Statistical Brief
No. 4 September 1993
Statistical Brief on the National Agricultural Research System
of
BOTSWANA
Johannes Roseboom
Philip G. Pardey
ISNAR INDICATOR SERIES PROJECT: PHASE II
International Service for National Agricultural Research
with support from
the Government of Italy
and
Special Program for African Agricultural Research (SPAAR)
ISNAR INDICATOR SERIES PROJECT PHASE II
Decision making in the agricultural research policy area in either domestic, regional, or international
fora can only be aided by access to reliable and comprehensive data on these systems. It is for this
reason that ISNAR initiated its Indicator Series Project in 1986. The major objective of this project is
to collect, process, and analyze reliable and comprehensive time-series data on national agricultural
research systems (NARSs) throughout the world in order to identify and report on major trends and
emerging policy issues with regard to the development of NARSs. To this end a database has been
developed that contains time-series data on agricultural research expenditures and personnel for
more than 150 developing and developed countries. These data provide a quantitative basis for more
in-depth research policy studies by ISNAR and others.
During the first phase of the project (1986-91), the Indicator Series project team produced two major
publications published by Cambridge University Press, namely:
Pardey, P.G., and J. Roseboom. (1989) ISNAR Agricultural Research Indicator Series: A Global
Data Base on National Agricultural Research Systems, 547 pp.; and
Pardey, P.G., J. Roseboom, and J.R. Anderson, eds. (1991) Agricultural Research Policy:
International Quantitative Perspectives, 462 pp.
The first publication is a statistical reference volume that provides system-level data on agricultural
research personnel and expenditures for 154 countries. The second publication draws on the
database to report on the major policy dimensions of agricultural research, with a primary focus on
less-developed countries.
Phase II of the Indicator Series Project was initiated in 1992 and seeks to update the database and the
policy analyses that accompany it. New ISNAR survey data are being used in conjunction with a
large variety of published and “informal” reports in order to produce reliable as well as up-to-date
information and statistics about the NARSs.
The country-level data are being published in a series of NARS Statistical Briefs. These briefs
include more detailed descriptive information about the institutional structure of the NARS as well
as a more comprehensive set of statistics than were reported in the 1989 Indicator Series volume. It is
envisaged the country-level data will be assembled and analyzed in a series of regional research
reports.
These statistical briefs are not official ISNAR publications; they are not edited or formally reviewed
by ISNAR. The information and data presented have been collected and compiled with due care and
all reasonable efforts have been made to ensure their accuracy. Comments, corrections, and
additions to the material reported in this brief are welcomed. These briefs may be cited with due
acknowledgment.
ISNAR ◆ P.O. Box 93375 ◆ 2509 AJ The Hague, The Netherlands.
Tel: (31) (70) 349-6100 ◆ Fax: (31) (70) 381-9677
Email: Internet: ISNAR@CGIAR.ORG
Statistical Brief on the National Agricultural Research System
of
BOTSWANA
Johannes Roseboom
Philip G. Pardey
ISNAR INDICATOR SERIES PROJECT: PHASE II
Acknowledgments
The authors thank Nienke Beintema for her very able research assistance and Fionnuala Hawes
for assistance in preparing the graphics for this report and general secretarial support to the pro-
ject. Helpful comments and assistance with data gathering were obtained from A.K. Datta, E.K.
Adom, P. Eyzaguirre, and B. Nestel.

Contents
1. Introduction 1
2. Agricultural Research Institutions 2
2.1 Historical Evolution 2
2.2 Present Structure 3
3. NARS Statistics 5
3.1 Long-Term Development 6
3.2 Human Resources 7
3.3 Financial Resources 9
3.4 Research Focus 10
Bibliography 12
Appendix 1: Country background information 16
Appendix 2: Definitions and concepts 17
Appendix 3: Organizational charts of the agricultural research institutes 19
Appendix 4: Addresses of the agricultural research institutes 20
Appendix 5: Researcher and research expenditure totals, 1961-91 21
Appendix 6: Research staff development by institute, 1961-91 23
Acronyms
APRU Animal Production Research Unit ISNAR International Service for National
BAC Botswana Agricultural College Agricultural Research
CGIAR Consultative Group on International NARS National Agricultural Research System
Agricultural Research NIR National Institute of Development
DAR Department of Agricultural Research Research and Documentation
DB/FS Department of Biology, Faculty of Science NVL National Veterinary Laboratory
DES/FS Department of Environmental Sciences, UBLS University of Botswana, Lesotho, and
Faculty of Science Swaziland
FAB Forestry Association of Botswana
FRP Forestry Research Program
GDP Gross Domestic Product
1. Introduction
The primary purpose of this brief is to provide various statistical and institutional details on the
development and current status of the public agricultural research system in Botswana. This in-
formation has been collected and presented in a systematic way in order to inform and thereby
improve research policy formulation with regard to the NARS of Botswana. Most importantly,
these data are assembled and reported in a way that makes them directly comparable with the
data presented in the other country briefs in this series. And because institutions take time to de-
velop and there are often considerable lags in the agricultural research process, it is necessary
for many analytical and policy purposes to have access to longer-run series of data.
NARSs vary markedly in their institutional structure and these institutional aspects can have a
substantial and direct effect on their research performance. To provide a basis for analysis and
cross-country, over-time comparisons, the various research agencies in a country have been
grouped into five general categories; government, semi-public, private, academic, and suprana-
tional. A description of these categories is provided in table 1.
Table 1: Institutional Categories
Category Description Examples
Government Agencies directly administered by  government. Research department within a ministry
Semi-public Agencies not directly controlled by government and Research institute under a commodity
with no explicit profit making objective. board
Private Agencies whose primary activity is the production of Agricultural machinery or chemical
goods and services for profit. company
Academic Agencies that combine university-level education with Faculty of agriculture
research.
Supranational Agencies whose mandate covers more than one country. CGIAR institutes
Note: Adapted from OECD (1981).
The concept of a NARS used throughout this report includes only those institutes that can be
classified as government, semi-public, and academic agencies. Where it is useful to do so, pri-
vate and supranational research agencies have been discussed, but for reasons of comparability
they are not included in the NARS data reported here. More detailed information on the defini-
tions and concepts used in this brief is provided in appendix 2.
Section 2 provides a brief description of the institutional development and current structure of
the NARS. Section 3 presents a statistical overview of the longer-run investment trends in agri-
cultural research along with a more detailed look at contemporary investment orientations. The
appendices provide further descriptive details and present the basic research personnel and ex-
penditure data in disaggregated fashion. For general background information and statistics on
Botswana we refer to appendix 1.
Statistical Brief No. 4: Botswana 1
2. Agricultural Research Institutions
2.1 Historical Evolution1
Prior to independence,2 most of the institutionalized agricultural experimentation and extension
activities in Botswana were centered at Mahalapye, where a crop experiment station was estab-
lished in the 1930s. Livestock research, which also began in the 1930s, was conducted at Mo-
rale, a ranch located in the vicinity of Mahalapye. In 1947, the first systematic research on arable
crops commenced at Mahalapye and consisted of a series of cereal varietal selection trials
(ISNAR 1990). Initially, agricultural research was undertaken by a division of the Agricultural
Extension Services of the Department of Agriculture. During the 1960s the research infrastruc-
ture of this division expanded significantly with the establishment of stations at Gabarone in
1959, Mosho in 1962, Goodhope in 1963, Kalahari Sandveld in 1964, Chobe in 1967, and new
headquarters at Sebele near Gabarone in 1968. About the same time, the research division was
upgraded and renamed the Department of Agricultural Research (DAR) within the Ministry of
Agriculture.
Veterinary research in Botswana has for a long time been within the mandate of the Veterinary
Services of the Department of Agriculture. In 1958, the Veterinary Services were strengthened
with the establishment of a veterinary laboratory at Mafeking, the then- administrative center
for Botswana located in South Africa. In 1961, the British Government financed the construc-
tion of a new veterinary laboratory at Ramatlabama located just inside the southern border of the
future Republic of Botswana. When the new capital was constructed at Gabarone, the veterinary
laboratory was moved in 1968 to temporary buildings, which it shared with the medical labora-
tory in the grounds of Princess Marina Hospital, while the Ramatlabama facilities were trans-
ferred to another government department. Although proposals were drawn up in 1972 for a new
laboratory, it was not until 1986 that the National Veterinary Laboratory (NVL) moved to its
present facilities at Sebele, about 11 kilometers from Gabarone.
At independence most of DAR’s research activities focussed on crop production and pastures.
Research on livestock was limited. As a response to this situation, the Animal Production Re-
search Unit (APRU) was established in 1970 as a unit within DAR. During the 1970s, APRU’s
research program and facilities expanded rapidly to ultimately encompass 17 ranch research
sites. As APRU grew, two research divisions within DAR were eventually established: the Divi-
sion of Arable Research and the Division of Animal Production and Range Research.
Throughout the 1970s and 1980s DAR grew considerably, primarily with the support of do-
nor-funded projects, such as the Dry Land Farming Research Scheme (1971-83), the Evaluation
of Farming Systems and Agricultural Implements Project (1976-84), the Dairy Development
Research Project, the Integrated Farming Pilot Project, the Agricultural Technology Improve-
ment Project (1982-90), and the Ngamiland Agricultural Development Project. The “project
driven” nature of this growth made it difficult to develop an appropriately prioritized and inte-
grated portfolio of research activities within the department (ISNAR 1990).
1. The material presented in this section draws largely from Oland (1980), Kemsley and Mrema (1988), Datta and
Avafia (1989), Burley, et al. (1989), ISNAR (1990), and ISNAR (1992).
2. Botswana became independent in September 1966. Prior to independence it was known as Bechuanaland.
2 Statistical Brief No.4: Botswana
In addition to DAR and NVL, there are organizations other than the Ministry of Agriculture that
undertake some agricultural research. One of those is the University of Botswana. The Univer-
sity College of Botswana began operations at Gaborone in 1973 as part of the University of Bot-
swana, Lesotho, and Swaziland (UBLS). Two years later Lesotho withdrew from UBLS.
Botswana and Swaziland, however, continued to jointly operate the university and in 1976 es-
tablished the University of Botswana and Swaziland with university colleges located in both
countries. In 1982, the university ceased to operate as a joint venture and both university col-
leges were reconstituted as autonomous universities.
Although the University of Botswana does not have its own Faculty of Agriculture, two depart-
ments within the Faculty of Science conduct research that is relevant to agriculture, namely, the
Department of Biology and the Department of Environmental Sciences (previously the Depart-
ment of Geography). Both departments were established in 1973.
For many years, Botswana relied on the School of Agriculture located at Luyengo in Swaziland
for its degree- and diploma-level training in agricultural sciences. This school, which was part
of UBLS, opened in 1966. Certificate-level training in agriculture and veterinary science was
initiated in Botswana by the Ministry of Agriculture in the early 1960s with the establishment of
the Agricultural Training Centre at Mahalapye and the Veterinary Training School at
Ramatlabama. In 1966 the school at Mahalapye moved to new facilities at Sebele and was re-
named Botswana Agricultural College (BAC). In 1970 the Veterinary Training School also
moved to Sebele and merged with BAC, centralizing all certificate-level training in agriculture
into one institute. With the dissolution of the University of Botswana and Swaziland in 1982,
BAC began providing diploma-level training in that year and degree-level training as of 1988.
In 1989 BAC became part of the University of Botswana but remained under the responsibility
of the Ministry of Agriculture. Although BAC has always had close links with the nearby cen-
tral agricultural research station of DAR (ISNAR 1990), its research activities are still very
much in their infancy.
The National Institute of Development Research and Documentation (NIR) was founded in
1975 as the documentation section of the University College of Botswana. In 1978 it became a
research institute with the establishment of the Environmental Research Unit — the first re-
search department to be created at NIR. Subsequently, three other units concerned with educa-
tion, health and nutrition, and rural development were established. Research at NIR is carried
out by the institute’s core staff, staff attached to the institute for the duration of specific projects,
research affiliates, and university lecturers. Only a limited proportion of NIR’s research (about
25%) is of direct relevance to agriculture. NIR’s contribution to Botswana’s agricultural re-
search capacity is mainly in the areas of natural resources and forestry research.
In addition to the forestry research undertaken by NIR, a forestry research program was
launched in 1986 by the Forestry Association of Botswana — a private, nonprofit organization.
Although the Forestry Unit within the Ministry of Agriculture has conducted some ad hoc stud-
ies in the past, it has not developed an ongoing program of research nor established any perma-
nent research facilities.
2.2 Present Structure
The present structure of the national agricultural research system of Botswana is presented in ta-
ble 2. The Department of Agricultural Research (DAR) is the principal agricultural research or-
ganization in Botswana with 79% of the country’s FTE agricultural researchers. Its mandate
Statistical Brief No. 4: Botswana 3
4 Statistical Brief No.4: Botswana
Table 2: Overview of Present NARS Structure
Executing agency Staffed Number of researchers
Institutional research
category Supervising agency Name Acronym Research focus sitesa National Expats Total FTEs
Government Ministry of Agriculture Department of Agricultural DAR crops, livestock, range land, 26 (4) 31.9 13.7 45.5 45.5
Research natural resources
Department of Animal NVL veterinary 1 (1) 13.0 6.0 19.0 1.0
Production and Health,
National Veterinary Laboratory
Semi-public Forestry Association of Forestry Research Program FRP forestry 1 (1) [1.0] [1.0] [2.0] [2.0]
Botswana
Academic Ministry of Agriculture and Botswana Agricultural College BAC no research at present 1 (1) [30.0] [10.0] 40.0 [0]
the University of Botswana
University of Botswana National Institute of NIR natural resources and 1 (1) 5.0 3.0 8.0 2.0
Development Research & forestry
Documentation
Faculty of Science, Department DB/FS natural resources, crops, 1 (1) 11.0 5.0 16.0 1.6
of Biology and forestry
Faculty of Science, Department DES/FS natural resources 1 (1) 9.0 9.0 18.0 1.8
of Environmental Sciences
Total 32 (10) 100.9 47.7 148.5 53.9
Note: Most of the information in this table refers to 1991. The numbers in square brackets are estimated by the authors.
a Staffed with researchers and/or technicians. Bracketed sites are permanently staffed with researchers.
includes crops, livestock, rangeland, and natural resources research. Some veterinary research
is done by the National Veterinary Laboratory of the Department of Animal Production and
Health. Forestry research is not performed by a government institute but by the semi-public For-
estry Association of Botswana and the National Institute of Development Research and Docu-
mentation (NIR) of the University of Botswana. There is no fisheries research in Botswana.
The academic component of the Botswana NARS comprises several small units, namely, Bot-
swana Agricultural College (BAC), NIR, and the Departments of Biology and Environmental
Sciences of the University of Botswana. BAC does not do any research at present but may do so
in the future. The research activities of NIR and the two university departments focus primarily
on natural resource issues rather than on agricultural production problems.
In addition to the organizations listed in table 2, there are several organizations that engage in
some agricultural research, namely, Thusano Lefatsheng (non-traditional crops and commer-
cialization of indigenous plants), Rural Industries Innovation Centre (agricultural engineering
and rural energy), Botswana Technology Centre (food technology), and Foods Botswana (food
technology).
The organizational structure of DAR, NVL, the University of Botswana, and BAC are presented
in diagrammatic form in appendix 3.
DAR has two main research divisions, one for arable research and one for animal production
and range research. Each is headed by a chief agricultural research officer who reports to the
Deputy Director for Agricultural Research (Gakale 1992).
The Arable Research Division is organized into six program areas: (1) cereals, (2) oilseeds, (3)
grain legumes, (4) horticulture, (5) soil and water management, and (6) production systems. Re-
searchers working within a program area form a program committee that oversees the planning
and implementation of the program’s research. Each of the programs is assigned a program
leader who is responsible for drawing up a consolidated research agenda that is then reviewed
by the head of the division before obtaining his approval for implementation.
The Division of Animal Production and Range Research also has six program areas: (1) beef,
(2) dairy, (3) small ruminants, (4) feeds, (5) range and pastures, and (6) production systems. The
organizational hierarchy and reporting channels are the same as those for the Arable Research
Division.
3. NARS Statistics
Questionnaire responses were only received from NIR and NVL. Consequently, much of the in-
formation in this brief is derived from the secondary sources cited at the conclusion of this re-
port. More detailed institutional level data are provided in appendices 5 and 6.
The expenditure data presented in this brief are based on the actual expenditures as reported by
the various institutes. However, institutes systematically underestimate the degree of donor sup-
port because they only have information about the donor support that is channeled through their
accounting system. Most importantly they often underreport or fail to report the salaries and
supplements paid directly to expatriate researchers. To correct for this problem in the Botswana
data, we constructed an implicit cost series for expatriate researchers (see appendix 2) and
where necessary added this to the expenditures reported by the various institutes. A complicat-
Statistical Brief No. 4: Botswana 5
ing factor in the case of Botswana is the distinction between expatriate researchers working un-
der contract to the Government of Botswana and those working under contract to a donor
organization. In the latter case we calculated the expatriate researcher costs as described in ap-
pendix 2, while in the former case we estimated the salary supplements paid by donors to be
one-third of the full cost of an expatriate researcher.
3.1 Long-term development
There was a rapid increase in the number of researchers during the 1960s and 1970s but little
growth thereafter (table 3). Agricultural research expenditures peaked in the early 1980s and
have declined considerably in real terms since then. This decline is due mainly to a decrease in
donor-funded projects and in the number of expatriate researchers.
Table 3: NARS Researcher and Expenditure Series, 1961-91
annual
growth
1961-65 1966-70 1971-75 1976-80 1981-85 1986-90 1991 ratea
%
Researchers (FTEs) 2.1 9.2 20.1 33.4 49.6 45.6 53.9 12.5
Expenditures (millions 1985 Pulas 0.252 0.998 2.171 3.783 7.312 5.813 5.834 13.2
per year)
Expenditures (millions 1985 PPP 0.415 1.643 3.573 6.227 12.036 9.567 9.603 13.2
dollars per year)
Expenditures per researcher (1985 191,000 182,000 177,000 183,000 244,000 212,000 178,000 0.6
PPP dollars per year)
Number of farmers (millions) 0.197 0.201 0.211 0.223 0.241 0.262 0.276 1.2
Researchers per million farmers 10.8 45.9 94.9 149.1 206.6 174.0 195.1 11.2
AgGDP (million 1985 PPP dollars) 107.4 119.3 235.5 292.6 230.0 285.0 352.6 4.1
Expenditures as a % of AgGDP 0.35 1.15 1.35 2.28 5.28 4.47 3.58 10.5
Source: See appendices 5 and 6.
Note: Includes DAR, NVL, FPR, NIR, and the Departments of Biology and Environmental Sciences. Expenditure figures were
only available for DAR and NIR. DAR’s expenditures per researcher are presumed to be representative of the other research
agencies when constructing the expenditure series.
a Least squares growth rate for the 1961-91 period.
Expenditures per researcher have been relatively high throughout the period reported here al-
though they have been declining since the mid-1980s. This primarily reflects a considerable de-
cline in the amount of donor funding over the past few years (ISNAR 1990). Several major
donor-funded projects were completed in the late 1980s and have not been followed by new pro-
jects. In spite of this recent decline, the number of research staff and the real expenditures on re-
search grew, respectively, by 12.5% and 13.2% per annum during the period 1961-91.
The number of researchers per million farmers increased dramatically during the past three de-
cades. In the early 1960s, Botswana had only 11 researchers per million farmers compared with
an average of 15 across all countries in sub-Saharan Africa. However, within two decades the
number of researchers per million farmers in Botswana increased to more than 200, while the
sub-Saharan African average increased to 42.
6 Statistical Brief No.4: Botswana
A similar pattern of development took place regarding agricultural research expenditures rela-
tive to AgGDP. From a relatively low level in the early 1960s, Botswana’s research intensity ra-
tio (i.e., research expenditures relative to AgGDP) increased rapidly to a level that is high even
by developed-country standards. The country experienced particularly high intensity ratios dur-
ing the 1980s, which in part reflects the coincidence of a peak in research funding and a series of
droughts between 1981 and 1986/87 that caused a dramatic decline in agricultural output. The
recent decline in this intensity ratio reflects a real decline in research expenditures coupled with
a recovery in the agricultural sector.
To put this high amount of investment in agricultural research into perspective, it is significant
to note that Botswana has one of the highest GDPs per capita in sub-Saharan Africa, principally
due to the revenues earned from diamond exports. Moreover, agricultural production accounts
for only 6.9% of GDP although the sector employs nearly two-thirds of the economically active
population (appendix 1). Finally, Botswana is a small country in population terms (1.3 million
in 1991). Thus Botswana’s exceptionally high agricultural research intensity ratio is consistent
with the evidence of Pardey, Roseboom and Anderson (1991) and Alston and Pardey (1993).
They showed that there is a general tendency for research intensity ratios to be relatively higher
in countries with small populations and in those countries with higher per capita incomes. It is
also noteworthy (with respect to Botswana’s level of agricultural research investment) that the
local research agencies attempt to serve the technological problems of farmers covering a vast
area of agricultural land (34.4 million hectares), of which 96% is permanent pasture. At 1.7 re-
searchers per million hectares of agricultural land, the Botswana ratio is well below the 7.0 aver-
age for sub-Saharan Africa in 1981-85.
3.2 Human Resources
Degree and Nationality Status of Researchers
Table 4 presents long-run data concerning the country’s agricultural research staff. At inde-
pendence in 1966, all of the research positions were held by expatriates. This situation changed
little until the second half of the 1970s. Since then the number of national researchers has in-
creased rapidly, while the number of expatriates began to decline in the mid-1980s. The educa-
tion level of national researchers has also increased markedly over the past 15 years. In line with
many other countries, the academic institutes generally have a more degree-intensive staff pro-
file than the non-academic institutes.
Gender
In 1984, 17% of the national researchers at DAR were female. At NIR and the Departments of
Biology and Environmental Sciences women represented 35%, 17%, and 0% of the national re-
search staff working in these respective institutes during the latter half of the 1980s.
Statistical Brief No. 4: Botswana 7
Table 4: Educational and Nationality Status of Researchers
Institutional category Researcher status 1961-65 1966-70 1971-75 1976-80 1981-85 1986-90 1991
(full-time equivalents)
Government PhD 0 0 0 0.4 0.5 2.0 2.9
MSc 0 0 0.6 1.4 5.2 12.1 17.5
BSc 0 0.6 0.2 5.2 11.3 8.4 12.1
Subtotal 0 0.6 0.8 7.0 17.0 22.4 32.5
Expat 2.1 8.6 19.3 24.5 29.9 17.7 14.0
Total 2.1 9.2 20.1 31.5 46.9 40.1 46.5
Semi-public PhD 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
MSc 0 0 0 0 0 1.0 1.0
BSc 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Subtotal 0 0 0 0 0 1.0 1.0
Expat 0 0 0 0 0 1.0 1.0
Total 0 0 0 0 0 2.0 2.0
Academic PhD 0 0 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 1.7
MSc 0 0 0 0.2 0.5 1.2 1.5
Bsc 0 0 0 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.1
Subtotal 0 0 0 0.8 1.3 2.2 3.3
Expat 0 0 0 1.1 1.5 1.4 2.2
Total 0 0 0 1.9 2.8 3.6 5.4
Total PhD 0 0 0 0.6 0.8 2.6 4.6
Msc 0 0 0.6 1.6 5.8 14.3 19.9
Bsc 0 0.6 0.2 5.6 11.7 8.7 12.2
Subtotal 0 0.6 0.8 7.8 18.3 25.6 36.8
Expat 2.1 8.6 19.3 25.5 31.4 20.1 17.1
Total 2.1 9.2 20.1 33.4 49.7 45.6 53.9
Source: see appendix 6.
Staff Composition
Table 5 provides a detailed breakdown of DAR’s total staff. Unfortunately for our purposes,
most sources only reported researchers and technical support staff and omitted the other catego-
ries listed here. Only the data for 1983 are inclusive of all the staff categories identified in table
5, particularly the “other support staff” category (i.e., agricultural laborers, watchmen, and so
on).
8 Statistical Brief No.4: Botswana
Table 5: Staffing Structure of DAR
Staff category 1969 1970 1977 1980 1983 1984 1986 1988
(number of personnel)
Research 11 13 26 40 54 46 34 40
Technical
Diploma na na 13 21 33 32 na 46
Certificate na na 58 72 66 62 na 89
Subtotal 26 23 71 93 99 94 117 135
Administrative na na na 15 19 15 28 33
Other na na na na 328 na na na
Total na na na na 500 na na na
Source: 1969: 0175; 1970: 0532; 1977: 0307; 1980: 0104; 1983: 0235; 1984: 0017 & 0003; 1986: 0720; and 1988: 0966.
Between 1969 and 1984, the number of technical support staff per researcher at DAR ranged be-
tween 1.8 and 2.7. During this period, the ratio fluctuated considerably with no clear trend.
More recently, however, the number of technical support staff per researcher has grown rapidly
from 2.0 in 1984 to 3.4 in 1986 and 1988. In addition, the share of technical support staff holding
diplomas rose from 18% in 1977 to 34% in 1988. These data indicate that researchers were sup-
ported by more, as well as better trained, technical staff during the late 1980s compared with
earlier years.
Between 1980 and 1988, the number of administrative support staff more than doubled, while
the number of researchers remained virtually unchanged and real research expenditures de-
clined.
3.3 Financial Resources
Expenditures
Table 6 provides time-series data on the institutional structure of agricultural research expendi-
tures in Botswana. It shows the dominance of the government sector which, in 1991, accounted
for 88% of the expenditures on agricultural research. Academic research activities did not begin
until 1975, while research in the semi-public sector only began in 1986.
Table 6: Agricultural Research Expenditures
Institutional category 1961-65 1971-75 1981-85 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991
(millions 1985 PPP dollars per year)
Government 0.415 3.573 11.602 10.988 9.922 7.686 7.246 7.428 8.435
Semi-public 0 0 0 0.522 0.405 0.381 0.373 0.394 0.394
Academic 0 0 0.434 0.527 0.454 0.445 0.421 0.645 0.773
Total 0.415 3.573 12.036 12.037 10.781 8.512 8.040 8.467 9.603
Source: see appendix 6.
Statistical Brief No. 4: Botswana 9
Factor Mix
DAR’s research budget is divided into a “recurrent” and a “development” part. A breakdown of
DAR’s “recurrent budget” expenditures into various cost categories is presented in table 7. The
share of personnel expenditures (local and expatriates) and the corresponding share of operating
expenditures have been fairly stable since 1983. The drop in expatriate personnel costs in 1986
corresponds with an abrupt decline in the number of expatriate researchers in that year (see ap-
pendix 6). This sudden drop compounds the longer-run decline in expatriate researchers that fell
from a peak of 33 in 1983 to 12 in 1990. The data in table 7 exclude expenditures incurred as part
of DAR’s development budget. Although it may be assumed that a large part of the development
budget is spent on capital goods, no detailed information is available to us. However, according
to ISNAR (1990), DAR’s development budget represented about 25% of the department’s total
budget for the years 1983-87 but decreased to less than 2% as of 1988/89. One may assume that
capital investments have similarly declined during this period.
Table 7: Breakdown of “Recurrent Budget” Expenditures by Cost Category
Cost category 1983 1984 1985 1986 1988 1989 1990
(percentages)
Personnel (local) 36.9 37.2 36.8 34.4 43.8 46.8 47.2
Personnel (expat) 32.2 27.1 26.9 19.4 20.4 18.4 14.7
Operating 30.9 35.7 36.2 46.1 35.7 34.8 38.1
Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
Source: 0003, 0017, 0720, and 0954.
Source of Funds
Very little quantitative information is available on donor support for agricultural research in
Botswana. The few scattered observations that are available for DAR indicate that 56% of the
department’s total expenditures in 1966 were foreign- (i.e., donor-) sourced, 57% in 1971, 38%
in 1984, and 21% in 1988. These percentages include salaries and supplements for expatriate re-
searchers paid directly by donors. Since 1988 donor funds have been mainly used to pay for the
costs of expatriate staff, with little external assistance being used to purchase capital items.
3.4 Research Focus
In 1991, agricultural researchers in Botswana spent approximately 34% of their time on crop re-
search, 30% on livestock research, 5% on forestry research, 14% on natural resources, and 17%
on other activities. The number of livestock researchers at DAR increased substantially in re-
cent years. Although the share of FTE researchers identified in table 8 has become more congru-
ent with each sector’s respective share of the total value of agricultural output, it is still the case
that livestock products account for 80% of the value of output while less than a third of the re-
search is directly targeted to this sector.
10 Statistical Brief No.4: Botswana
Table 8: Research Focus, 1991
Research focus DAR NVL FRP NIR DB DES Total
FTE Share
(full-time equivalents) %
Crop 17.8 0 0 0 0.4 0 18.2 33.8
Livestock 15.2 1.0 0 0 0 0 16.2 30.0
Forestry 0 0 2.0 0.5 0.4 0 2.9 5.4
Fisheries 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Natural 3.6 0 0 1.5 0.8 1.8 7.7 14.2
resources
Other 8.9 0 0 0 0 0 8.9 16.6
Total 45.5 1.0 2.0 2.0 1.6 1.8 53.9 100
Source: 0966 and 1019.
Note: The “natural resources” and “other” categories include research that could not otherwise be allocated to a specific
commodity or commodity group. The natural resources category refers to unallocatable soils, land use, and water research.
Statistical Brief No. 4: Botswana 11
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Statistical Brief No. 4: Botswana 15
Appendix 1: Country background information
Economy (values reported in 1985 PPP dollars)
Gross Domestic Product (1991): 5,133 million dollars
Per capita GDP (1991): 3,891 dollars
NGAMILAND CHOBE
Agricultural GDP (1991): 353 million dollars
Share of agriculture in GDP (1991): 6.9%
Annual growth rates (1981-90)a
GDP: 9.9%
GDP per capita: 6.2%
NORTH EAST
AgGDP: 3.7%
GHANZI CENTRAL
Trade (values reported in current dollars)
KWENENG Net surplus total trade (1991): -158 million dollars
KGALAGADI KGATLENG Net surplus agricultural trade (1991): -77 million dol-
NGWAKETSE lars
▼ Gaborone Percentage of agricultural imports in total imports:
8.8%
Percentage of agricultural exports in total exports:
SOUTH EAST 5.3%
Major agricultural import commodities (1991)b: re-
fined sugar (26%), fresh milk (9%), and rice (7%)
Major agricultural export commodities (1991)b: beef
& veal (82%), animal fats (10%), and other prepared
meat (4%)
Geography
Agriculture
Area: 58.2 million ha
Location: Land-locked country in the central part of Agricultural land (1990): 34.4 million ha
southern Africa, bordered by Zimbabwe to the north- Annual growth rate (1981-90)a: 0.0%
east, Namibia to the north and west, Zambia to the Percentage arable: 4.0%
north, along a very short stretch of the Zambezi river, Percentage permanent crop: 0.0%
and South Africa to the south and southwest. Percentage permanent pastures: 96.0%
Percentage irrigated arable and permanent cropland:
Agroecological features: Botswana is mainly a flat 0.1%
country at 1,000 m, except in the southeast, where the
terrain is broken and hilly. A plateau, running Economically active agricultural population (1991):
north-south, divides the country into two distinct re- 0.3 million
gions: in the east, hilly grasslands (veld) traversed by Annual growth rate (1981-90)a: 1.7%
ephemeral watercourses, and in the west the Percentage in total economically active population:
Okavango swamps and the Kalahari desert. The 62.2%
Kalahari is largely a semi-desert with grass and acacia
thorn scrub, and only in the southwest, where there Fertilizer use per ha arable land (1990): 0.7 kg
are sand dunes do true desert conditions prevail. Annual growth rate (1981-90)a: -6.7%
Much of the country has a subtropical climate though
it has continental extremes. During the winter temper- Major crops (in order of importance): sorghum, cot-
atures may drop below 0NC. Rainfall is unreliable. ton lint, maize, and seed cotton
The annual mean is 460 mm, most falling from De-
cember to April, varying from 600 mm in the north to
less than 300 mm in the east and southwest.
Population
Total (1991): 1.3 million Source: Europa Publications (1992), FAO (1993), and World Bank
Annual growth rate (1981-90)a: 3.5% (1992).
a
Literacy (1990): 73.6% Least squares growth rate.
b
Life expectancy (1991): 68 years Bracketed percentages represent value share of the respective to-
tal.
16 Statistical Brief No. 4: Botswana
Appendix 2: Definitions and concepts
NARS filled for the whole year; or (c) if the position explic-
itly involved tasks other than agricultural research. In
The construction of quantitative and internationally the latter case an estimate was made of the time spent
comparable expenditure, personnel, and related mea- on agricultural research. No adjustments were made,
sures of a national agricultural research system however, for vacation or sick leave nor for time spent
(NARS) requires a precise idea of what, in fact, is be- on administration, meetings, travel or other activities
ing measured. Since the term NARS is subject to a va- that form part of the normal duties required to support
riety of interpretations, it is necessary to define rather a research endeavor. Following this line of reasoning,
precisely the NARS concept used here. Our approach professional staff in management positions were clas-
adheres, wherever possible, to the internationally ac- sified as researchers.
cepted statistical procedures and definitions devel-
oped by the OECD and UNESCO for compiling R&D The degree status of researchers is determined on the
statistics (OECD 1981 and UNESCO 1984). For sta- following basis: 3-4 years full-time university educa-
tistical purposes a NARS is defined in terms of the tion (BSc), 5-6 years (MSc), and more than 6 years
following characteristics: plus doctorate thesis (PhD).
(a) National. The concept of a “national” system used Expatriate Researcher Costs
in this report refers to domestically targeted research
activities funded and/or executed by the public sector Many expatriate researchers working on do-
of a particular country. A relatively broad concept of nor-supported projects in NARSs are paid their sala-
the public sector is taken to include government, ries and living expenses directly by the donor agency.
semi-public, and academic research institutes. How- All (or some substantial fraction) of these costs do not
ever, private, for-profit research as well as the re- get included in the financial reports of the agricultural
search activities of supranational research agencies research organizations. To calculate these implicit
that are not executed through national institutes are costs we took the average cost per researcher in 1985
excluded. Also excluded is research undertaken by to be 120,000 “1985 PPP dollars” and backcast this
short-term development projects. figure using the rate of change in real personnel costs
per FTE researcher in the US state agricultural experi-
(b) Agricultural. Agricultural research, as defined ment station system. This extrapolation procedure
here, includes crop, livestock, forestry, and fisheries makes the assumption that the personnel-cost trend
research, as well as research on agricultural inputs, for US researchers is a reasonable proxy of the trend
the natural resource base, and socio-economic aspects in real costs of internationally recruited staff working
of primary agricultural production. It excludes, where in NARSs. Unless otherwise stated, FTE expatriate
possible, research concerning the off-farm storage researchers were costed at $80,000 “1985 PPP dol-
and processing of agricultural products, commonly lars” per researcher for the 1961-65 period, $85,000
referred to as post-harvest research and per researcher for 1966-70, $90,000 per researcher
food-processing research. This delineation corre- for 1971-75, $110,000 per researcher for 1976-80,
sponds with the national accounts definition of the ag- and $120,000 per researcher for 1981-91.
ricultural sector.
Deflators and Exchange Rates
(c) Research. Research is often performed in conjunc-
tion with other activities such as extension, education, All expenditure figures were first compiled in current
and production. To the extent possible, research ac- local currency units (appendix 5). In order to facilitate
tivities (in terms of expenditures and staff) are differ- comparisons over time and across countries these fig-
entiated from these other activities. However, if ures are deflated with a local GDP deflator to base
non-research activities were an integral part of an in- year 1985, and then converted to a common currency
stitute’s research activities and accounted for less (US dollars) using the 1985 purchasing power parity
than 20% of the resources of the institute, it was expe- (PPP) over GDP. PPPs are synthetic exchange rates
dient to classify all the activities of the institute as be- that attempt to reflect the purchasing power of a coun-
ing research-related. try’s currency. The PPPs used here are derived from
the Penn World Table (Mark 5), which is based on the
Full-Time Equivalent (FTE) benchmark studies of the International Comparison
Project (Summers and Heston 1991). For additional
A full-time equivalent researcher year is taken to be a information on currency conversion methods in this
person who holds a full-time position as a researcher context see Pardey, Roseboom, and Craig (1992).
during the whole year. Adjustments to full-time
equivalents have only been made when: (a) a research
position was part-time; (b) a research position was not
Statistical Brief No. 4: Botswana 17
Nomenclature for tables in text
A zero indicates an actual observation of zero, a dash
indicates an observation is not relevant (due to institu-
tional mergers, closures, and so on), while “na” indi-
cates an observation that is not available.
In the text we note any marked deviations from these
data compilation norms and include points of clarifi-
cation if warranted.
18 Statistical Brief No. 4: Botswana
Appendix 3: Organizational charts of the agricultural research institutes
Department of Agricultural Research (1991)
Ministry of Agriculture
Department of Agricultural Research
Division of
Division of Animal Production Services
Arable Research and Range Research
National Veterinary Laboratory (1991)
Ministry of Agriculture
Department of Animal Production
and Health
National Veterinary Other activities
Laboratory
University of Botswana (1991)
University of Bostwana
Faculty of Science Faculty of Faculty of Faculty of
Social Science Humanities Education
Department of Biology
Department of Environmental Science
National Institute of
Development Research and Documentation
Documentation Educational National Health and Rural
Unit Research Unit Resources Unit Nutrition Unit Development Unit
Statistical Brief No. 4: Botswana 19
Appendix 4: Addresses of the agricultural research institutes
Director Dean
Department of Agricultural Research Faculty of Science
Ministry of Agriculture University of Botswana
Private Bag 0033 Private Bag 0022
Gaborone Gaborone
BOTSWANA BOTSWANA
Principal Veterinary Officer Director
National Veterinary Laboratory National Institute of Development Research and Doc-
Department of Animal Health umentation
Ministry of Agriculture University of Botswana
Private Bag 0035 Private Bag 0022
Gaborone Gaborone
BOTSWANA BOTSWANA
Principal Director
Botswana Agricultural College Forestry Research Program
Private Bag 0027 Forestry Association of Botswana
Gaborone P.O. Box 2088
BOTSWANA Gaborone
BOTSWANA
20 Statistical Brief No. 4: Botswana
Statistical Brief No. 4: Botswana 21
Appendix 5a: Researcher totals, 1961-91
Total Number of FTE Researchers
Category Name institute 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976
Government DAR 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 5.0 7.0 9.0 11.0 13.0 16.0 18.0 20.0 22.0 23.3 24.7
NVL 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2
Semi-public FRP
Academic BAC 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
NIR
DB
DES
TOTAL 1.0 1.6 2.1 2.7 3.2 5.2 7.2 9.2 11.2 13.2 16.3 18.2 20.2 22.2 23.5 24.8
Source 286 175 532 279 244
Category Name institute 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992
Government DAR 26.0 30.7 35.3 40.0 44.0 48.0 54.0 46.0 41.0 34.0 43.0 40.0 40.0 40.0 45.5 51.0
NVL 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.6 0.8 0.8 0.9 1.0
Semi-public FRP 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0
Academic BAC 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
NIR 2.0 1.7 1.3 1.0 1.4 1.8 1.8 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 2.0 2.0
DB 0.4 0.8 0.6 0.5 0.8 0.8 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 0.8 1.2 1.6
DES 0.4 0.6 0.6 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.8 0.9 1.1 1.4 1.8
TOTAL 27.0 34.2 38.3 42.5 46.5 50.8 57.2 49.4 44.3 39.5 48.9 46.2 46.2 47.6 53.8
Source 243 1000 104 1000 17 235 3 968 720 965 966 999 954 999 1108
1000 242 1000 999 976 999 999 1000 999 1000
1000 999 1000
Note: Italicized figures represent data that are either constructed or interpolated.
22 Statistical Brief No. 4: Botswana
Appendix 5b: Expenditure totals, 1961-91
Total Research Expenditures Currency: million Pula
Category Name institute 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976
Government DAR 0.019 0.030 0.043 0.057 0.075 0.135 0.167 0.195 0.204 0.339 0.390 0.437 0.626 0.996 0.714 1.013
NVL 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005 0.006 0.006 0.005 0.005 0.007 0.008 0.007 0.007 0.007 0.005 0.007
Semi-public FRP
Academic BAC 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
NIR
DB
DES
Total (current LCU) 0.020 0.032 0.045 0.061 0.080 0.140 0.172 0.200 0.209 0.346 0.399 0.443 0.633 1.004 0.720 1.020
GDP deflator (1985=100) 18.0 18.2 18.4 18.9 19.7 20.4 20.6 21.1 21.4 22.4 24.6 24.7 29.4 30.4 36.2 41.4
Total (constant 1985 Pulas) 0.110 0.175 0.246 0.323 0.405 0.689 0.834 0.950 0.973 1.543 1.622 1.796 2.150 3.297 1.988 2.464
Total (constant 1985 PPP dollars) 0.181 0.288 0.405 0.531 0.667 1.134 1.373 1.563 1.602 2.540 2.670 2.957 3.538 5.426 3.273 4.056
Expat costs included in the total
(constant 1985 PPP dollars) 0.028 0.042 0.057 0.071 0.085 0.141 0.193 0.307 0.379 0.379 0.494 0.572 0.650 0.728 0.828 1.135
Source 10 589 10 17 17 17 17 17 17 17
Category Name institute 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992
Government DAR 1.233 1.554 2.233 3.912 4.497 5.537 5.145 5.885 6.561 8.127 7.924 7.163 8.584 9.310 11.127
NVL 0.008 0.007 0.008 0.011 0.017 0.027 0.027 0.036 0.060 0.081 0.105 0.125 0.156 0.211 0.232
FRP 0.390 0.328 0.361 0.450 0.506 0.531
Academic BAC 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
NIR 0.056 0.058 0.055 0.042 0.053 0.073 0.079 0.086 0.083 0.085 0.091 0.096 0.182 0.174
DB 0.014 0.036 0.038 0.047 0.077 0.085 0.066 0.073 0.103 0.160 0.146 0.173 0.159 0.275 0.389
DES 0.018 0.027 0.032 0.048 0.046 0.057 0.049 0.062 0.098 0.150 0.135 0.158 0.253 0.369 0.478
Total (current Pula) 1.273 1.681 2.370 4.072 4.679 5.759 5.360 6.135 6.909 8.992 8.724 8.071 9.697 10.853 12.931
GDP deflator (1985=100) 46.6 46.0 57.5 68.5 71.1 68.1 75.3 81.8 100.0 123.0 133.2 156.1 198.5 211.0 221.6
Total (constant 1985 Pulas) 2.731 3.657 4.121 5.945 6.578 8.459 7.115 7.501 6.909 7.313 6.550 5.171 4.885 5.144 5.834
Total (constant 1985 PPP dollars) 4.495 6.019 6.783 9.784 10.828 13.923 11.710 12.346 11.371 12.037 10.781 8.512 8.040 8.467 9.603
Expat costs included in the total
1.585 1.882 2.054 2.232 2.549 2.701 2.851 2.515 2.484 1.866 2.184 1.735 1.510 1.343 1.505
(constant 1985 PPP dollars)
Source 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 3 720 720 720 954 954 954
720 720 954 954 954
Note: Figures in italics have been constructed.
Statistical Brief No. 4: Botswana 23
Appendix 6: Research staff development by institute
Department of Agricultural Research
1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976
Nationals
PhD 0
MSc 1
BSc 0
Subtotal 0 0 0 0 0 0.2 0.5 0.8 1 0.5 0 0.3 0.7 1 2.0 3.0
Expatriates 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3 4.8 6.5 8.2 10 12.5 16 17.7 19.3 21 21.3 21.7
Total 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3 5.0 7.0 9.0 11 13 16 18.0 20.0 22 23.3 24.7
Sources: 286 175 532 279 244
1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992
Nationals
PhD 0 1 0 0 1 1 2 2
MSc 1 2 7 7 4 8 11 12
BSc 3 9 14 10 10 6 7 8
Subtotal 4 6.7 9.3 12 14.5 17.2 21 17 15 15 20 22 25 28 31.8
Expatriates 22 24.0 26.0 28 29.5 30.8 33 29 26 19 23 18 15 12 13.6
Total 26 30.7 35.3 40 44 48 54 46 41 34 43 40 40 40 45.5 51
Sources: 243 104 17 235 3 968 720 965 966 954 1108
National Veterinary Laboratory
1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976
Nationals
PhD
MSc
BSc
Subtotal 0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Expatriates 1 1.8 2.5 3.2 4 4.2 4.4 4.6 4.8 5 6 5 4 3 3 3
Total 1 1.8 2.5 3.2 4 4.2 4.4 4.6 4.8 5 6 5 4 3 3 3
FTE researchers 0.05 0.09 0.12 0.16 0.20 0.21 0.22 0.23 0.24 0.25 0.30 0.25 0.20 0.15 0.15 0.15
Sources: 286 532 279 244
1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992
Nationals
PhD 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
MSc 1 2 2 2 2 2 2
BSc 1 1 5 8 8 10 11
Subtotal 0 0 0 0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2 3 7 10 10 12 13
Expatriates 3 2.7 2.3 2 2.8 3.6 4.4 5.2 6 5 6 5 5 6 6
Total 3 2.7 2.3 2 3.2 4.4 5.6 6.8 8 8 13 15 15 18 19
FTE researchers 0.15 0.13 0.12 0.10 0.16 0.22 0.28 0.34 0.40 0.40 0.65 0.75 0.75 0.90 0.95
Sources: 243 242 999 999 999 999 999 999 999
24 Statistical Brief No. 4: Botswana
Appendix 6: Research staff development by institute (contd.)
Department of Agricultural Research
1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976
Nationals
PhD 0
MSc 1
BSc 0
Subtotal 0 0 0 0 0 0.2 0.5 0.8 1 0.5 0 0.3 0.7 1 2.0 3.0
Expatriates 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3 4.8 6.5 8.2 10 12.5 16 17.7 19.3 21 21.3 21.7
Total 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3 5.0 7.0 9.0 11 13 16 18.0 20.0 22 23.3 24.7
Sources: 286 175 532 279 244
1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992
Nationals
PhD 0 1 0 0 1 1 2 2
MSc 1 2 7 7 4 8 11 12
BSc 3 9 14 10 10 6 7 8
Subtotal 4 6.7 9.3 12 14.5 17.2 21 17 15 15 20 22 25 28 31.8
Expatriates 22 24.0 26.0 28 29.5 30.8 33 29 26 19 23 18 15 12 13.6
Total 26 30.7 35.3 40 44 48 54 46 41 34 43 40 40 40 45.5 51
Sources: 243 104 17 235 3 968 720 965 966 954 1108
National Veterinary Laboratory
1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976
Nationals
PhD
MSc
BSc
Subtotal 0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Expatriates 1 1.8 2.5 3.2 4 4.2 4.4 4.6 4.8 5 6 5 4 3 3 3
Total 1 1.8 2.5 3.2 4 4.2 4.4 4.6 4.8 5 6 5 4 3 3 3
FTE researchers 0.05 0.09 0.12 0.16 0.20 0.21 0.22 0.23 0.24 0.25 0.30 0.25 0.20 0.15 0.15 0.15
Sources: 286 532 279 244
1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992
Nationals
PhD 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
MSc 1 2 2 2 2 2 2
BSc 1 1 5 8 8 10 11
Subtotal 0 0 0 0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2 3 7 10 10 12 13
Expatriates 3 2.7 2.3 2 2.8 3.6 4.4 5.2 6 5 6 5 5 6 6
Total 3 2.7 2.3 2 3.2 4.4 5.6 6.8 8 8 13 15 15 18 19
FTE researchers 0.15 0.13 0.12 0.10 0.16 0.22 0.28 0.34 0.40 0.40 0.65 0.75 0.75 0.90 0.95
Sources: 243 242 999 999 999 999 999 999 999
Statistical Brief No. 4: Botswana 25
Appendix 6: Research staff development by institute (contd.)
Department of Environmental Science, Faculty of Science, University of Botswana
1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992
Nationals
PhD 0 0 0.7 1.3 2 1.5 1 1.0 1 1.3 1.7 2 2 3.0 4
MSc 1 1 0.7 0.3 0 0.0 0 0.5 1 1.7 2.3 3 3 4.0 5
BSc 0 2 1.7 1.3 1 0.5 0 0.5 1 0.7 0.3 0 0 0.0 0
Subtotal 1 3 3.0 3.0 3 2.0 1 2.0 3 3.7 4.3 5 5 7.0 9
Expatriates 3 3 2.7 2.3 2 3.0 4 4.0 4 4.0 4.0 4 6 7.5 9
Total 4 6 5.7 5.3 5 5.0 5 6.0 7 7.7 8.3 9 11 14.5 18
FTE Researchers 0.40 0.60 0.57 0.53 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.77 0.83 0.90 1.10 1.45 1.80
Sources: 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000
Note: Previously the Department of Geography. The percentage of faculty time spent on research has been estiamted at 10%.

Other statistical briefs published in this series are:
1. Statistical Brief on the National Agricultural Research System of Rwanda, September 1993, by J.
Roseboom and P.G. Pardey.
2.* Statistical Brief on the National Agricultural Research System of Niger, September 1993, by V. Mazzucato
and S. Ly.
3. Statistical Brief on the National Agricultural Research System of Malawi, September 1993, by J. Roseboom
and P.G. Pardey.
4. Statistical Brief on the National Agricultural Research System of Botswana, September 1993, by J.
Roseboom and P.G. Pardey.
5. Statistical Brief on the National Agricultural Research System of Kenya, November 1993, by J. Roseboom
and P.G. Pardey.
6. Statistical Brief on the National Agricultural Research System of Colombia, December 1993, by C.A.
Falconi and P.G. Pardey.
7. Statistical Brief on the National Agricultural Research System of Ethiopia, April 1994, by J. Roseboom, N.
Beintema, and P.G. Pardey.
8. Statistical Brief on the National Agricultural Research System of Ghana, April 1994, by J. Roseboom and
P.G. Pardey.
9.* Statistical Brief on the National Agricultural Research System of Burkina Faso, April 1994, by V.
Mazzucato.
10.* Statistical Brief on the National Agricultural Research System of Senegal, April 1994, by V. Mazzucato and
M.E.H. Ly.
11.* Statistical Brief on the National Agricultural Research System of Mali, April 1994, by V. Mazzucato.
12.* Statistical Brief on the National Agricultural Research System of Madagascar, June 1994, by J. Roseboom
and P.G. Pardey.
13. Statistical Brief on the National Agricultural Research System of Namibia, September 1994, by N.M.
Beintema, P.G. Pardey, and J. Roseboom.
14. Statistical Brief on the National Agricultural Research System of Cape Verde, December 1994, by N.M.
Beintema, P.G. Pardey, and J. Roseboom.
15. Statistical Brief on the National Agricultural Research System of Nigeria, December 1994, by J. Roseboom,
N.M. Beintema, P.G. Pardey, and E.O. Oyedipe.
16.* Statistical Brief on the National Agricultural Research System of Côte d’Ivoire, December 1994, by J.
Roseboom and P.G. Pardey.
17. Statistical Brief on the National Agricultural Research System of Mauritius, January 1995, by N.M.
Beintema, P.G. Pardey, and J. Roseboom.
18. Statistical Brief on the National Agricultural Research System of Lesotho, January 1995, by N.M.
Beintema, P.G. Pardey, and J. Roseboom.
19. Statistical Brief on the National Agricultural Research System of Swaziland, February 1995, by N.M.
Beintema, P.G. Pardey, and J. Roseboom.
20. Statistical Brief on the National Agricultural Research System of Zimbabwe, March 1995, by J. Roseboom,
P.G. Pardey, N.M. Beintema, and G.D. Mudimu.
21. Statistical Brief on the National Agricultural Research System of Zambia, August 1995, by J. Roseboom
and P.G. Pardey.
22. Statistical Brief on the National Agricultural Research System of Sudan, August 1995, by N.M Beintema,
P.G. Pardey, and J. Roseboom.
23. Statistical Brief on the National Agricultural Research System of South Africa, September 1995, by J.
Roseboom, P.G. Pardey, H. Satorius von Bach, and J. van Zyl.
24. Statistical Brief on the National Agricultural Research System of Togo, May 1996, by N.M. Beintema, P.G.
Pardey, and J. Roseboom.
* Also available in French.