Priority policy and actions of local government to promote climate-resilient and inclusive water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) in Sarlahi and Dailekh districts in Nepal Technical Brief Access to water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) services is fundamental to public health, well-being and human dignity. The Constitution of Nepal 2015 (GoN 2015) guarantees people’s fundamental rights to safe drinking water and sanitation. Further, section 3 of the Water Supply and Sanitation Act 2022 ensures people’s right to access clean water supply and sanitation, committing to respect, protect, promote and fulfill this right (GoN 2022). However, significant disparities persist in the districts of Sarlahi and Dailekh due to diverse socioeconomic contexts and, in the case of Dailekh, challenging geography. There remains a significant gap in translating national policies and strategies to the local level. In addition, climate change and extreme weather events have impacted WASH systems and their functionalities, affecting vulnerable and marginalized communities, persons with disabilities and women. This study examines the WASH situation in the Sarlahi and Dailekh districts of Nepal. It identifies critical gaps in WASH policies and practices from a GEDSI and climate change perspective and recommends actions for local governments to promote inclusive and resilient WASH services. The study draws on insights from workshops, qualitative research on social vulnerability and field visits conducted during the project period from January 2023 to July 2024. The researchers also conducted an extensive review of the existing national and subnational WASH policies to enrich the study. Summary This study identifies critical gaps in water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) policies and practices from a gender equality, disability and social inclusion (GEDSI) and climate change perspective and recommends actions for local governments to promote inclusive and resilient WASH services. The major institutional and policy challenges in the WASH sector in local governments in Dailekh and Sarlahi districts include a lack of local policies, a lack of coherence with federal laws and limited financial and technical capacity. Existing plans, policies and practices are less focused on the meaningful decision-making roles and specific needs of women, persons with disabilities and marginalized communities. To address these gaps, local governments should emphasize the formation of local plans and policies that meet community needs and align with national goals; enhance the capacity of user committees, wards and local government officials; strengthen monitoring mechanisms beyond infrastructure; engage with the private sector; and allocate a dedicated budget for climate-resilient and inclusive WASH. Women in the Sarlahi District of Nepal wash clothes in a local pond (photo: Vision360). IWMI • 2 Technical Brief • Priority policy and actions of local government to promote climate-resilient and inclusive water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) in Sarlahi and Dailekh districts in Nepal Climate-resilient and inclusive WASH Climate-resilient WASH refers to WASH services and behaviors that can withstand the impacts of climate change and ensure uninterrupted service delivery (WaterAid 2021). With increasingly unpredictable weather and extreme events such as floods and droughts, traditional water supply systems are at risk of disruption and contamination (Batchelor et al. 2011). By incorporating climate resilience into these systems, their ability to withstand and recover from such disruptions will be enhanced, ensuring continuous and reliable WASH services even in the aftermath of extreme weather events. The United Nations has declared water and sanitation a fundamental human right. However, women, persons with disabilities, senior citizens, children and marginalized groups are disproportionately impacted by limited access to WASH services or unsafely managed WASH systems (Macura et al. 2021). Climate change exacerbates these inequalities and impedes progress, further affecting their health, education, livelihood and overall well-being (Hutton and Chase 2016). Addressing these disparities is fundamental to ensuring that all individuals can withstand and recover from climate-induced challenges. Therefore, inclusive and climate-resilient WASH is crucial for providing safe, equitable and uninterrupted WASH access for all and supporting overall wellbeing in the face of increasing climate change challenges. Current status of WASH in Nepal Nepal has made significant progress in WASH, with access to basic drinking water1 rising from 46% to 95% and access to basic sanitation2 increasing from 6% to 79% between 1990 and 2019 (NSASC 2000; Budhathoki 2019; CBS 2020). The country also declared Open Defecation Free (ODF) status in 2019 (National Planning Commission 2019). However, only 19% of the population has access to safely managed drinking water3 (21% in urban areas and 13% in rural areas) and 7–8% still practice open defecation (CBS 2020). For instance, in the project districts of Sarlahi and Dailekh, as shown in Table 1, only 17.7% and 34.2% of households, respectively, have access to piped water within their house premises. These figures highlight the urgent need to accelerate progress toward achieving Sustainable Development Goal targets 6.1 and 6.2. Nepal aims to reach 99% basic water supply coverage, 90% piped water and 95% basic sanitation by 2030 (National Planning Commission 2017). Climatic changes in the form of erratic rainfall and rising temperatures exacerbate existing challenges in the WASH sector by affecting water availability and quality and widening inequalities. In the mid-hills of Nepal, springs are drying up due to land use change and haphazard road construction, alongside seismic events and climatic change (Sharma et al. 2016; Thapa et al. 2023). There is a decrease in groundwater levels in the Terai region during the dry season (Poudel 2023). Addressing these challenges requires concerted efforts in the WASH sector’s development. Table 1. Overview of household-level WASH status in project districts: Sarlahi and Dailekh. District Drinking water Toilets Sarlahi Hand pumps: 67.7% Pit toilets: 51% Piped water (within house premises): 17.7% Flush toilets with septic tank: 36.6% Piped water (outside house premises): 7.9% Dailekh Spout water: 16% Pit toilet: 50% Piped water (within house premises): 34.2% Flush toilet with septic tank: 44% Piped water (outside house premises): 45.4% Flush toilet with sewerage: 3.4% Source: CBS (2020) 1 According to UNICEF, basic drinking water refers to water from an improved source (not available on premises), provided with a collection time of no more than 30 minutes per round trip, including queuing. 2 According to UNICEF, access to basic sanitation services considers the percentage of the population using improved sanitation facilities that are not shared with other households. 3 According to UNICEF, safely managed drinking water refers to drinking water from an improved source that is accessible on premises, available when needed and free from fecal and priority chemical contamination. Children transporting water from distant water sources to their homes in Dailekh, Nepal (photo: Vision360). IWMI • 3 Technical Brief • Priority policy and actions of local government to promote climate-resilient and inclusive water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) in Sarlahi and Dailekh districts in Nepal Major institutional challenges in WASH in Dailekh and Sarlahi districts Lack of local policies: The Constitution of Nepal 2015 (GoN 2015) and the Local Government Operation Act 2017 (GoN 2017) grant local governments exclusive rights to formulate policies and guidelines and implement and monitor local water supply, irrigation, basic health and sanitation and watershed conservation. However, some local governments4 in both districts have yet to formulate their local policies, laws and guidelines related to WASH. Likewise, at the provincial level, the Karnali Province has prepared a WASH bill, but it has not yet been enacted, while Madhesh Province has yet to initiate the drafting process. The delay in forming subnational policies is partly due to slow progress at the federal level in establishing policies on concurrent rights and partly due to other factors such as limited resources, experience and capacity at the subnational level (International Alert 2020). As mentioned in the National Drinking Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Policy 2023, local governments need to prepare their own WASH plans and establish dedicated WASH units (MoWS 2023). However, in the Sarlahi District, only 25% of local governments had developed their WASH plans at the time of preparing this brief. Figure 1 presents the detailed status of WASH policies and the establishment of WASH units in local governments in Sarlahi and Dailekh. Lack of policy coherence: The study found a lack of uniformity and coherence in existing policies at the national and subnational level. The federal act -The Drinking Water and Sanitation Act 2022 does not have ‘hygiene’ in its title and only sparsely addresses the hygiene component of WASH. The National Drinking Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Policy 2023 was introduced only after the Drinking Water and Sanitation Act 2022. However, experts argue that policy should guide subsequent legislation. Such inconsistency is also reflected in local-level policies as well. Some local governments have developed the Drinking Water Act, some have developed the WASH Act/Bill and others have the Health and Sanitation Act. For example, the Dullu Municipality and the Bhairabi Municipality in Dailekh have the Health and Sanitation Act, whereas the Bindrasaini Municipality has the WASH Act. There is a constitutional provision that provincial and local governments have the right to make their own laws, but they also need to abide by federal laws on concurrent powers (Devkota 2022). However, such alignment is missing. For example, provisions made by the federal Act Relating to Rights of Persons with Disabilities 2017 (MoWCSC 2017) regarding universal design in infrastructure are not explicitly reflected in policies at provincial and local levels. Limited inclusivity in policies at the national, provincial and local levels: The Drinking Water and Sanitation Act 2022 exempts fees and tariffs for tap installation, toilet construction and sewerage connection for low-income families. Additionally, it mandates the inclusion of one woman on the Tariff Commission and three women in the inter-level Coordination Committee (GoN 2022). However, existing provisions in the Drinking Water and Sanitation Act 2022 focus primarily on quantitative representation and do not extend to broader decision-making roles for women, persons with disabilities and marginalized communities and do not consider intersectionality. The National Drinking Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Policy 2023 includes limited measures, such as the integration of gender equality and social inclusion (GESI) principles into sector plans, programs and budgets and providing user-friendly toilet infrastructure for persons with disabilities, children, senior citizens and women. Provincial level: The Karnali WASH Bill 2023 has provisions for non-discrimination, representation of women and marginalized communities in committees and tariff concessions to ensure access to WASH for all (Government of Karnali Province 2023). However, the bill does not address intersectionality and meaningful participation. 4 Local governments include both municipalities and rural municipalities. There are 20 local governments in Sarlahi and 11 local governments in Dailekh. 15 15 9 11 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 WASH unit WASH focal person Nu m be r of lo ca l g ov er nm en ts Status of establishment of WASH focal person/WASH unit in local governments in Sarlahi and Dailekh Sarlahi DailekhSarlahi Dailekh 5 10 5 10 7 5 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 WASH plan WASH policy WASH Act Nu m be r o f l oc al g ov er nm en ts Status of WASH plans and policies in local governments in Sarlahi and Dailekh Figure 1. Status of (a) WASH plan, policy and Act (b) WASH units and focal persons at the local governments in Sarlahi and Dailekh. Note: WASH - water, sanitation and hygiene. (a) (b) IWMI • 4 Technical Brief • Priority policy and actions of local government to promote climate-resilient and inclusive water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) in Sarlahi and Dailekh districts in Nepal Local level: WASH plans in several local governments, such as Lalbandhi Municipality and Malangwa Municipality, include a dedicated section on GESI that addresses the inclusion of women and marginalized communities in program selection, implementation, repair and maintenance, and policymaking. These plans emphasize prioritizing projects that ensure WASH access for marginalized communities and mandate the inclusion of women in WASH committees. However, beyond promoting participation, WASH plans lack comprehensive strategies and, most importantly, adequate budgets to ensure implementation. Limited provisions for addressing climate change in policies: The Drinking Water and Sanitation Act 2022 (GoN 2022) addresses conservation of water sources and springs, protecting them from floods and landslides, preventing pollution and safeguarding water sources from destruction and extinction. However, it does not explicitly mention climate change and climate change-induced disasters. This is also reflected in the subnational plans and policies. The Karnali WASH Bill 2023 (Government of Karnali Province 2023) mentions climate change only in the context of groundwater conservation. Most local governments in both districts have limited provisions for addressing climate change within their WASH plans and policies, and attention to those issues is not reflected in their annual planning and budgeting. Very few local governments (e.g., Mahabu rural municipality, Dungeshor rural municipality) have committed budget lines for inclusive climate- resilient drinking water projects in their annual planning. Limited human resources: Currently, most local governments have assigned WASH-related roles and responsibilities to existing staff, often municipal engineers, as an additional duty. Most local governments in both districts rely on one individual as the WASH focal person, who usually lacks adequate skills and expertise to oversee all WASH components—drinking water, sanitation and hygiene. Limited financial resources: Fiscal transfers and revenue sharing are the primary financial sources of local governments as their own revenue collection is minimal (ADB 2022). Locally elected representatives from both districts voiced concerns over their limited internal revenue collection. For instance, based on the fiscal year 2024/25 budget speech, the estimated internal revenue of Dullu municipality in Dailekh is 0.76% of their total estimated budget of NPR 1.01 billion.5 Local governments report that programs funded through conditional grants from the federal and provincial governments through fiscal transfers are often insufficient, do not align with local needs, and are struggling with a mismatch between local demands, programs and budgets. In a knowledge-sharing and validation workshop held in May 2024, local government representatives called for greater autonomy and flexibility in using grants that are better suited to their local needs. As Khadka et al. (2023) and WaterAid Nepal (2024) also note, there is a resource gap in the WASH sector, particularly at the local level. In the fiscal year 2023/2024, out of the NPR 42.8 billion allocated for WASH, only NPR 1.3 billion—merely 3% (as shown in Figure 2) was transferred to local governments, highlighting a significant resource gap at the local level. Beyond drinking water systems, other aspects of WASH, such as water source protection, menstruation hygiene management, sanitation, awareness and behavioral change in terms of WASH, have not been prioritized in the annual programs and budgets of the federal and provincial governments. This lack of focus is also reflected at the local government level. Gurans rural municipality in the Dailekh District allocated an estimated budget of NPR 1.3 million6 for drinking water infrastructure out of their total budget of NPR 670 million7 as per their fiscal year 2024/25 budget speech. Gaps in policy implementation: Although legal provisions exist to provide concessions and exemptions in tariffs for water supply to poor and marginalized communities, these provisions have not been effectively implemented at the local level. Similarly, rights ensured for persons with disabilities under the Act on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities 2017 are also not fully realized in practice. The chhaupadi8 practice still continues despite being criminalized under the National Penal (Code) Act, 2017 (MoLJPA 2017). Federal acts and policies also remain unimplemented in some cases. For instance, the Climate Change Policy 2019 requires local governments to establish a climate change section or unit (GoN 2019); the Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Act 2017 requires local governments to form Local Disaster Management Committees (MoHA 2017); and the WASH Policy 2023 calls for local governments to establish WASH units. However, these provisions largely remain unimplemented or inactive even if they are formed due to a lack of financial and human resources at the local level. 5 Approximately USD 7.5 million (exchange rate of USD I = NPR 133.5 as of August 2024) 6 Approximately USD 9,725 7 Approximately USD 5 million 8 Chhaupadi is a deeply rooted taboo where menstruating women and girls are forced to live outside their homes in sheds and are restricted from normal social and cultural activities. In some areas, this practice could also include dietary restrictions, such as the prohibition of dairy products. Figure 2. Budget allocation for WASH in 2023/2024 within federal, provincial and local governments. Source: WaterAid Nepal (2024) 55.4%41.6% 3.0% Budget allocation for WASH in 2023/2024 Federal Provincial Local IWMI • 5 Technical Brief • Priority policy and actions of local government to promote climate-resilient and inclusive water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) in Sarlahi and Dailekh districts in Nepal A call to action: Policy recommendations for local governments Aligning local policies with national policies and goals and contextualizing local needs: Local WASH plans and policies should align with the Constitution of Nepal 2015 (GoN 2015), federal acts and policies such as the Drinking Water and Sanitation Act (GoN 2022), the Local Government Operation Act (GoN 2017) and other sectoral policies, as well as address specific local challenges and opportunities to cater to unique local contexts. Local governments should also establish their own WASH targets that support and align with national goals. The provisions made in the 2015 Constitution, national policies and acts regarding inclusivity and addressing climate change should translate into local policies. Additionally, local policies and programs should incorporate inclusion at every stage of planning, implementation and monitoring. Capacity building: There are many areas of capacity building at the local level, such as: • Capacity building of user committees: Water User Committees (WUC) often lack technical and financial resources. Therefore, it is important to provide comprehensive training to these groups on operational procedures, maintenance practices and financial management and establish repair and maintenance funds. • Empowering wards: According to the Local Government Operation Act 2017 (GoN 2017), wards are responsible for the operation and maintenance of public toilets, collection and management of household waste, conservation of community taps, monitoring of activities of Water User Committees, overseeing repair and maintenance and maintaining updated data on marginalized groups, Dalits, women, persons with disabilities and children (GoN 2017). Therefore, local governments should provide wards with enough financial and technical support to enable them to reach their full potential. • Strengthening the capacity of local governments: The capacity of local government officials and elected representatives should be strengthened through targeted training programs on policy drafting, implementation strategies, monitoring frameworks, resource mobilization and diversifying revenue sources. They further need sensitization to effectively address inequalities. • Establishing dedicated WASH units: To prevent overburdening existing staff, dedicated WASH units comprising technical and social experts should be established within local governments. Strengthening monitoring and accountability mechanisms: Local governments should develop and implement monitoring frameworks that extend beyond infrastructure to encompass policy implementation, service quality and behavior change through clear guidelines and criteria with indicators in local-level plans and policies. Likewise, local governments should establish mechanisms to engage people during planning, implementation and monitoring, as well as create a mechanism through which people can report issues and suggest improvements. Engagement with the private sector and civil society: Local governments should explore options for engaging the private sector (both private enterprises and social enterprises) in the operation, maintenance and management of water supply and sanitation services where user committees are unable to manage these systems. Local governments should also collaborate with civil society organizations for advocacy and awareness-raising programs. Ensuring budget for climate-resilient and inclusive WASH: Local governments should advocate for increased funding to support climate-resilient and inclusive WASH systems. This funding should prioritize not only the development of new infrastructure but also the maintenance of existing systems, as well as programs promoting sanitation and hygiene, awareness and behavior change. Climate-resilient WASH services, though initially more expensive, offer long-term benefits by withstanding climate impacts and enabling effective climate adaptation and financing. A young boy carrying water for household use in Dailekh, Nepal (photo: Vision360). IWMI • 6 Technical Brief • Priority policy and actions of local government to promote climate-resilient and inclusive water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) in Sarlahi and Dailekh districts in Nepal References ADB (Asian Development Bank). 2022. Strengthening fiscal decentralization in Nepal’s transition to federalism. 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Most of Tarai is reeling under unusual mid-monsoon drought. The Kathmandu Post, August 1, 2023. Available at https://kathmandupost.com/climate-environment/2023/08/01/most-of-tarai-is-reeling-under-unusual-mid-monsoon-drought (accessed on November 1, 2024). Sharma, B.; Nepal, S.; Gyawali, D.; Pokharel, G.S.; Wahid, S.; Mukherji, A.;…Shrestha, A.B. 2016. Springs, storage towers and water conservation in the midhills of Nepal. Kathmandu, Nepal: International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD). (ICIMOD Working Paper 2016/3). https://hdl.handle.net/10568/90599 Thapa, B.; Bhattarai, C.; Dahal, N.; Tiwari, S.; Jacobsen, D. 2023. Drying of springs in the Himalayan Region of Nepal: Perspectives of local government leaders on causes, consequences, and conservation efforts. Mountain Research and Development 43(4): R9–R15. https://doi.org/10.1659/mrd.2023.00007 WaterAid. 2021. Integrating climate resilience with WASH system strengthening. London, UK: WaterAid. Available at https://washmatters. wateraid.org/sites/g/files/jkxoof256/files/integrating-climate-resilience-with-wash-system-strengthening.pdf (accessed on November 13, 2024). WaterAid Nepal. 2024. WASH financing in Nepal 2023/2024. Fact sheet. Lalitpur, Nepal: WaterAid Nepal. Available at https://washmatters. wateraid.org/sites/g/files/jkxoof256/files/2024-05/Financing-factsheet-WASH-Nepal-2023-2024.pdf (accessed on July 30, 2024). IWMI • 8 Technical Brief • Priority policy and actions of local government to promote climate-resilient and inclusive water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) in Sarlahi and Dailekh districts in Nepal International Water Management Institute (IWMI) Headquarters 127 Sunil Mawatha, Pelawatte, Battaramulla, Sri Lanka Mailing address: P. O. Box 2075, Colombo, Sri Lanka Tel: +94 11 2880000 Fax: +94 11 2786854 Email: iwmi@cgiar.org www.iwmi.org The International Water Management Institute (IWMI) is an international, research-for-development organization that works with governments, civil society and the private sector to solve water problems in developing countries and scale up solutions. Through partnership, IWMI combines research on the sustainable use of water and land resources, knowledge services and products with capacity strengthening, dialogue and policy analysis to support implementation of water management solutions for agriculture, ecosystems, climate change and inclusive economic growth. Headquartered in Colombo, Sri Lanka, IWMI is a CGIAR Research Center with offices in 15 countries and a global network of scientists operating in more than 55 countries.IWMI is a CGIAR Research Center Authors Sumitra KC, National Researcher - Policy and Water Governance, International Water Management Institute (IWMI), Kathmandu, Nepal (s.kc@cgiar.org) Manohara Khadka, Country Representative, IWMI, Kathmandu, Nepal (m.khadka@cgiar.org) Santosh Nepal, Researcher - Water Resources and Climate Change and Project Leader of RES-WASH project (s.nepal@cgiar.org) Sanju Koirala, National Researcher - Social Science, IWMI, Kathmandu, Nepal (s.koirala@cgiar.org) Mamata Aryal, Consultant, IWMI, Kathmandu, Nepal (m.aryal@cgiar.org) The project This two-year (2023–2024) research project titled Addressing climate vulnerability in Nepal through resilient inclusive WASH systems (RES- WASH) is implemented by the International Water Management Institute (IWMI) office in Nepal in collaboration with Bagmati Welfare Society Nepal (BWSN), the Global Institute for Interdisciplinary Studies (GIIS), Everest Club, Dailekh (EC) and the National Association of Rural Municipalities in Nepal (NARMIN). The project is funded by the Water for Women Fund, a key initiative of the Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade (DFAT) as part of the Australian Aid program. Contacts Ms. Sumitra KC, IWMI, Nepal (s.kc@cgiar.org) Dr. Santosh Nepal, IWMI, Nepal (s.nepal@cgiar.org) Published: December 2024