Research Note CGIAR i Coconut’s Circular Potential for Sustainable Bioproducts: Insights from Ghana’s Value Chain Andoh Amponsah, Eric G. Nartey, Shweta Yadav, Solomie Gebrezgabher and Tosin Somorin December 2025 1 Authors Andoh Amponsah, Consultant, International Water Management Institute (IWMI), Accra, Ghana Eric G. Nartey, National Researcher, IWMI, Accra, Ghana Shweta Yadav, National Researcher, Water Quality and Waste Management, IWMI, India Solomie Gebrezgabher, Senior Researcher, Economics, IWMI, Accra, Ghana Tosin Somorin, Researcher, Circular Economy and Waste Management, IWMI, Accra, Ghana Acknowledgments This work was carried out under the CGIAR Multifunctional Landscapes Program. We would like to thank all funders who support this research through their contributions to the CGIAR Trust Fund (www.cgiar.org/funders). We also acknowledge the valuable contributions from Desmond Ayertey in gathering data and fieldwork. CGIAR Multifunctional Landscapes Program Multifunctional Landscapes is a CGIAR Science Program that aims to enhance the resilience, productivity, and sustainability of agricultural landscapes by integrating diverse land uses, ecosystem services, and livelihood strategies. The initiative supports evidence-based policies and innovations that balance food production with climate adaptation, biodiversity conservation, and social inclusion. By working with local communities, governments, and partners, it promotes landscape-level approaches to managing natural resources for long-term ecological and economic benefits. To learn more about the CGIAR Research Portfolio, please visit www.cgiar.org/cgiar-researchportfolio-2025-2030/ Citation Amponsah, A.; Nartey, E. G.; Yadav, S.; Gebrezgabher, S.; Somorin, T. 2025. Coconut’s circular potential for sustainable bioproducts: insights from Ghana’s value chain. Colombo, Sri Lanka: International Water Management Institute (IWMI). CGIAR Multifunctional Landscapes Program. 22p. © 2025 International Water Management Institute. Some rights reserved. This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (CC BY 4.0). Front cover photo: Izzy Poilly (Pexels) Back cover photo: Pok Rie (Pexels) Designer: Tosin Somorin Disclaimer Responsibility for editing, proofreading, layout, opinions expressed, and any possible errors lies with the authors and not the institutions involved. Boundaries used in the maps do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of CGIAR concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city, or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. Borders are approximate and cover some areas for which there may not yet be full agreement. Coconut’s Circular Potential for Sustainable Bioproducts PAGE 2 of 22 Contents 4 5 1. BACKGROUND 2. GLOBAL AND LOCAL PRODUCTION 3. COCONUT VALUE CHAINS 6 6 7 3.1. 3.2. 3.3. Crop Cultivation Dehusking and Deshelling Kernel Processing 7 4. RESIDUAL BIOMASS CHARACTERIZATION AND USES 8 Coconut Trunk 8 8 4.1. 4.2. 4.3. Coconut Shell Coconut Husk 8 5. COCONUT CULTIVATION AND RESIDUE MANAGEMENT IN GHANA 11 11 5.1. Survey and Site Visit Methods 5.2.1. Farm Characteristics, Farmer Profile and Land Tenure System 14 5.2.2. Planting Spacing and Crop Age 14 5.2.3. Farm and Water Management Practices 15 5.2.4. Residue Generation and Handling 15 6. FACTORS INFLUENCING WASTE GENERATION 18 18 18 6.1. 6.2. 6.3. Environmental and Agronomic Factors Technological and Infrastructure Constraints Economic and Market Factors 18 19 7. CONCLUSION REFERENCES 20 Coconut’s Circular Potential for Sustainable Bioproducts PAGE 3 of 22 5.2. Field Survey Results 5.1.1. Farm Survey 11 5.1.2. Urban Site Visits in Accra 14 13 5.3.1. Aggregation Point 1 16 5.3.2. Aggregation Point 2 16 5.3.3. Aggregation Point 3 16 5.3. Coconut Residues in Urban Centres 16 1. BACKGROUND Coconuts hold significant importance in tropical regions, serving multiple essential functions (Vieira et al., 2024). Economically, coconuts provide income and employment opportunities in farming, processing, and food industries. Culturally, coconuts are deeply rooted in many traditional practices: they are prominent in ceremonies, religious rituals, and local cuisines, symbolizing hospitality and prosperity. In many coastal societies, the tree and its products carry substantial cultural and artisanal value, reflecting the heritage and identity of farming communities. Ecologically, coconut palms help stabilize and strengthen tropical landscapes. They prevent soil erosion, improve microclimates, and provide habitat for other plant and animal species. Even decomposing fallen leaves and shells can enrich soils, sustaining biodiversity and nutrient cycling (Obeng et al., 2020). The global significance of coconuts goes far beyond these roles. The crop yields a wide array of primary and secondary bio-products, from edible kernels and oil to coir, husks, and shells, supporting industries such as cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, and textiles. The lignocellulosic makeup of coconut residues makes them valuable for producing bioenergy, organic fertilizers, compost, and biodegradable materials. However, despite robust market growth and increasing demand for plant-based, ecofriendly products, the sector faces systemic inefficiencies in waste utilization. Ghana exemplifies this situation: coconut farming is a key part of the rural coastal economy, supporting livelihoods in the Western, Central, and Volta Regions; yet the potential of residual biomass remains largely untapped. Empirical evidence indicates that over 50% of the harvested biomass remains underused or discarded in traditional processing methods (Vieira et al., 2024; Obeng et al., 2020). This report explores how circular bioeconomy strategies can improve the use of coconut residues. It uses Ghana as a case study to highlight the contextual challenges and opportunities for developing a sustainable value chain, providing evidence to support the design of integrated waste-to-resource systems that can create green jobs, reduce environmental pressures, and foster circular tropical agriculture. Photo Credit: Ram Naresh | Pexels Coconut’s Circular Potential for Sustainable Bioproducts PAGE 4 of 22 CGIAR Ghana's coconut production is predominant along the southwestern coast, with approximately 80% of the output originating from the Western and Central regions. Other significant coconut-growing areas include the Volta, Eastern, and Ashanti regions. This vital sector employs around 1.8 million people, serving as an essential source of livelihood for many coastal communities (Honlah et al., 2024). In 2022, Ghana's coconut exports generated about $15 billion, and projections suggest this figure could reach $25.3 billion by 2029. Yields vary based on location and environmental conditions, ranging from 2,500 to 7,600 nuts per hectare, with planting densities of 140 − 200 palms per hectare (Osei-Bonsu et al., 2002). Coconuts are widely eaten raw in Ghana, enjoyed as refreshing coconut water or fresh meat. Mature coconuts are also used to make toffees and oil and are often paired with a local snack called Bankye Kaklo in Twi or Agbeli Kaklo in Ewe, made from cassava or yuca (Honlah et al., 2024). However, after removing the edible parts, the remaining waste, such as fresh husks and shells, is typically discarded or burned, leading to avoidable biomass losses. This practice limits the potential to reuse these materials for diverse local and industrial use representing a missed opportunity for a circular bioeconomy. Figure 1: 2022 map of coconut production by country, with top ten list of coconut-producing countries Source: Statista, 2025 2. GLOBAL AND LOCAL PRODUCTION Global coconut production continues to be a key part of agriculture. Asia dominates the global market, accounting for over 75% of total output (Statista, 2025). In 2022, Indonesia produced about 17 million metric tonnes, followed by the Philippines with 15 million metric tonnes and India with 13 million metric tonnes (Figure 1, Statista, 2025). Other significant producers include Sri Lanka, Vietnam, and Papua New Guinea, which collectively sustain millions of smallholder livelihoods and contribute to international trade (Figure 1). In Africa, coconut farming is steadily increasing, especially in coastal regions where it serves as both a commercial crop and a livelihood source. Ghana is the leading producer in Africa, yielding over 350,000 metric tonnes each year. In 2021, its output was about 507,255 metric tonnes, accounting for roughly 17% of the continent’s total. Tanzania and Mozambique follow closely, producing 458,925 and 440,800 metric tonnes, respectively (SME Blue Pages, 2023). Collectively, these three countries are responsible for more than half of Africa’s coconut production. Coconut’s Circular Potential for Sustainable Bioproducts PAGE 5 of 22 CGIAR Figure 2: Development cycle of coconut and residual biomass during harvesting and processing. (Source: Authors, illustrated by Amissah Klinsman) Propagation Sprout Seedling Mesocarp Testa Solid Endosperm Liquid Endosperm Trunk Endocarp Fronds (Fibrous Husk) (Brown Paring) (White meat) (Hard shell) (Water) Tree with flowers Maturity Waste is generated at different stages of coconut cultivation, beginning with routine field operations and harvesting activities (Figure 2). During the cultivation stage, agricultural tasks such as pruning generate substantial quantities of biomass, including fronds, fallen nuts, and senescent leaves. Although these residues are suitable for bio-based materials and soil amendments, they are often left unused or burned in the field (Obeng et al., 2020). Harvesting coconuts also produces a large amount of waste, depending on the intended use and maturity of the coconuts. For example, mature nuts (about 12 months old) are gathered every 30 to 45 days for purposes such as seed propagation, copra production, and culinary use; however, poor handling and storage can lead to spoilage and attract pests. Tender nuts (7 to 8 months old) are mainly harvested for coconut water, and nearly mature nuts (around 11 months old) are favored for coir fiber extraction due to their strong husks. However, when harvesting is done manually, which is labor- intensive and time-consuming, it reduces operational efficiency, particularly during peak seasons, leading to processing delays, spoilage, and the accumulation of low-quality husks and biomass (Baffour-Awuah et al., 2022). 3.1. Crop Cultivation and Harvesting Coconut (Cocos nucifera L.), commonly called the “Tree of Life ” or “Tree of Wealth ” is part of the Palm family (Arecaceae). This highly valued, versatile perennial crop can produce fruit continuously for 60 to 70 years, providing 12 to 13 harvests annually and yielding between 30 and 75 coconuts each year (Bhat et al., 2024). Although the exact origin of the coconut is uncertain due to its long history of oceanic dispersal by currents and human migration, its adaptability to tropical climates and wide range of uses make it one of the most important crops in tropical coastal regions across Asia, Africa, and the Pacific. The tree thrives in equatorial climates with high humidity, with an average annual temperature of around 27 °C (with a diurnal variation of 5 to 7 °C), and steady rainfall ranging from 1300 to 2300 millimetres per year. A mature coconut palm can grow 15 to 30 m tall and typically has 30 to 40 pinnate leaves in its crown (Niral & Jerard, 2019). Crop growth and yield are affected by persistent challenges, including aging tree populations, climate-related stresses, and declining soil fertility. These factors collectively limit the long-term productivity and resilience of coconut farming systems. Coconut’s Circular Potential for Sustainable Bioproducts PAGE 6 of 22 CGIAR 3. COCONUT VALUE CHAIN The coconut value chain includes a wide range of activities, from seedling production and on-farm cultivation to diverse processing, product marketing, and byproduct recovery. Each stage offers significant opportunities for value addition. The following sub-sections briefly describe the key stages of the value chain, emphasizing where value can be created, and waste is produced. 3.2. De-husking and De-shelling In smallholder settings, coconuts are also typically processed manually after harvest, beginning with dehusking using an iron rod fixed into the ground. This method is labor- intensive and requires considerable skill. The process generates large volumes of fibrous husks and coir dust, with the husk making up about 47 – 50% of the fruit’s weight (Obeng et al., 2020). Once dehusked, the hard shell is cracked open to extract the kernel, producing additional solid waste, as the shell accounts for roughly 14 – 15% of the coconut’s weight. Together, husk and shell residues can represent up to 65% of the total fruit mass. According to CERATH (2022), up to 30% of shells in rural Ghana go unused due to transportation challenges and limited market access, while 40 – 60% of husks remain unprocessed because decorticating machines are costly and largely inaccessible to smallholders (Doe et al., 2023). These inefficiencies highlight both the scale of underutilized biomass in the coconut value chain and the need for affordable technologies and local aggregation systems to enable resource recovery and reuse. 3.3. Kernel Processing The kernel processing stage also contributes significantly to the organic load in coconut value chains. After dehusking and shell removal, the kernel is processed to produce oil, milk, or for direct consumption. During this process, coconut water may be collected for reuse or left unused, while oil extraction generates kernel cake, which can be used as animal feed. However, local oversupply often leads to the underuse of this by-product (Pipatpaitoon & Paraksa, 2021). In many regions, kernels are first dried to produce copra before oil extraction. This process can result in 5 – 10% losses due to mold growth and uneven drying (Deepa et al., 2015). Furthermore, oil refining generates spent bleaching earth, a residue rich in oil that poses environmental and handling challenges if not properly managed (Mohanty et al., 2021). These highlight the need for improved waste recovery systems to reduce losses. Photo Credit: Izzy Poilly (Pexels) Coconut’s Circular Potential for Sustainable Bioproducts PAGE 7 of 22 CGIAR 4.2. Coconut Trunk The trunk is cylindrical and tapers toward the top, with no branches except for the crown of leaves. It has a rough, fibrous outer bark and a denser inner core. Unlike dicot trees, coconut trunks lack true secondary growth and instead have a uniform distribution of vascular bundles throughout the cross-section (Fathi, 2014). The chemical composition of the coconut trunk includes 30 – 40% cellulose, 20 – 30% hemicellulose, 20 – 35% lignin, 2 – 10% extractives, and 1 – 3% ash content (Anuchi et al., 2022). This composition varies with the age and height of the trunk, affecting its mechanical properties and applications. As a biomass resource, coconut trunks are rich in lignocellulosic material, making them suitable for biofuel production and industrial uses such as paper and pulp manufacturing (Borrero-López et al., 2022). The trunk is widely used in crafts, utensils, furniture, and other household items. Additionally, timber trunks are used in construction and flooring materials to promote the clearing of aging plantations and replanting (Pardi, 2011). 4.3. Coconut Shell Coconut shell is widely recognized for its potential in both industrial and environmental applications. It contains notable amounts of lignin, cellulose, and hemicellulose (Liu et al., 2022). The lignin content is high, typically between 30 and 50%, while the cellulose and hemicellulose fractions are lower compared to other parts of the coconut (Table 1). Elementally, the biomass typically contains 6 – 10% moisture, 0 – 2% ash, 72 – 77% volatile matter, and 15 – 23% fixed carbon (Ajien et al., 2023). More so, coconut shell is characterized by a high density and exceptional hardness, which contribute to strong mechanical properties. It has high compressive strength and abrasion resistance, making it suitable as a reinforcing filler in composite materials and abrasive applications. Its structural integrity and resistance to mechanical degradation also support its use in manufacturing durable products, such as activated carbon, where the high fixed carbon content and porous structure are especially beneficial. Additionally, it has a high density (412 kg/m3), low moisture and ash content, and a high calorific value (19 MJ/kg) (Elsisi et al., 2023). 4. RESIDUAL BIOMASS CHARACTERISATION AND USES The coconut value chain generates a variety of residues at different stages. During cultivation, the main residues include fronds and trunks, while processing stages produce large quantities of husks, shells, and residual coconut fibre (Figure 3). These residues differ in proximate and elemental composition, as shown in Tables 1 and 2, with potential for various value-added applications. Figure 4 depicts the material flow across the value chain, illustrating how different processing stages give rise to diverse products and by-products. These include compost and biofertilizer for soil enhancement, biochar and briquettes for energy, animal feed derived from kernel cake, and coir- based materials for industrial and construction use. 4.1 . Coconut Frond Coconut leaves, commonly referred to as fronds, typically measure between 4.5 and 5.5 m (15 to 18 feet) in length. The leaflets range from 0.15 to 0.50 m in width and can be 5 to 15 m long. A coconut tree can produce approximately 12 to 18 fronds each year (Faisal et al., 2020). These fronds are abundant agricultural residues that possess a unique combination of chemical, physical, and mechanical properties, making them highly versatile for various applications. Traditionally, rural coastal communities weave coconut leaves to create fences or makeshift shelters. These practices help communities adapt to ongoing climatic challenges, such as erosion and flooding, particularly in Ghana. Coconut fronds are chemically rich in lignocellulosic components, consisting of approximately 44% cellulose, 32% hemicellulose, and 18% lignin. Their fibrous structure features compact strands and pores with diameters ranging from 42 to 48 µm, which contribute to their strength. The elemental composition of coconut fronds includes about 34% carbon, 8% hydrogen, and 52% oxygen, with trace amounts of nitrogen (~0.46%) and sulfur (~0.94%). This unique composition provides structural strength and makes them suitable for energy processes (Aziz et al., 2018). Furthermore, with a high volatile matter content of approximately 78% and a higher heating value of around 18 MJ/ kg, coconut fronds show significant potential as an energy resource (Shezi & Kiambi, 2025). Coconut’s Circular Potential for Sustainable Bioproducts PAGE 8 of 22 CGIAR 4.4. Coconut Husk Coconut husk is a versatile lignocellulosic biomass made up of two tissues: the strong coir fibers and the lightweight, porous pith. The coconut fruit provides 40% coconut husk, which contains 30% fiber, with dust making up the rest (Oko, 2023). The chemical components of coconut husk include cellulose, lignin, pyroligneous acid, gas, charcoal, tar, tannin, and potassium. These fibers are rich in structural polymers, consisting of approximately 33 – 35% cellulose, about 35% lignin, and roughly 17% hemicellulose; this high lignin content gives the fibers natural adhesive qualities and thermal stability (with softening temperatures above 140 ° C) (Dam et al., 2006). It has a high calorific value of 15 – 17 MJ/kg, low ash content of 4 – 5%, and low moisture content of about 15% (Anggita et al., 2023), making it ideal for bioenergy purposes. The pith has a lower cellulose content of about 16% and an extremely low density of roughly 110 – 130 kg/m³, making it highly compressible and lightweight. Although husk is not typically used for nutritional purposes in a diet, its high biomass yield, accounting for up to 80% of the coconut’s total weight, and its rich composition in cellulose and lignin make it an excellent candidate for industrial use. In terms of physical properties, coir fibers have a density ranging from 1200 to 1300 kg/m³ when measured using compounding techniques, and they exhibit impressive tensile strength that varies from 75 to 152 MPa based on fiber length and maturity (Schiavoni et al., 2016). These components contribute to the material’s mechanical strength, thermal properties, and potential for conversion into biofuels and other products. When used in particleboard manufacturing, coconut husk fibers, often combined with wood particles, not only improve water resistance and thermal insulation due to their lower density and high lignin content but also influence mechanical properties such as the modulus of rupture and internal bond strength. Table 2: Proximate and elemental composition of coconut residues Figure 3: Main components of the coconut palm and fruit. (Source: Authors) These features make coconut shells suitable for various uses, including biofuel production, charcoal, activated carbon, and other applications like insect repellent and fillers. When exploring their potential as a bioenergy source, granulated coconut shells are capable of generating 4 kWh of energy under optimal conditions with high machinery and technology efficiency (Ashwini et al., 2025). However, practical applications may face some energy losses due to operational limitations. In various smallholder value chains, coconut shells are mostly used for fueling coconut dryers but are also in demand for bowls, jewelry, ornaments, and other handicrafts, as well as high-value activated carbon used in filters. Table 2 provides average composition data. Table 1: Chemical composition of coconut residues Coconut’s Circular Potential for Sustainable Bioproducts PAGE 9 of 22 CGIAR (Source: ECN, 2025) (Source: ECN, 2025) arb - as received basis; db - dry weight basis; wt.% weight percent; HHV - higher heating value) Figure 4: Circular value chain of the coconut industry illustrating the diverse processing routes and product outputs derived from different stages of the value chain. Coconut’s Circular Potential for Sustainable Bioproducts PAGE 10 of 22 CGIAR 5. COCONUT CULTIVATION AND RESIDUE MANAGEMENT IN GHANA Ground-truthing was conducted to validate and contextualize existing secondary data on coconut waste generation and management practices in Ghana. While national and regional statistics provide broad production figures, they often overlook on-farm realities such as residue composition, labor dynamics, and local reuse practices. This field-based assessment therefore sought to fill critical knowledge gaps by directly engaging with farmers and observing residue handling at the source. The exercise was designed to provide spatially explicit, evidence-based insights into how production conditions, water availability, and management practices influence waste generation and recovery potential. This field- based assessment is part of the CGIAR Multifunctional Landscapes agro-waste mapping exercise, which aimed to quantify and characterize organic residues across five major crop commodities: coconut, mango, oil palm, cocoa, and pineapple, within Ghana’s key production zones. The study offers a detailed micro-level snapshot of farm characteristics, cultivation practices, and residue management behaviors among smallholder farmers in important coconut-growing areas of the Central, Volta, and Greater Accra Regions. These empirical data complement the broader literature findings on coconut’s circular potential and biomass use. 5.1. Survey and Site Visit Methods The field assessment combined on-farm surveys, direct observations, and urban site visits to generate a preliminary understanding of coconut residue generation and handling across Ghana’s major production and consumption zones. While rural farm surveys provided insights into agricultural production and on-farm residue management, the site visits at the heart of Accracaptured residue flows within the rapidly growing urban coconut vending economy, where large and concentrated volumes of residues are generated daily. 5.1.1. Farm Survey Field data were collected from a total of fourteen farms through a rapid survey conducted between September and October 2025. The survey covered the Central (Aboso and Ekumfi), Volta (Keta, Denu, and Adaklu Seva), and Greater Accra (Dodowa) regions, which are key coastal coconut production areas in Ghana. Each site was georeferenced and documented following a standard field plan that was developed at IWMI. Coconut’s Circular Potential for Sustainable Bioproducts PAGE 11 of 22 CGIAR PAGE 12 of 22 CGIAR Figure 5: Coconut plantation along the Keta South Beach (top); field measurement of coconut husk weight for use as fuel (bottom left); pile of dry coconut husks displayed for sale along Adina beach (bottom right). Photo credit: Andoh Amponsah; Desmond Ayertey Enumerators conducted on-farm interviews and direct observations to record cultivation practices, residue handling, and disposal methods (Figure 5). A structured questionnaire was used to gather detailed information on farm characteristics, management practices, and residue generation and handling. The questionnaire captured various variables, including farm size, plantation age, tenure status, planting distance, soil type, and water source, as well as the types and quantities of residues, handling methods, and disposal or reuse practices. Additionally, enumerators collected insights on labor requirements, equipment usage, and perceived challenges or opportunities for residue recovery through interviews with farmers or farm owners. This information was intended to inform the participatory design of residue valorization models within the MFL framework. Coconut’s Circular Potential for Sustainable Bioproducts Field observations were complemented by visual inspection of residue piles, field sanitation practices, and evidence of secondary uses such as husk burning for fuel or frond use for fencing and drying racks. 5.1.2. Urban Site Visits in Accra To complement the on-farm assessment, three major coconut residue aggregation points in Accra were visited in November 2025. These visits aimed to document residue handling practices within urban vending hubs, where large volumes of coconut waste are generated. The specific objectives of the urban assessment were to: i) quantify daily coconut residue volumes at key collection points; ii) identify the primary sources of residues; iii) trace disposal routes and final destinations of collected waste; and iv) understand prevailing waste management and valorization practices within the urban value chain. Three aggregation points were identified in high- activity vending zones: 1) opposite the 37 Military Hospital/Kawukudi (GPS: N06.09253, E001.15187); 2) opposite the Accra Arts Centre (GPS: N05.54790, W000.20030); and 3) within the Tema Station area (GPS: N05.54802, W000.20236). At each location, the team conducted semi- structured and informal interviews with traders, cart operators, and waste aggregators; visually assessed waste accumulation patterns; and recorded the types of infrastructure used for temporary storage and transport (e.g., metal skip bins, makeshift bags, carts, tricycles). Residue quantities were estimated through direct observation of cartloads and bin capacities, following the same rapid appraisal principles applied in the farm surveys. Additional data were collected on collection frequencies, transportation methods, storage practices, end destinations (including landfill transfer at sites such as Adjen Kotoku), and any existing reuse or small-scale valorization practices. These urban site visits provided essential insights into daily residue flows and operational bottlenecks, offering an important complement to the rural farm data and helping to map the full coconut residue landscape across both production and consumption centres. All data were cleaned and harmonized in Excel to ensure consistency in units and terminology. Responses were coded and summarized descriptively to identify recurring management patterns and approximate residue generation rates across locations. Participation was voluntary, and all respondents provided verbal consent prior to the interviews. Heap of coconut waste. Photo credit: Eric G. Nartey Coconut’s Circular Potential for Sustainable Bioproducts PAGE 13 of 22 CGIAR 5.2. Field Survey Results 5.2.1. Farm Characteristics, Farmer Profile and Land Tenure System Across the surveyed sites, coconut production was mainly smallholder-based, although farm sizes varied widely from 0.5 to 100 acres. Most farms were under 10 acres, while a few large communal holdings in Volta (such as Denu, Agogo, and Adina) exceeded 50 acres. Over 85% of respondents were male farmers, with most falling within the 41 to 60 age range. This indicates that middle-aged household heads dominate the coconut farming sector. Notably, only one respondent was female, managing a small 1.5-acre plot in Awate Tornu, in the Volta Region. The occupational profile was consistent, as all respondents primarily identified as farmers involved in coconut production, with minimal involvement in other enterprises. Land tenure arrangements varied: 43% of farmers owned their farms, 36% practiced sharedcropping, and the rest farmed on community-managed or rented lands (Figure 6a). This reflects the diverse, often informal land access systems common in coastal Ghana, where communal tenure remains vital for livelihoods and land-use flexibility. Soils across the sites were generally sandy or mixed sandy-loam, especially along the Volta coast, supporting coconut’s preference for well-drained conditions. 5.2.2. Planting Spacing and Crop Age Coconut planting densities varied across different farms, with spacing typically ranging from 5 m × 5 m to 9 m × 9 m. Most smallholder farms (≤ 10 acres) adopted closer spacings of 5 to 6 m to maximize land use. In contrast, larger or communal farms preferred wider spacings of 7 to 9 meters, and in some cases, employed irregular spacings, leading to mixed farm management methods. These spacing patterns can significantly influence light penetration, competition for water, and the accumulation of residues. Denser plots tend to produce higher amounts of frond and husk litter but may face increased competition for soil moisture and nutrients. Conversely, widely spaced plantations might have reduced canopy cover, which is vital for conserving soil moisture. The age of the coconut trees varied across farms (Figure 6b). About half of the farms contained mature or aging trees (over 15 years old), with some exceeding 25 to 30 years, indicating declining yields and the production of woody residues such as fronds and trunks. Newly replanted or young stands (3 to 10 years old) were mainly found in the Central and Volta Regions, reflecting recent efforts to restore aging coconut groves. Overall, the field data suggest a landscape dominated by older stands. Figure 6b: Land tenure status among surveyed farms. About one-third of farmers own their land (31%), while another 31% operate on community lands, highlighting diverse land access arrangements within coconut-producing areas. Figure 6a: Crop age distribution among surveyed coconut farms. Half of the farms have trees aged 16–35 years, followed by 25% with younger crops (1–5 years), indicating a mix of mature and recently established plantations. Coconut’s Circular Potential for Sustainable Bioproducts PAGE 14 of 22 CGIAR The composition of the residues also varied depending on moisture conditions: wet residues were heavier and more challenging to transport, while dry residues were lighter, more flammable, and more suitable for reuse as fuel. Most farmers left crop residues in the field, either as natural mulch or in piles near trees, where they eventually decomposed and contributed to soil cover. Burning was occasionally used to clear space for replanting or to reduce pest habitats, although this practice was limited. Some respondents, especially from coastal Volta communities like Denu, Dodza, and Adina, reported selling dried husks and fronds to local fishmongers as a fuel source for smoking fish, one of the few examples of residue monetization observed. Throughout all sites, there was no systematic collection or processing of residues. Farmers lacked the equipment, labor, and market incentives needed to manage bulky residues effectively. The combination of manual harvesting, limited mechanization, and high moisture content in the residues constrained both on- and off-farm reuse opportunities. 5.2.3. Crop, Soil and Water Management Farm operations across all sites were mainly manual, with little to no mechanization. Farmers relied heavily on machetes for tasks such as pruning, weeding, and collecting plant residues. Pruning was generally light and infrequent (Figure 7), usually once or twice a year, depending on labor availability and the condition of the trees. Only a few respondents, especially those managing larger farms, practiced quarterly pruning or systematic canopy management. Soil fertility management was minimal, as farmers rarely used fertilizers or organic inputs. Instead, they depended on natural litter fall and occasional mulching to maintain soil health. Mulching was the most common practice for soil and water conservation across all three regions, typically using fallen fronds, husks, or weeds to retain moisture and suppress weeds. A few farmers reported not implementing any specific water management strategies beyond this. All surveyed farms relied solely on rainwater, with no irrigation systems observed. This heavy reliance on rainfall makes these production systems vulnerable to seasonal water stress. Farmers noted that water availability significantly influences both tree yield and the moisture content of residues. The residuals produced during the wet season were heavier and decomposed faster, while those from the dry season were lighter and easier to handle. 5.2.4. Residue Generation and Handling Residue generation from coconut cultivation was significant across all surveyed farms, with outputs strongly influenced by factors such as tree age, pruning frequency, and harvest cycles. On farms, farmers reported that most residues came from fronds, husks, and trunks, with occasional contributions from fallen nuts, branches, and trunk segments during replanting or as a result of storm damage. The estimated quantities of residues ranged from 600 kg to 800 kg per mature tree annually; however, this volume varied widely depending on farm size and management intensity. Residue production followed a seasonal pattern, peaking during the main harvest and pruning periods, which occur from November to December and January to June. Many farmers noted that residues increased with the onset of the dry season, when fronds tend to dry out and fall. Coconut’s Circular Potential for Sustainable Bioproducts Figure 7: Pruning frequency (top) and on-field residue management (bottom) among surveyed farms. PAGE 15 of 22 CGIAR and later reloaded once empty bins become available. Residues are disposed of at landfill sites in Adjen Kotoku, Nsawam Adoagyiri, and along the Nsawam–Aburi road. On occasion, private companies retrieve the waste for processing, including its conversion into charcoal for use in toothpaste and fertilizer production. 5.3.2. Aggregation Point 2 The center, which also serves as a major wholesale trading hub for coconuts, is considered the largest aggregation site in Accra. During the visit, most retailers had already left to sell their produce. According to the head trader, unlike Aggregation Point 1, where a fixed waste bin is provided, residues at this location are collected by private waste operators who mainly use tricycles for transport. The center is reportedly accessed by over 40 cart drivers and retailers daily, with waste offloading mostly occurring in the early mornings and evenings. Residues at the site are valued between GH₵30 (US$2.6) and GH₵50 (US$4.4), depending on the amount and condition. Based on traders’ recollections, approximately two to three metal bins of coconut waste (comprising coconut peels and cracked shells) are produced daily, totaling roughly 11,475 kg. Most waste is taken to municipal dumpsites because there is no dedicated storage or segregation infrastructure (Figure 9). Occasionally, a private company from Tema provides a metal bin and collects the accumulated residues for use as biofuel in industrial operations or as an input for fertilizer production. 5.3.3. Aggregation Point 3 The collection point within the Tema Station area functions as the main refuse aggregation site for the station, receiving all forms of solid waste generated in the vicinity. Coconut traders deposit their residues at this location, where the waste is accumulated in large makeshift bags (Figure 10) that typically serve about ten cart handlers operating nearby. The coconut residues are mixed with other municipal solid waste and subsequently transported by the local assembly to a designated landfill. Residues are collected on a daily basis, with volumes estimated at approximately 1,530 kg per day. This results show that coconut residues are mostly landfilled; their consistently high volumes present strong potential for CBE. 5.3. Coconut Residues in Urban Centres The assessment of three major coconut residue aggregation points in Accra revealed high and consistently generated waste volumes, largely driven by the city’s expanding coconut vending economy. Residues consisted predominantly of cracked shells, fresh husks, and fruit peels originating from both small informal vendors and wholesale distribution points. 5.3.1. Aggregation Point 1 This center functions as both a coconut depot and an aggregation site for vendors operating within the 37 Military Hospital, Kawukudi, and Airport Residential Area corridors. Residues are reported to be generated by individuals vending coconuts across these locations, while the coconuts themselves are said to be sourced from Adina, Nzema, and Kumasi. The center is additionally utilized as a restocking point, where retailers deposit their waste before collecting new supplies. The quantities acquired by retailers are determined by their transport capacity, with wheelbarrow operators typically conveying about 50 pieces per trip, and truck pushers or handcart handlers conveying approximately 100 to 150 pieces. The primary coconut products are coconut water and edible flesh, leaving behind residues such as cracked shells and fruit peels. The center is reported to provide services for an estimated 10–15 cart handlers daily, although this number varies according to seasonal patterns and consumer demand. Activity intensifies during the dry season (October– February) and during festive events such as concerts, weddings, and parties. A typical handler brings in approximately 322.5 kg of fresh coconuts, returning about 153 kg of residues per trip. This estimate is derived from an average cartload of 125 coconuts, assuming a unit weight of 2.58 kg per nut and a residue fraction of roughly 50%. The center utilizes large metallic bins (Figure 8), each capable of holding 20 – 25 cartloads (equivalent to approximately 3,060 – 3,825 kg). Residues are sold on-site, with a cartload priced at GH₵25 (~$2.2)1 and a wheelbarrow load at GH₵5 (~$4.4). The bins are emptied twice weekly, and during periods of overflow, surplus residues are temporarily placed on the ground Coconut’s Circular Potential for Sustainable Bioproducts PAGE 16 of 22 CGIAR 1Exchange rate: 1 US$ (dollar) to 11.5 GH₵ (Cedis) Figure 8: Coconut residue handling and collection process around the aggregation point 1. a) Cart transporting freshly generated coconut residues to the central collection point. b) Partially filled skip container with accumulated coconut husks and mixed plastic waste awaiting collection. c) Overfilled waste container containing coconut residues and other mixed waste materials. d) Trader and cart operator documenting residue quantities near the collection point. Photo credit: Desmond Ayertey; Andoh Amponsah. Figure 10: Coconut residue handling at aggregation point 3. a) Towing of a 25-ton waste bin from the refuse ward for disposal at a landfill. b) Large makeshift bags filled with coconut residues awaiting transport at the refuse ward. Photo credit: Andoh Amponsah. Figure 9: Coconut waste gathered on the floor awaiting collection at aggregation point 2 Photo credit: Desmond Ayertey Coconut’s Circular Potential for Sustainable Bioproducts PAGE 17 of 22 CGIAR 6. FACTORS INFLUENCING WASTE GENERATION The field evidence show how farm characteristics, tree age, and residue handling practices shape the type of biomass generated, with most residues left unmanaged or underutilized. Building on these observations, this section examines the broader environmental, technological, and economic factors that underpin these patterns. 6.3. Economic and Market Factors Coconut waste management is also shaped by market incentives and investment conditions. While the demand for coconut oil, water, and edible products continues to grow, markets for by-products such as coir fiber, cocopeat, and shell charcoal remain unstable or underdeveloped. This discourages entrepreneurs from investing in recovery operations or value-added processing. According to Vieira et al. (2024), most innovations in residue valorisation, such as biocomposite production and bioenergy conversion, remain at early stages due to limited infrastructure and funding. In Ghana, small-scale processors face high equipment costs, weak access to credit, and limited private-sector engagement, which hinders circular investment. Without economic incentives, residues are treated as low-value waste rather than productive resources. Market and financial factors also play a significant role. Growing demand for coconut oil and edible products drives production, but the lack of stable markets for by-products such as cocopeat and coir fiber discourages their utilization (Doe et al., 2023). The economics of waste recovery are further weakened by fragmented supply chains, making it difficult for processors to guarantee steady input volumes. Informal vending clusters generate large but dispersed waste streams that are costly to collect, while the absence of cooperative marketing or buy- back schemes prevents bulk trading of residues. More so, the high cost of equipment, limited investment in waste management, and low environmental awareness among producers restrict the adoption of reuse practices. There is therefore an urgent need for fiscal and policy instruments to stimulate demand for circular bioproducts. 6.1. Environmental and Agronomic Factors Environmental conditions, such as temperature, humidity, and alternating wet–dry cycles, strongly affect coconut drying, fiber strength, and spoilage rates (Martinelli et al., 2024; Vieira et al., 2024). High humidity in coastal areas accelerates microbial growth on husks and copra, leading to increased post-harvest losses when drying or storage is inadequate. The age and health of palms, along with planting density, also influence residue output: mature or over- aged trees generate more fronds and husks per cycle, while poor soil fertility and pest stress can lower fruit quality and increase waste. Meanwhile, climate variability and extended droughts hinder coconut tree regeneration, changing harvesting patterns and residue composition, especially where irrigation is lacking. These challenges are worsened by the absence of adaptive field management practices in production systems. 6.2. Technological and Infrastructure Gaps The scale and type of production are also important. Coconut processing remains largely manual and low-efficiency, especially among smallholders and informal vendors. Limited access to mechanical decorticators, chippers, and pyrolysis units restricts the ability to separate and convert husks, shells, and fronds into valuable products (Vieira et al., 2024). Studies highlight that traditional copra drying, with moisture levels often exceeding 10 – 15% (Vingadassalon et al., 2025), results in significant kernel loss due to fungal contamination and uneven heat distribution. In Ghana, a Coconut Waste Project found that poor transport and storage infrastructure, coupled with the absence of designated waste collection points, lead to indiscriminate dumping and open burning of husks in urban areas such as Madina and Oyarifa (CERATH, 2021). These infrastructural gaps prevent aggregation and supply to processors capable of producing cocopeat or briquettes (Obeng et al., 2020). Coconut’s Circular Potential for Sustainable Bioproducts PAGE 18 of 22 CGIAR With coordinated action, the coconut value chain can evolve from a fragmented, waste-prone system into a regenerative bioeconomy model that supports livelihoods, reduces pollution, and drives sustainable growth. 7. CONCLUSION This study shows coconut holds immense circular potential, offering opportunities to transform what is currently considered waste into valuable bioproducts for energy, soil fertility, and industry. The crop’s versatility, spanning food, fiber, and fuel, positions it as a cornerstone of circular bioeconomy pathways in tropical regions. However, Ghana’s coconut value chain still faces persistent inefficiencies that limit the realization of this potential. Despite growing demand for coconut-based products, much of the residual biomass, particularly husks and shells, remains underused or discarded, reflecting both structural and operational challenges across the value chain. Findings from the field studies reveal that while smallholder farmers generate substantial on-farm residues, such as fronds, husks, and woody biomass, these are typically left to decompose, burned for space clearing, or used in limited local applications such as fencing or fish smoking. In contrast, the majority of coconut waste arises not on farms but within urban and peri-urban processing centers, where dehusking, oil extraction, and vending activities are concentrated. These city-based residues are voluminous yet dispersed across informal market clusters, posing major logistical and economic challenges for collection, aggregation, and reuse. The absence of designated collection hubs, transport infrastructure, and reliable data on waste volumes further constrains the development of efficient recycling or valorization systems. Quantifying the actual scale of waste generation remains a critical barrier to circular planning. Existing statistics focus on production yields but overlook waste flows across the value chain. Field observations underscore that seasonal variations, residue moisture content, and informal disposal practices make volume estimation difficult. Without accurate, spatially explicit data on residue generation and accumulation points, it is challenging to design economically viable and environmentally sound recovery systems. Unlocking the circular potential of Ghana’s coconut sector therefore requires a dual approach: improving data and logistics while stimulating investment in modular processing and market linkages. Developing decentralized aggregation points near urban processing zones, promoting cooperative-based recovery systems, and incentivizing will be essential. Coconut’s Circular Potential for Sustainable Bioproducts PAGE 19 of 22 CGIAR Source: Sijo Varghese/Pexels Dam, J. V.; Oever, M. V. D.; Keijsers, E. R. P.; Putten, J. V. D.; Anayron, C.; Josol, F.; Peralta, A. 2006. Process for production of high density/high performance binderless boards from whole coconut husk. Part 2: Coconut husk morphology, composition and properties. Industrial Crops and Products. (24) 96-104. https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.indcrop.2005.03.003 Deepa, J.; Rajkumar, P.; Arumuganathan, T. 2015. Quality analysis of copra dried at different drying air temperatures. International Journal of Agricultural Science and Research (IJASR). ISSN(P): 2250-0057; ISSN(E): 2321-0087. Vol. 5, Issue 4, 1-6. https://www.academia.edu/ download/55886369/Good_QUALITYANALYSISOFCOPRA- Deepapaper-IJASR.pdf (assessed on October 30, 2025) Doe, B.; Aboagye, P. D.; Osei-Owusu, P. K.; Amoah, T.; Aidoo, A.; Amponsah, N. Y. 2023. Towards circular economy and local economic development in Ghana: Insights from the coconut waste value chain. Circular Economy and Sustainability, 3(1), 347-372. https:// doi.org/10.1007/s43615-022-00182-w Elsisi, S. F.; Omar, M. N.; Samak, A. A.; Gomaa, E. M.; Elsaeidy, E. A. 2023. Production the briquettes from mixture of agricultural residues and evaluation its physical, mechanical and combustion properties. Misr Journal of Agricultural Engineering, 40(4), 393-418. https:// dx.doi.org/10.21608/mjae.2023.219214.1107 Energy research Centre of the Netherlands (ECN). 2025. Phyllis2: Database for biomass and waste. Accessed 08 November 2025. https://phyllis.nl Faisal, R. M.; Putri, H. O.; Sormin, A. Y.; Chafidz, A. 2020. Utilization of coconut fronds as raw material for making art paper. In Journal of Physics: Conference Series. 1681, 12-16. https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/1681/1/012016 IOP Publishing. Fathi, L. 2014. Structural and mechanical properties of the wood from coconut palms, oil palms and date palms. Doctoral dissertation. Staats-und Universitätsbibliothek Hamburg Carl von Ossietzky. 1-248. https://ediss.sub.uni-hamburg.de/ handle/ediss/5556 (assessed on October 30, 2025) Honlah, E.; Segbefia, A. Y.; Forkuo, D.; Abass, K. 2024. The exports of dehusked coconuts from southwestern Ghana: implications for coconut farmers’ role in a rural virgin coconut oil value chain. Social Sciences & Humanities Open, 9, 100851. https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.ssaho.2024.100851 Liu, H.; Li, Q.; Ni, S. 2022. Assessment of the engineering properties of biomass recycled aggregate concrete developed from coconut shells. Construction and Building Materials, 342, 128015. https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.conbuildmat.2022.128015 Martinelli, F. R. B.; Pariz, M. G.; de Andrade, R.; Ferreira, S. R.; Marques, F. A.; Monteiro, S. N.; de Azevedo, A. R. 2024. Influence of drying temperature on coconut-fibers. Scientific Reports, 14(1), 6421. https://doi.org/10.1038/ s41598-024-56596-z REFERENCES Ajien, A.; Idris, J.; Md Sofwan, N.; Husen, R.; Seli, H. 2023. Coconut shell and husk biochar: A review of production and activation technology, economic, financial aspects and application. Waste Management & Research, 41(1), 37-51. https://doi.org/10.1177/0734242X221127167 Anggita, S. R.; Devarasalya, R. F.; Istikomah, I.; Bawono, A. 2023. Utilization of Waste from LDPE, Coconut Husk, and Coconut Shell with Tapioca Adhesive as Bio-briquettes. Jurnal Ilmu Fisika, 15(2), 81-90. https://doi.org/10.25077/ jif.15.2.81-90.2023 Anuchi, S. O.; Campbell, K. L. S.; Hallett, J. P. 2022. Effective pretreatment of lignin-rich coconut wastes using a low-cost ionic liquid. Scientific reports, 12(1), 6108. https:// doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-09629-4 Ashwini, K.; Resmi, R.; Reghu, R. 2025. Techno-economic and environmental analysis of bioenergy production from granulated coconut shell using Aspen Plus software. Alexandria Engineering Journal, 115, 443-457. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.aej.2024.12.056 Aziz, N. M.; Shariff, A.; Abdullah, N.; Noor, N. M. 2018. Characteristics of coconut frond as a potential feedstock for biochar via slow pyrolysis. Malaysian Journal of Fundamental and Applied Sciences, 14(4), 408-413. https:// www.academia.edu/download/68696912/pdf.pdf (assessed on October 30, 2025) Baffour-Awuah, E.; Sarpong, N. Y. S.; Amanor, I. N. 2022. Post-harvest Losses of Coconut in Abura/asebu/ kwamankese District, Central Region, Ghana. In Applied Research Conference in Africa. Cham: Springer International Publishing. 589-602. https:// doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-25998-2_45 Bhat, R.; Rajkumar, S.; Satyaseelan, N.; Subramanian, P. 2024. Management Practices for Coconut Production. In The Coconut: Botany, Production and Uses. GB: CABI. (pp. 31-45). https://doi.org/10.1079/9781789249736.0003 Borrero-López, A. M.; Valencia, C.; Franco, J. M. 2022. Lignocellulosic materials for the production of biofuels, biochemicals and biomaterials and applications of lignocellulose-based polyurethanes: a review. Polymers, 14(5), 881. https://doi.org/2073-4360/14/5/881 CERATH 2021. Baseline Survey Report. The Coconut Waste Project (COWAP). COWAP. 1-116. Available at https://cerathdev.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/THE- COCONUT-WASTE-PROJECT-COWAP-BASELINE- REPORT.pdf (assessed on October 30, 2025) CERATH 2022. Terms of Reference - Midterm Evaluation (2020 – 2022). THE COCONUT WASTE PROJECT. 1-6. Available at https://cerathdev.org/wp-content/ uploads/2022/11/Midterm-Evaluation-Coconut-Waste- Project.pdf (assessed on October 30, 2025) Coconut’s Circular Potential for Sustainable Bioproducts PAGE 20 of 22 CGIAR Shezi, M. Kiambi, S. L. 2025. Isothermal Pyrolysis of Bamboo and Pinewood Biomass: Product Characterization and Comparative Study in a Fluidized Bed Reactor. Bioengineering, 12(2), 99. https://doi.org/10.3390/ bioengineering12020099 SME Blue Pages (2023) Coconut Industry Statistics in Africa. Available at: https://smebluepages.com/coconut- industry-statistics-in-africa/ (Accessed: 10 November 2025). Statista 2025. Global leading producers of coconuts 2023. Available at https://www.statista.com/statistics/1040499/ world-coconut-production-by-leading-producers/ #statisticContainer (assessed on October 30, 2025) Vieira, F.; Santana, H. E.; Jesus, M.; Santos, J.; Pires, P.; Vaz-Velho, M.; Silva, D.P.; Ruzene, D. S. 2024. Coconut waste: discovering sustainable approaches to advance a circular economy. Sustainability, 16(7), 3066. https:// doi.org/10.3390/su16073066 Vingadassalon, A.; Pejcz, E.; Vinceslas, L.; Wojciechowicz- Budzisz, A.; Olędzki, R.; Zając, A.; Aurore, G.; Harasym, J. 2025. Impact of Coconut Copra Byproducts Incorporation on Granola Quality Characteristics. Applied Sciences- Basel, (15). http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/app15042108 Mohanty, A.; Rout, P. R.; Dubey, B.; Meena, S. S.; Pal, P.; Goel, M. 2021. A critical review on biogas production from edible and non-edible oil cakes. Biomass Conversion and Biorefinery, 1-18. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s13399-021-01292-5 Niral, V.; Jerard, B. A. 2019. Botany, origin and genetic resources of coconut. In The Coconut Palm (Cocos nucifera L.)-Research and Development Perspectives. Singapore: Springer Singapore. ( 57-111) https:// doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-2754-4_3 Obeng, G. Y.; Amoah, D. Y.; Opoku, R.; Sekyere, C. K.; Adjei, E. A.; Mensah, E. 2020. Coconut wastes as bioresource for sustainable energy: Quantifying wastes, calorific values and emissions in Ghana. Energies, 13(9), 2178. https://doi.org/10.3390/en13092178 Oko F. U. N. 2023. Efficient use of Coconut and it’s by- products. Eurasian Experiment Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences (EEJHSS). Volume 4 Issue 1. Available at https://publications.kiu.ac.ug/publication-page.php? i=efficient-use-of-coconut-and-its-by-products (assessed on October 30, 2025) Osei-Bonsu, K.; Opoku-Ameyaw, K.; Amoah, F. M.; Oppong, F. K. 2002. Cacao-coconut intercropping in Ghana: agronomic and economic perspectives. Agroforestry Systems, 55, 1-8. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1020271608483 Pardi 2011. Coconut Value Chain Review. Pacific Agribusiness Research & Development Initiative. 1-8. Available at https://www.adelaide.edu.au/global-food/ua/ media/239/pardi-coconut-chain-review-nov-2011.pdf (assessed on October 30, 2025) Pawels, R.; Sreedharan, S. 2021. Sustainable Treatment of Waste Coconut Water Fromfrom Copra Industry Using Microbial Desalination Cell (MDC). Poll Res. 40 (3): 733-741. https://www.envirobiotechjournals.com/PR/ v40i32021/Poll%20Res-8.pdf (assessed on October 30, 2025) Pipatpaitoon, N.; Paraksa, N. 2021. Defatted coconut residue as alternative feedstuff for growing and finishing pigs. Songklanakarin Journal of Science & Technology, 43(2). https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Nuanchan- Paraksa-2/ publication/351480688_Defatted_coconut_residue_as_alter native_feedstuff_for_growing_and_finishing_pigs/ links/609a3bf5299bf1ad8d90ce8c/Defatted-coconut-residue- as-alternative-feedstuff-for-growing-and-finishing-pigs.pdf (assessed on October 30, 2025) Schiavoni, S.; Bianchi, F.; Asdrubali, F. 2016. Insulation materials for the building sector: A review and comparative analysis. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 62, 988-1011. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.05.045 Coconut’s Circular Potential for Sustainable Bioproducts PAGE 21 of 22 CGIAR CGIAR is a global research partnership for a food-secure future. CGIAR science is dedicated to transforming food, land, and water systems in a climate crisis. Its research is carried out by 13 CGIAR Centers/Alliances in close collaboration with hundreds of partners, including national and regional research institutes, civil society organizations, academia, development organizations and the private sector. www.cgiar.org. Multifunctional Landscapes is a CGIAR Science Program that aims to enhance the resilience, productivity, and sustainability of agricultural landscapes by integrating diverse land uses, ecosystem services, and livelihood strategies. The initiative supports evidence-based policies and innovations that balance food production with climate adaptation, biodiversity conservation, and social inclusion. To learn more about the CGIAR Research Portfolio, please visit www.cgiar.org/cgiar-researchportfolio-2025-2030/ Blank Page Blank Page Blank Page Blank Page Blank Page Blank Page Blank Page Blank Page Blank Page Blank Page Blank Page Blank Page Blank Page Blank Page Blank Page Blank Page Blank Page Blank Page Untitled Untitled Untitled Blank Page Blank Page