment. This work is done six major areas:       Environmental hazards and the safety of Southern communities; Sustainable ecosystems management in the South; Southern continental and coastal water resources and their use; Food security in the South; Health in the South: epidemics, endemic and emerging diseases, healthcare systems; and Economic, social, identity and spatial dynamics issues in the South.

IRD research is conducted in concert with French higher education and research institutions and with partners in the South. IRD is an active participant in numerous operations supported by the European Union and takes part in many international scientific programs. Over 40% of its tenured staff is posted overseas. In September 2008, IRD moved its head office to Marseille. It maintains 30
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other offices including two in France (Bondy and Montpellier), five in the French overseas territories (la Réunion, French Guiana, Martinique, New Caledonia and French Polynesia) and 23 in countries of the inter-tropical zone in Africa, the Mediterranean, Asia and Latin America. IRD is a unique institution in the landscape of European research for development. Its task is to conduct research in the South, for the South, and with the South. Its researchers are working on issues of major global importance today: global warming, emerging diseases, biodiversity, and access to water, migration, poverty and world hunger. The teaching and training they provide empowers and enables Southern scientific communities. IRD has been working in Southern countries for over sixty years, and has a long history of collaboration with the CGIAR. All its work – in research, consultancy and capacity building – is designed to facilitate the economic, social and cultural development of Southern countries. Through the Agence inter-établissements de recherche pour le développement (AIRD), IRD works to mobilize French and European universities and major research bodies to work on priority research issues for development in the South. The founding members of AIRD are CIRAD, CNRS, the Conférence des Présidents d’Université, Inserm, the Institut Pasteur, and IRD. The Centre de coopération internationale en recherché agronomique pour le développement (CIRAD, www.cirad.fr/en) is a public industrial and commercial enterprise under the joint authority of the Ministry of Higher Education and Research and the Ministry of Foreign and European Affairs. CIRAD works with the whole range of developing countries to generate and pass on new knowledge, support agricultural development and fuel the debate on the main global issues concerning agriculture. It is a targeted research organization, and bases its operations on development needs, from field to laboratory and from a local to a global scale. CIRAD's activities involve the life sciences, social sciences and engineering sciences, applied to agriculture, food and rural territories. It works hand-in-hand with local people and the local environment, on complex, ever changing issues: food security, ecological intensification, emerging diseases, the future of agriculture in developing countries, etc. The organization’s operations focus on six priority lines of research. It primarily works through joint research platforms (25 worldwide and seven in the French overseas regions). CIRAD has a global network of partners and of twelve regional offices, from which it conducts joint operations with more than 90countries. Its bilateral partnerships fit in with multilateral operations of regional interest. In metropolitan France, it provides the national and global scientific communities with extensive research and training facilities, primarily in Montpellier. CIRAD is a founding member of Agreenium, the national consortium for agriculture, food, animal health and the environment, and a member of the Alliance nationale decoordination de la recherche pour l’énergie. The International Sorghum, Millet and Other Grains Collaborative Research Support Program (INTSORMIL, www.intsormil.org) will be a critical partner in the Dryland Cereals CRP. It was established in 1979, and is one of nine Collaborative Research Support Programs (CRSPs) supported by USAID. INTSORMIL scientists collaborate with national research programs in East, West, and Southern Africa and in Central America. It works in 15 countries in Africa and three in Central America. INTSORMIL’s vision is to improve food security, enhance farm income and improve economic activity in the major sorghum and pearl millet producing countries in Africa and Central America. It supports international collaborative research to improve nutrition and increase incomes and focuses on enhancing the production and use of sorghum, millet and some other grains (finger millet, fonio and tef). This work has also identified new farming practices that improve yields, reduce crop losses to

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pests, and protect natural resources, as well as helped to develop new markets for these important grains. INTSORMIL supports education and training, and over the past 28 years, the program has supported more than 873 foreign graduate students and 211 postdoctoral fellows and visiting scientists. Most have returned to their home countries where they continue to collaborate with INTSORMIL as scientists and research administrators. The organization’s objectives are to:  Facilitate growth of rapidly expanding markets for sorghum and pearl millet;  Improve the food and nutritional quality of sorghum and pearl millet to enhance marketability and consumer health;  Increase the stability and yield of sorghum and pearl millet through crop, soil and water management while maintaining or improving the natural resource base;  Develop and disseminate information on the management of biotic stresses in an integrated system to increase grain yield and quality in the field and in storage;  Enhance the stability and yield of sorghum and pearl millet through the use of genetic technologies;  Enhance global sorghum and pearl millet genetic resources and the conservation of biodiversity; and Develop effective partnerships with national and international agencies engaged in the improvement of sorghum and pearl millet production and the betterment of people dependent on these crops for their livelihoods.

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APPENDIX 5: DRYLAND CEREAL CURRENT BILATERAL-FUNDED R4D PROJECTS
Title & Crops Harnessing Opportunities for Productivity Enhancement (HOPE) of Sorghum and Millets in sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia Crops Finger millet Pearl millet Sorghum Donor/Funding Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation US$ 18.14M (2009-2013) Countries Burkina Faso Eritrea Ethiopia India Kenya Mali Niger Nigeria Sudan Tanzania Uganda Partners ICRISAT Cornell, USA WFP/P4P AGRA/PASS IFPRI CIRAD, France NARS in target countries MAU (Marathwada Agricultural University), India MPKV (Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth), India Sokoine University of Agriculture, Tanzania Maseno University, Kenya) Hawassa University, Ethiopia Haramava University, Ethiopia Unga Mills, Kenya Africa Harvest, Kenya ICRISAT NARS in target countries Summary Focusing in carefully-selected target areas that provide a large opportunity to alleviate food insecurity and poverty in West/Central Africa, Eastern/Southern Africa and South Asia, the HOPE Project discovers, develops and delivers improved technologies for producing three major dryland cereal crops: sorghum, pearl millet, and finger millet. Organizations providing seed, fertilizer, credit, and know-how are interlinked with producers, buyers, and marketers so that increased production is enabled by essential inputs, and driven by market demand. Synergies between improved crop varieties and fertilizer, farmer participation, and gender equity receive particular emphasis. In its first 4 years, the project will increase farmer yields by 30% or more, benefiting 110,000 households in subSaharan Africa and 90,000 in South Asia through increased food security and incomes. Within ten years the project will benefit 1.1 million households in sub-Saharan Africa and 1.0 million in South Asia. The overall objective of the PROMISO project is to strengthen the capacity of partners to produce higher and more stable grain yields of sorghum and pearl millet for West Africa. The project contributes to this objective by (1) enhancing farmers’ and researchers’ skills and capacities in participatory testing and scaling up of crop pearl millet and sorghum crop intensification technologies; (2) increasing farmer’s varietal options for sorghum and pearl millet; (3) developing training resources in a range of media forms for continued and large scale farmer, researcher, and development community capacity building; (4) enhancing researchers’ and development partners’ capacities to monitor outcomes and impacts; (5) strengthening regional coordination and monitoring capacity with ECOWAS – CORAF; and (6) enhancing visibility of EU and CORAF and awareness of the vital role of sorghum and pearl millet production systems for food security, nutrition, and income.

PROMISO: Strengthening West African farmers’ and Researchers’ Capacity to Jointly Adapt New Pearl Millet and Sorghum Varieties and Crop Production Innovations Crops Pearl millet Sorghum

EC US$ 5.75M

Benin Burkina Faso Ghana Mali Niger Senegal

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Title & Crops Establishing a Molecular Breeding Program Based on the Aluminum Tolerance Gene, AltSB, and the P Efficiency QTL, Pup-1, for Increasing Sorghum Production in subSaharan Africa Crops Sorghum

Donor/Funding Generation Challenge Program US$ 0.545M (2010-2013)

Countries Brazil Kenya Mali Niger

Partners ICRISAT EMBRAPA, Brazil Institut National de Recherches Agronomiques du Niger (INRAN), Niger Moi University, Kenya Cornell, USA USDA/ARS, USA

Summary This project will implement a molecular breeding program targeting Mali, Niger and Kenya using random mating ms3 populations (RMPs) for the eventual development of improved varieties and breeding materials with Al tolerance and improved performance under low P stress. These two target traits largely underlie adaptation to acid soil and low phosphorus conditions. Also included is a capacity building component to be held at Moi University for training scientists from Mali, Niger, and Kenya and nearby countries to establish the necessary skills for sustainable molecular breeding activities. The ultimate goal is to develop the capacity and necessary tools in African institutions for stacking desirable genes in the development of elite multiple trait cultivars and to develop breeding materials that show superior performance in soils where Al toxicity and low P availability can cause serious reductions in productivity. This project will enhance the capacity of national and international breeding programs to using sorghum germplasm diversity and advanced molecular tools. The project will result in the development of modified backcross populations that will be of long-term value in relating sorghum traits to their corresponding genes. The planned population structure will facilitate the QTL mapping of range of traits conditioning productivity, adaptation, and preferred grain quality traits. Forty to fifty populations of 100 lines each will be developed from backcrosses carried out with 3 recurrent parents that represent the target ideotypes to be improved. The capacity of National breeding programs will be strengthened by creating a regional data management unit within the IER (Mali), which will support scientists in the effective application and use of molecular data for improved effectiveness of sorghum breeding activities.

Enhancing Sorghum Grain Yield and Quality for the Sudano-Sahelian Zone of West Africa using the Backcross Nested Association Mapping (BCNAM) Approach Crops Sorghum

Generation Challenge Program US$ 0.800M (2010-2013)

Mali

Institut d'Economie Rurale (IER), Mali CIRAD, France ICRISAT

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Title & Crops Improving Phosphorus Efficiency in Sorghum by the Identification and Validation of Sorghum Homologs for Pup1, a Major QTL Underlying Phosphorus Uptake in Rice Crops Sorghum

Donor/Funding Generation Challenge Program US$ 0.805M (2010-2013)

Countries Mali Niger

Partners Cornell, USA Institut National de Recherches Agronomiques du Niger (INRAN), Niger Moi University, Kenya ICRISAT IRRI EMBRAPA, Brazil JIRCAS, Japan USDA/ARS, USA

Summary Pup1 is a major QTL located on rice chromosome 12 that underlies phosphorus efficiency and has the potential to increase P acquisition efficiency in other cereals. Research findings from a long term collaboration between IRRI and JIRCAS has resulted in the fine mapping of the Pup1 locus to a ~150 Kb region on chr 12, and 2-4 high quality Pup1 candidate genes have been identified. Taking advantage of the complete sequence of the sorghum genome, the project will establish a framework based on comparative genomics to identify sorghum Pup1 homologs and will validate their role as bona fide genes underlying tolerance to P deficiency. Positive associations will be validated by bi-parental mapping and analysis of nearisogenic lines. We will also study a possible synergistic role of Al tolerance gene AltSB in increasing P uptake into sorghum roots. The genetic framework that will be developed for this research will also be useful for identifying other novel QTL related to P efficiency, which can then be deployed into a molecular breeding platform. The present project illustrates through a private-public partnership, the value of the MARS approach for sorghum breeding in Mali. It will combine recent approaches on sorghum breeding that have been developed at IER and methodologies for marker assisted recurrent selection (MARS) that have proven to provide significant improvement of breeding efficiency for complex traits, especially in the case of maize. Two populations dedicated to two different environments of sorghum crop in Mali will be developed from the cross of local well-characterized advanced breeding cultivars exhibiting complementary traits for the target environment. A multilocation evaluation of the progenies together with genotyping will provide accurate QTL detection for a number of important traits. This QTL information will be used in several consecutive cycles of recurrent selection aiming at pyramiding favorable alleles for selected QTLs. All along the process, material will be released to develop new varieties

Improve sorghum productivity in semi-arid environments of Mali through integrated MARS Crops Sorghum

Generation Challenge Program US$ 0.68M (2008-2012)

Mali

IER, Mali Syngenta CIRAD

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Title & Crops Improving Post-rainy Sorghum Varieties to Meet the Growing Grain and Fodder Demand in India Crops Sorghum

Donor/Funding ACIAR US$ 1.13M (2008-2012) India

Countries

Partners ICRISAT Directorate of Sorghum Research, India Queensland Department of Primary Industries & Fisheries, Australia University of Queensland, Australia ILRI

Summary Post-rainy season sorghum, although grown on residual soil moisture and commonly exposed to terminal drought stress, has an excellent market potential, for its high quality of grain and stover. Genetically improving the efficiency of using stored soil moisture by maximizing post-anthesis water use and water use efficiency (WUE) to enhance grain filling, is a prime target to maximize grain/stover production and quality. A step towards this goal has recently been obtained in early generation marker-assisted selection (MAS) products having six different stay-green quantitative trait loci (QTL). A major objective is to develop single- and multiple-QTLs stay-green introgression isolines, and assess the contributions of each of these QTLs to grain/fodder productivity and grain/fodder quality under both drought-stressed and non-stressed conditions. A second objective is to identify, via crop simulation modeling, the traits contributing to a better use of the soil profile moisture, and assess their putative links to individual stay-green QTLs and potential impact on overall productivity of mixed crop livestock systems of drought-prone areas of India. Using an integrated genetic and natural resource management (IGNRM) approach, this project aims at enhancing adaptation of pearl millet [Pennisetum glaucum (L.) R. Br.] and sorghum [Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench] to low-phosphorus (P) soils and water stress in the Sahelian zone of West Africa (WA). A combination of physiological experiments, classical and markerassisted breeding research, and agronomic studies is used to tackle the combined effects of low soil P and droughts on pearl millet and sorghum growth in West Africa’s smallholder cereal production systems. In a step-wise approach the studies will unravel available genetic diversity for low-P tolerance and relative importance of low soil P and water stress, and their interaction, for cereal productivity in the Sahel. New crop management techniques beyond fertilizer micro-dosing will be developed and tested, such as seed coating with P, promotion of symbiosis with vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhiza (VAM) and on-farm processing of rock phosphate (cropolites), to help enhancing productivity under Sahelian abiotic stress conditions. A strong focus on farmer experimentation with adapted cereal cultivars and new crop management options will validate these techniques and contribute to early adoption and project impact.

Tackling Abiotic Production Constraints in Pearl Millet and Sorghum-based Agricultural Systems of the West African Sahel Crops Pearl millet Sorghum

BMZ/GIZ US$ 1.63M (2010-2013)

Burkina Faso Mali Niger Senegal

ICRISAT Institut National de l’Environnement et Recherche Agricole (INERA), Burkina Faso Institut d'Economie Rurale (IER), Mali Institut National de Recherches Agronomiques du Niger (INRAN), Niger Institut Sénégalais de Recherche Agricole (ISRA), Sénégal University of Hohenheim, Stuttgart, Germany University of Kassel, Witzenhausen, Germany

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Title & Crops Assessing and Refining the Concept of Dynamic Genepool Management and Simultaneous Farmer Participatory Population Improvement in Pearl Millet & Sorghum Crops Pearl millet Sorghum

Donor/Funding McKnight Foundation US$ 0.43M (2010-2014)

Countries Burkina Faso Mali Niger

Partners ICRISAT Institut National d’Etudes et de Recherches Agronomiques (INERA), Burkina Faso AMSP, Burkina Faso UGCPA, Burkina Faso Institut d’Economie Rurale (IER), Mali Association des Organisations Professionnelles Paysannes (AOPP), Mali Union Locale des Producteurs de Cereales (ULPC), Mali ASEDES, Mali Fuma Gaskiya, Niger Mooriben, Niger

Summary This project will validate and finalize new sorghum and pearl millet experimental cultivars developed in the previous phase, and determine the selection progress realized for various traits and selection methods, so as to refine future breeding strategies in the three countries. In pearl millet, the participatory population improvement will be further pursued and extended to the Dioula and Mande sites in the Sudanian zone of Mali. Furthermore, we seek to enhance progress of pearl millet breeding for resistance to the parasitic weed Striga hermonthica through development of a marker-assisted recurrent selection (MARS) scheme, which will be integrated with the participatory research. Finally, we propose to study whether the approach and methods used in the first phase contributed to genetic diversification of the germplasm grown in farmers’ fields and therefore to in-situ conservation of genetic resources, for both sorghum and pearl millet. This project will strengthen the capacities of local seed initiatives by building on previous efforts such as improved seed business management skills; by pursuing new approaches to systematically involve women in all seed activities; by working with a range of communication tools; and, by strengthening farmer organization’s capabilities to use the results of farmer managed trials. The project will also develop method(s) to evaluate varieties for new traits of particular importance to farmers, such as food yield from a given quantity of grain. This project will initiate specific studies to improve our understanding of changes in farmer seed systems due to project activities.

Sustaining Farmer-Managed Seed Initiatives for Sorghum and Pearl Millet in Mali, Niger, and Burkina Faso Crops Pearl millet Sorghum

McKnight Foundation US$ 0.57M (2010-2014)

Burkina Faso Mali Niger

Diversification of Pearl Millet Hybrid Parents for Increased Stable Production Crops Pearl millet

Pearl Millet Hybrid Parents Research Consortium (India) US$ 0.41M (2009-2013)

India

ICRISAT Minim Sông Pânga, Burkina Faso Union de Groupement pour la commercialisation des Produits Agricole, Boucle du Mouhoun (UGCPA/BM), Burkina Faso Union Locale des Producteurs de Cereales (ULPC), Mali Association des Organisations Professionnelles Paysannes (AOPP), Mali Fuma Gaskya , Niger Mooriben, Niger Institut d’Economie Rural (IER), Mali Institute National de l’Environmental et des Recheres Agricoles (INERA), Burkina Faso Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique du Niger (INRAN), Niger ICRISAT

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Title & Crops Diversification of Sorghum Hybrid Parents for Increased Stable Production Crops Sorghum Integrating Genomics and Mapping Approaches to Improve Pearl Millet Productivity in Drought Prone Regions of Africa and Asia Crops Pearl millet Transfer of Sorghum and Millet Production, Processing and Marketing Technologies Program in Mali (INTSORMIL) Crops Pearl millet Sorghum INTSORMIL Crops Sorghum

Donor/Funding Sorghum Hybrid Parents Research Consortium (India) US$ 0.41M (2009-2013) BBSRC (UK) US$ 0.23M (2008-2012) India

Countries ICRISAT

Partners

Summary

India

ICRISAT

USAID Mission/Mali US$ 5.25M (2007-2012)

Mali

IER AMEDD CONFIGES CRRA DRA IICEM SAAG 2000

The project will promote profitable markets for sorghum and pearl millet by working with agencies that identify and expand markets, assess economics, and facilitate evolution of a production-supply chain and expanding markets to deliver quality grain to end-users. Targeted basic and applied research, education/short term training and technology transfer will promote adoption and economic impact. Components include training, production, marketing and food processing. Sorghum is the second major crop grown in Central America where it is grown as a source of forage, silage, and as a grain for livestock and humans. BMR (Brown midrib) sorghum which has a high nutritional value to dairy cows is being transferred to small holder farmers in Central America and Haiti via a rapid (3 year) technology transfer process.

USAID FTF/W

Costa Rica El Salvador Guatemala Haiti Honduras Nicaragua Panama

INTA CENTA ICTA CHIBAS BIOENERGY DICTA INTA IDIAP

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Title & Crops International Sorghum and Millet Collaborative Research Support Program (INTSORMIL) Crops Finger millet Pearl millet Sorghum

Donor/Funding USAID/Washington US$ 12.90M (2006-2011)

Countries Burkina Faso El Salvador Ethiopia Ghana Kenya Mali Nicaragua Niger Nigeria Senegal South Africa Botswana Tanzania Uganda Zambia Mozambique

Partners Kansas State Univ. Ohio State Univ. Purdue Univ. Texas A&M Univ. West Texas A&M Univ. USDA/ARS Dupont/USA CENTA/EI Salvador CNIA/INTA/Nicaragua AMPROSOR/Nicaragua UNA/Nicaragua CNIAB/Nicaragua ITA/Senegal ISRA/Senegal EISMV/Senegal lER/Mali CRRA/Mali INRAB/Burkina Faso CREAF/Burkina Faso INERA/Burkina Faso IRSAT/Burkina Faso INRAN/Niger CERRA/Niger Lake Chad Research Station/Nigeria Univ. Maiduguri/Nigeria SARI/Ghana NARO/Uganda EIAR/Ethiopia Alemaya Univ./Ethiopia Axum Univ./Ethiopia KARI/Kenya Tanzania/Hombolo Res. Station Dept Crop Res./Tanzania Sokoine Univ./Tanzania IIAM/Mozambique Med. Res. Council/So. Afr Univ. of Free State/So. Afr. Univ. of Pretoria/So. Afr. College of Agr./Botswana Zari/Zambia UNZA/Zambia

Summary The overall vision for the Sorghum, Millet, and Other Grains CRSP is to improve food security, enhance farm income, and improve economic activity in the major sorghum-and pearl millet-producing countries of Africa and Central America. Significant research advances have been made with resultant technologies starting to be exploited in pilot programs in several regions. There are increasing opportunities for farmers producing the staple food crops to participate in new markets and increase their incomes. In West Africa, these opportunities include linking farmers using improved "tan-plant, white-grain cultivars combined with use of improved agronomic practices, with end-users producing products including processed pearl millet as couscous and other food uses, and sorghum for poultry feed. In Eastern Africa, farmers growing Striga resistant sorghum cultivars as part of an integrated crop management strategy have increased sustainable grain yields. Tan-plant, white grain cultivars are being used to produce an increasingly popular lager beer in East and Southern Africa, and for bread and snack foods in Central America.

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Title & Crops Rapid generation advancement of Korean barley lines through the Double Haploid Technology Crops Barley Fair Access and Benefit Sharing of Genetic Resources: National Policy Development Crops Barley

Donor/Funding Rural Development Administration (S Korea) US$ 0.02M (2007-2011) IDRC US$ 0.32M (2007-2011)

Countries S Korea

Partners ICARDA Rural Development Administration

Summary This project will produce Korean barley lines with good agronomical performances and high end use quality characteristics using well-developed doubled haploid production systems from ICARDA.

Jordan

ICARDA NCARE (Jordan) IDRC (head office)

Identification and utilization of durable resistance to diseases in barley in Latin America Crops Barley Collaboration in the development of barley germplasm and screening for disease resistance and enduse quality Crops Barley Integrated improvement of cereal-based cropping systems in rainfed and irrigated areas of Great Jamahirya Crops Barley

FONTAGRO US$ 0.14M (20072011)

Uruguay

ICARDA Uruguay Peru

The overall objective is to develop new policies and laws that recognize and support the key contributions of rural people to the processes of sustainable genetic resources management and improvement, dynamic biodiversity conservation, and rural innovation. Specific objectives include: raising awareness among and empower farmers regarding their voice and rights in policies and laws related to genetic resources; getting participatory plant breeding products recognized legally and properly valued economically; and changing policies and laws concerning variety release and seed production in support of participatory plant breeding practices and its products. This project is aimed at contributing to the development of productive strategies that increase water productivity in order to offset the effects of climate change in South America.

Alberta Agricultural and Rural Development (AARD) US$ 0.20M (2008-2013) ARC – Libya US$ 8.70M (2009-2013) SUSPENDED

Canada

ICARDA AARD (Canada)

This project is a collaboration with the Agriculture, Food and Rural Development Agency (AARD) that will exchange germplasm, screen germplasm for diseases, and evaluate genetic lines of barley that have potential for genetics and commercial applications.

Libya

ICARDA ARC-Libya

The objectives of this program will be to enhance Libya’s national program capacity and relations with regional and international centers and enable the national program to benefit through ICARDA from experiences with other CGIAR Centers in the area of cereal-based cropping systems.

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Title & Crops Development of Improved Varieties of Malting Barley Crops Barley

Donor/Funding Impulsora Agricola, S.A. de C.V. (IASA) US$ 0.90M (2009-2012)

Countries Mexico ICARDA IASA

Partners

Summary This project consists of a quality and agronomic assessment in Mexico of existing advanced lines maintained by ICARDA. ICARDA will introduce and assess in Mexico different types of barleys from Peru, Ecuador, Canada, and the United States, will identify and select the segregating populations adapted to the Mexican environment, and will develop at least 1,200 experimental lines per year to be assessed for agronomic and pathological evaluation in Mexico. This project will develop high yielding barley varieties with superior malting quality for plains of northern India. It will also develop high yielding barley cultivars for rainfed condition with drought and salinity tolerance in plains and drought & cold tolerance in hills.

Barley Improvement for High Yielding Quality Malt, Food and Feed for Various Agroecologies Crops Barley Strategies for Organic and Low-input Integrated Breeding and Management (SOLIBAM) Crops Barley Improving the Food Security and Climate Change Adaptability of Livestock Producers using the Rainfed Barley-based System in Iraq and Jordan Crops Barley

ICAR US$ 0.05M Annually

India

DWR ICARDA

EU US$ 0.46M (2010-2014)

Ethiopia Mali

ICARDA EU Partners University of Mekelle, Ethiopia CNOP, Mali

This is a large consortium of European partners (France, Switzerland, Italy, Hungary, Denmark, Spain, Portugal) addressing a wide range of crops. ICARDA is contributing to barley in Ethiopia and participatory breeding approaches in Ethiopia and Mali (Coordination Nationale des Organisations Paysannes du Mali, CNOP) The project aims to increase productivity and climate change resilience among farming communities in targeted areas of Iraq and Jordan. The project's targeted areas are those where rainfall is equal to or less than 350mm and barley is the main source of feed for small ruminant livestock production systems The main target group is resource-poor farmers and livestock producers in rainfed barley-based system whose livelihoods are dependent on the system and who have limited income or skills diversification and limited access to pertinent information and technological developments. In addition, emphasis is placed on targeting the next generation of farmers to ensure intergenerational continuity and knowledge and skills transfer.

IFAD US$ 1.50M (2011-2014)

Jordan Iraq

ICARDA NCARE MoA-Iraq

CRP 3.6 DRYLAND CEREALS – Bilateral Projects

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Title & Crops ARCAD Crops Pearl Millet Sorghum

Donor/Funding Agropolis Foundation US$ 4.29M (2009-2013)

Countries Benin Burkina Faso France Guinea Kenya Mali Morocco

Partners CIRAD IRD Montpellier SupAgro INRA UM2 : Université de Montpellier 2 FOFIFA IRAG Institut Agronomique et Vétérinaire Hassan II IER INERA INRAB KARI

Summary The ARCAD scientific project aims to contribute to a better conservation and use of Mediterranean and tropical crop genetic resources. It is focused on the study of the relationship between crop diversity and the processes of domestication and adaptation to the agricultural environment. Understanding how genes and genomes have been shaped by history, environment and societies is a key factor to enhance the quality and sustainability of germplasm conservation and use. The scientific project is set on a limited number of priorities: - The study of the history and patterns of crop domestication and adaptation - The analysis of the key parameters underpinning adaptation, at various time scales, through studies of evolutionary genomics and population genetics. The ARCAD scientific project includes several research subprojects addressing these priorities as well as technological, methodological and capacity building components which aim at supporting these sub-projects, at strengthening the overall consistency and enhancing the attractiveness of the entire ARCAD project.

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Title & Crops AFTER project: African Food Tradition Revisited by Research Crops Pearl millet Sorghum

Donor/Funding EU FP7

Countries France Benin South Africa Egypt Madagascar Senegal Cameroon Ghana UK Italy Portugal

Partners Cirad France UAC : University of Abomey Calavi / Faculty of Agronomy - Benin CSIR : Council for Scientific and Industrial Research - South Africa FAAU : Faculty of Agriculture, Alexandria University - Egypt ACTIA : Association de Coordination Technique pour l’Industrie Agroalimentaire - France UT : Antananarivo University Madagascar UCAD : Ecole Supérieure Polytechnique / Cheikh Anta Diop University of Dakar - Senegal ENSAI : National School of AgroIndustrial Sciences - Cameroon ESB : Escola Superior de Biotecnologia - Portugal NRI : Natural Resources Institute United Kingdom AAFEX : Association AFrique agro EXport - Senegal SPES : Spread European Safety - Italy INRA : National Institute for Agricultural Research - France FRI : Food Research Institute - Ghana Racines - France NRC : National Research Centre Egypt

Summary The overall objective of AFTER is to improve traditional African products in the light of combined and/or new technologies for mutual benefits for the consumers, the companies and the producers of Africa and Europe. The project has four general objectives valid for ten traditional products from Africa: - To reach comprehensive scientific knowledge of the existing know-how on technologies, processes and products. - To propose improved traditional processes by a reengineering of the unit operations with the aim of improving the safety and nutritional quality while keeping or improving the organoleptic characteristics of traditional products. - To reach objective criteria of acceptability of the traditional products by the consumers and to ensure that the products can effectively access the EU markets in view of regulatory and ethical issues while also protecting the intellectual rights of the people in Africa. - To present the results into ready-to-use information for food companies including SMEs via guidelines on quality management, food law and regulation and consumer protection and to transfer the results to the stakeholders from Africa and from the EU.

US$ 5.55M (2010-2014)

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Title & Crops SWEETFUEL Crops Sorghum

Donor/Funding EU FP7

Countries France India Mexico Germany South Africa Italy Brazil Italy

Partners CIRAD ICRISAT EMBRAPA Ifeu - Institut Fuer Energie- Und Umweltforschung Heidelberg Gmbh Universidad Autonoma De Nuevo Leon Wirtschaft Und Infrastruktur Gmbh & Co Planungs Kws Saat Ag Agricultural Research Council (ARC) Universita Cattolica Del Sacro Cuore Alma Mater Studiorum-Universita Di Bologna CIRAD IRD ICRISAT AFD UNSCPC IER AOPP

Summary The main objective of SWEETFUEL is to optimize bioethanol production from sorghum in temperate, semi-arid and subtropical regions by genetic enhancement and improvement of agricultural practices.

US$ 7.32M (2009-2014)

Sustainable management of agricultural biodiversity in Mali Crops Sorghum

FFEM US$ 1.43M (2009-2013)

Mali

The project aims at developing sustainable management of agricultural biodiversity. In a context of socio-economic and climate changes, it will strengthen the durability of production systems. Among others, the projects objectives are to promote and develop participatory breeding and biodiversity management for sorghum and pearl millet at the level of farmer organizations, and to address IP issues of farmer access to genetic resources as well as benefits sharing of participatory breeding products.

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