Situational analysis of the food safety control system in Rwanda Martin Ntawubizi, Anselme Shyaka, Christine Mukantwali, Eugène Niyonzima, Jerome Ndahimana and Jean Baptiste Ndahetuye September 2020 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The study on the Rwanda Food Safety (FS) control systems has been carried out as a part of the Situational Analysis of Food Safety Control Systems in East Africa (including Ethiopia), using a structured guide from the ILRI team. This was endeavoured as a follow up to the food safety training workshop in Addis Ababa in July 2019, which was fully attended by the authors (Rwanda Team). We therefore would like to express our deep gratitude to the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) in Nairobi and the CGIAR Research Program on Agriculture for Nutrition and Health (A4NH) for organizing the authors’ training and funding for and supporting the study. We would also take the opportunity to extend our respectful recognition to the Management of our respective employers: University of Rwanda (UR), Rwanda Standards Board (RSB), and Rwanda Agriculture and Animal Resources Development Board (RAB) for having supported our FS training and allocating necessary resources to allow us carrying out the FS control system assessment in Rwanda. Specifically, our thankful message goes to ILRI team, led by Professor Erastus Kangethe, for the guidance and continuous support toward achievement of every single study objective. By this opportunity, we would like to recognize the generous support from all key informants and other resource persons for their precious time and information to support this study. This report was funded in part by the generous support of the American people through the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) and the Feed the Future Innovation Lab for Food Safety under Cooperative Agreement No. 7200AA19LE00003. The contents are the responsibility of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of USAID or the U.S. government. i Contents ACRONYMS............................................................................................................................................................ iii EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ........................................................................................................................................... v 1.0 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................................ 1 2.0 METHODOLOGY ............................................................................................................................................... 1 3.0 SUMMARY OF FINDINGS ................................................................................................................................. 1 3.1 Regulation and control: Food control management ....................................................................................... 1 3.2 Important food law changes in the past 10 years ......................................................................................... 21 3.3 Food safety risk assessment in Rwanda ........................................................................................................ 24 3.4 Policies and regulations ................................................................................................................................. 24 3.5 Regulation and control: inspection ............................................................................................................... 34 3.6 Regulation and control: private sector .......................................................................................................... 42 3.7 Regulation and control: civil society ............................................................................................................. 42 3.8 Production and consumption levels .............................................................................................................. 43 3.9 Linkages between the formal, informal, and export food sectors ............................................................... 46 3.10 Traceability schemes in operation .............................................................................................................. 47 3.11 Hazard and foodborne disease occurrence ................................................................................................. 50 3.12 Food laboratories and disease reporting .................................................................................................... 52 4.0 CONCLUSION .................................................................................................................................................. 58 5.0 REFERENCES ................................................................................................................................................... 60 ii ACRONYMS A4NH CGIAR Research Program on Agriculture for Nutrition and Health ADECOR Association pour la défense des droits des consommateurs au Rwanda AGOA African Growth and Opportunity Act ARSO African Organisation for Standardisation ASF animal-source foods AU African Union AUC African Union Commission AU-IBAR African Union Interafrican Bureau for Animal Resources BRD Banque Rwandaise dé Developpement CAADP Comprehensive Africa Agriculture Development Programme CAC Codex Alimentarius Commission CAVM College of Agriculture, Animal Sciences and Veterinary Medicine CBD Convention on Biological Diversity CGIAR Consultative Group for International Agricultural Research CHROR Consumer Human Rights Organization of Rwanda CHUB University Teaching Hospital of Butare CHUK University Teaching Hospital of Kigali CICA Agricultural Information and Communication Centre CMHS College of Medicine and Health Sciences COMESA Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa CPD continuous professional development EAC East African Community EU European Union FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations FBD foodborne disease FS food safety FSMS food safety management system FV fruits and vegetables GAP Good Agricultural Practices GFSP Global Food Safety Partnership GSP Generalized System of Preferences HACCP Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point IFPRI International Food Policy Research Institute IHR International Health Regulations ILRI International Livestock Research Institute INFOSAN International Food Safety Authorities Network IPPC International Plant Protection Convention ISO International Organization for Standardization MCC milk collection centre MINAGRI Ministry of Agriculture and Animal Resources MINALOC Ministry of Local Government MINEDUC Ministry of Education MINICOM Ministry of Trade and Industry MINIJUST Ministry of Justice MOH Ministry of Health NAEB National Agricultural Export Development Board NECDP National Early Childhood Development Program NEP National Enquiry Point NEPAD New Partnership for Africa’s Development NICA National Standards Inspectorate, Competition and Consumer Protection Authority NIRDA National Industrial Research and Development Agency NISR National Institute of Statistics of Rwanda iii NISR-AHS National Institute of Statistics of Rwanda Agricultural Household Survey NISR-CFSVA National Institute of Statistics of Rwanda Comprehensive Food Security and Vulnerability and Nutrition Analysis Survey NPPS National Plant Protection Services NRL National Reference Laboratory OIE World Organisation for Animal Health PAEPARD European Partnership in Agricultural Research for Development PIH Partners In Health PPP public–private partnerships PSF Private Sector Federation PSTA4 Strategic Plan for Agriculture Transformation 4 QMS quality management system RAB Rwanda Agriculture and Animal Resources Development Board RALIS Rwanda Agriculture and Livestock Inspection and Certification Services RBC Rwanda Biomedical Centre RCA Rwanda Cooperative Agency RFMA Rwanda Food and Medicine Authority RHCC Rwanda Health Communication Centre RIB Rwanda Investigation Bureau RICA Rwanda Inspectorate, Competition and Consumer Protection Authority RICA Rwanda Institute for Conservation Agriculture RNP Rwanda National Police RSB Rwanda Standards Board RW-CHM Rwanda Clearing House Mechanism RW-FDA Rwanda Food and Drugs Authority SOP standard operating procedure SDGs Sustainable Development Goals SPIU Single Project Implementation Unit SSA sub-Saharan Africa TADs transboundary animal diseases TBT Technical Barriers to Trade Agreement UGHE University of Global Health Equity UN-SDGs United Nations Sustainable Development Goals UR University of Rwanda WB World Bank WHO World Health Organization WIPO World Intellectual Property Organization WTO World Trade Organization WTO SPS World Trade Organization Agreement on Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures WTO TBT World Trade Organization Technical Barriers to Trade iv EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Food safety is important for public health, food security, and economic development, and national governments have a role to play in ensuring available foods are fit for human consumption. The Rwanda Food Safety (FS) control system was reviewed (as part of a situational analysis study on food safety in East Africa). The review was done as a follow up to the food safety training workshop held in Addis Ababa in July 2019, and organized by the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) in Nairobi and the CGIAR Research Program on Agriculture for Nutrition and Health (A4NH). About six to seven participants from countries from East Africa (including Ethiopia) attended the workshops. After the workshop, workshop attendees in each country were expected to work together and provide a report that was reflective of the food safety situation in the country. Each team member had consent to participate in the review before initiation of data collection. A structured checklist, developed by ILRI, was used to guide the process, and included collecting data on food laws, regulations, policies and strategies, stakeholders’ involvement in food safety, and priority food safety issues as well as existing laboratories and their capacities. The findings were synthesized into a report (which is expected to be an update of a previous review). Overall, the Rwanda report provides the most recent information on: 1) the stakeholders in food safety, 2) policies or strategies and regulations in place, 3) food safety problems, and 4) priority areas for intervention, and forms a good basis for future planning on food safety, both at the country and regional levels. v 1.0 INTRODUCTION In 2010, the global burden of 31 food hazards was found to be 33 million DALYs (A.H. et al., 2015). Children under five years bore 40% of the burden. The study found foodborne diarrhoea infections, particularly non- typhoid Salmonella enterica, to be responsible for 230,000 deaths. The global burden of animal source foods (ASF) was 168 DALYS per 100,000 population (Li et al., 2019). Foodborne diseases in low- and middle-income countries cost about USD 110 billion a year with sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) accounting for US $16.7 billion (Jaffee et al., 2019). Similarly to many countries within the East African Region, foodborne diseases are not uncommon in Rwanda. A recent report published by the World Health Organization (WHO)/Joint External Evaluation of International Health Regulations (IHR) core capacities for the Republic of Rwanda (World Health Organization, 2018), has indicated that diarrheal diseases are among the top 10 causes of morbidity and mortality, and are the third most common cause of death in children under five years in the country. In the last five years, 83% of diarrheal disease was related to food and waterborne diseases (typhoid fever, shigellosis, non-bloody diarrhoea, cholera and food poisoning, and other emerging food and waterborne diseases). Food safety is important for public health, and trade in safe products can improve national economies. Increasing food trade by 2025 is one of the goals in the Malabo Declaration (AU, 2014), but achieving this is likely to be delayed if the seemingly high problem of food safety is not properly addressed. Unsafe food can also delay achievement of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and negate what has previously being achieved. Ensuring food is safe is a key role of national governments. An effective national food control system protects the health and safety of domestic consumers and provides a sound regulatory foundation for domestic and international trade in food (FAO, 2003). Understanding the functionality of such a system would enable countries to develop policies and legislations that not only improve health but also spur development. It is against this background that the Rwanda food safety (FS) control system has been reviewed. In the review, the various components of the system were analysed and any gaps found were highlighted. The current review was part of the situational analyses of food safety control systems in East Africa and Ethiopia. The study follows from a situational analysis of food safety that was conducted in 2011 in eight countries in SSA, including three of the countries targeted by the proposed situational analysis. It is largely supported by the Food Safety Innovation Lab with contribution from CRP A4NH. Trends and progress in the country’s FS control system were assessed, and this was done as a follow up to the food safety training workshop in Addis Ababa in July 2019, organized by the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) in Nairobi and the CGIAR Research Program on Agriculture for Nutrition and Health (A4NH). The work was conducted from October 2019 to June 2020, pulling together available information with regard to the country food safety control system covering the last 10 years (2010–2020). 2.0 METHODOLOGY Local food safety expects in Rwanda (and those who had attended the 2019 training organized by ILRI) participated in the desk review. A structured checklist was used to guide the data collection exercise. The checklist was designed to collect data on food laws, regulations and policies, stakeholders’ involvement in food safety, priority food safety issues, existing laboratories, and their capacities. Online materials were sought and reviewed, and content found to be relevant was extracted and summarized into a report. A draft report was reviewed multiple times with the advanced one being reviewed by an expert knowledgeable of the country’s food safety situation. The aim was to provide a final draft that is reflective of the food safety landscape of the country. The team leader ensured everyone in the group had signed the informed consent form before initiation of data collection activities. Although a workshop had been planned to validate the review findings, this activity was not possible due to COVID-19 restrictions. 3.0 SUMMARY OF FINDINGS 3.1 Regulation and control: Food control management An inventory of various food safety stakeholders, their affiliations, and their operational mechanisms have been given in the report. This information is limited to the last 10 years (2010–2020) and pertains to aspects of food safety roles within various food value chains and supply, regulation, inspection and licensing, sanction, surveillance, etc. Included is a list of stakeholders and the mechanisms they use to regulate, inspect, and disseminate information. Data are presented by category: government institutions/mechanisms (Table 1), private sector (Table 2), and regional and international organizations (Table 3). 1 Table 1. Rwanda Food Safety Stakeholders Analysis in June 2020 (Government Institutions) Stakeholder Ministry or other authority Where in the food chain Mechanisms The Republic of The Constitution of the Role: a. Regulation of state and rule of laws, recognition and supremacy of laws Rwanda Republic of Rwanda, The Constitution of the Republic of Rwanda of 2003 and treaties—Article 95: "The hierarchy of laws is as follows: 1° published and overseen by was revised in 2015, and passed by referendum on Constitution; 2° organic law; 3° international treaties and agreements the Office of the Premier December 18, 2015 (T. R. of Rwanda, 2015). ratified by Rwanda; 4° ordinary law; 5° orders Minister. b. Information for the general public (all actors) regarding laws and policies, • State and rule of laws (community management) including those regulating food safety, quality control, and certification, are • Quality control (pollution, public health, regularly published by the Office of the Premier Minister through the hazardous substances) Official Gazette and other government publications • Certification (assuring property rights, etc.) (https://www.primature.gov.rw/index.php?id=63). The Parliament of Rwanda The Parliament of Rwanda is bicameral. It consists of a. Regulation of all food laws, regulations, international treaties, and two chambers: the Senate and the Chamber of agreements are scrutinized and passed by the Parliament. Food safety Deputies. The main functions and powers of both the implementing authorities draw their power from the Parliament of chambers include representing the population, passing Rwanda. legislation, and scrutinizing and overseeing executive b. Surveillance of food legislation implementation (overseeing the execution action. of scrutinized and passed laws, including those specific to food safety). The Senate, in particular, supervises the application of c. Other: the Parliament represents the general public, producers, the fundamental principles referred to in Articles 10 processors, transporters, consumers, etc. and the provisions of articles 56 and 57 of the (https://www.gov.rw/government/legislature/senate) Constitution. Expected levels of involvement in food legislation: 1. Production 2. Harvesting/collection 3. Storage/post-harvest management 4. Processing 5. Transportation 6. Import/export 7. Food safety and quality control 8. Certification Ministry of The Republic of Rwanda The Ministry of Agriculture an Animal Resources is the a. Regulation of Good Agricultural Practices (GAPs), agricultural technology Agriculture and highest policy-making organ, regulating, developing, upgrading and skills development (including ICT) through the ICT for Animal and managing suitable programs of transformation Rwanda Agriculture (ICT4RAg) Strategy, meeting quality and safety Resources and modernization of agriculture and livestock to standards in food markets, regulation of plant pests (Ministry of (MINAGRI) ensure food and nutrition security and to contribute to Agriculture, 2018; Republic of Rwanda, 2016 and Republic of Rwanda, the national economy. 2016b), regulation of plant pests and import of plant material (https://www.minagri.gov.rw/fileadmin/user_upload/webstore/List_of_re 2 The MINAGRI plan of action focuses on four priority gulated_plant_pests_in_Rwanda.pdf), regulation of prohibited pesticides programs: (https://www.minagri.gov.rw/fileadmin/user_upload/documents/ALICS/lis 1. Agriculture and Animal Resource Intensification, t_of_restricted_chemicals.pdf), etc. 2. Research, Technology Transfer and b. Surveillance of plant pest/disease monitoring, quality of agricultural and Professionalization of Farmers, livestock products for export, management of trade issues related to 3. Value Chain Development and Private Sector animal or plant health in order to meet the IPPC and WTO-SPS agreements. Investment, and RALIS is also vested with the mission to conduct plant pest diagnosis and 4. Institutional Development and Agricultural Cross- pest risk analysis. MINAGRI also does surveillance on post-harvest Cutting Issues. management and practices through its Post-Harvest Handling and Storage Task Force (https://www.minagri.gov.rw/index.php?id=571). Expected food value chain levels of involvement c. MINAGRI disseminates valuable packages of information to producers include the safety of animal source foods, fruits and (including legumes, fruits, and animal source foods), investors, processors, vegetables, and staples. This is accomplished by means and consumers through the very popular and accessible African Services of public investments, regulation, and promotion of and Digital Inclusion in Africa Application Good Agricultural Practices (GAPs), including: (https://digital.apps.fao.org/home). The provided information is customized to local laws and regulations and varies from weather and • Production crop calendars, control of animal diseases and epidemics, optimization of • Harvesting/collection livestock feeding, agri-marketplaces (e.g., market mapping), e-nutrifood for • Storage/post-harvest management commodities including bananas, tomatoes, and milk (e.g., general • Processing information and GAPs with regard to harvesting, processing, packaging and • Transportation transportation for bananas and tomatoes; or milking, storage, chilling • Import/export point, processing, pooling, collection point and transportation, etc. • Food safety and quality control (https://digital.apps.fao.org/e-nutrifood/subject/milk. • Certification General information to stakeholders (including consumers) is regularly published through its popular web page (https://www.minagri.gov.rw/index.php?id=748) as well as radio and TV shows (Rwanda Broadcasting Agency [RBA]). Information sharing is also assured through MINAGRI’s communication platform, Agricultural Information and Communication Centre, or CICA (https://www.minagri.gov.rw/index.php?id=574). d. Other institutional and legal support/advocacy to government and key donors. MINAGRI is a policy-making and powerful lobbying presence in Rwanda with regard to food quality and safety (policies, laws, and agreements). The Ministry also remains a partner of choice for mobilization of resources and advocacy for investment. Rwanda Ministry of Agriculture and Role: RALIS is a department of MINAGRI, aiming to a. Inspection of plants and/or plant material health, quality of animal Agriculture and Animal Resources enhance safe trade by limiting the introduction and products for trade, import of animal pets, and animal products. MINAGRI- Livestock (MINAGRI) the spread of new pests and to improve the quality of RALIS also conducts licensing of plants and animal products for Inspection and agricultural and livestock products for export. In trade/exports). 3 Certification addition, RALIS manages trade issues related to animal Services (RALIS) or plant health in order to meet the International Plant “This department is responsible of the overall coordination of all the functions Protection Convention (IPPC) and World Trade that the National Plant Protection Services (NPPS) is supposed to fulfil, such as Organization Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures the enforcement of the Rwanda plant health law and regulations for (WTO SPS) agreements. phytosanitary measures necessary for trade, plant pest/disease monitoring, surveillance and diagnosis, conducting pest risk analysis, and conduct inspection Expected levels of involvement in the food value chain: and certification. It also delivers animal products certification services including • Production (monitoring IPPC, WTO SPS) enforcement of sanitary laws, monitoring and surveillance of animal diseases, • Import/export (monitoring IPPC, WTO SPS) and animal inspection and certification. In addition to this, it contributes to the • Food safety and quality control (plant preparation and the implementation of agrochemical law” (RALIS: pest/disease monitoring, surveillance and https://www.minagri.gov.rw/index.php?id=613). diagnosis, pest risk analysis, and inspection) b. Sanctions are directed to agrochemical dealers for noncompliance to • Certification (plant and animal products regulations for phytosanitary measures and agrochemical law. certification) c. Surveillance of plant pest/disease monitoring, quality of agricultural and livestock products for export, management of trade issues related to animal or plant health in order to meet the IPPC and WTO-SPS agreements. RALIS is also vested with the mission to conduct plant pest diagnosis and pest risk analysis. d. RALIS serves as the Rwanda inquiry point to disseminate information to stakeholders and the general public for all matters related to World Trade Organization Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures (WTO SPS) agreement (M. of T. and I. The Republic of Rwanda, 2010b). e. Other: RALIS delivers animal products certification services, including enforcement of sanitary laws, monitoring and surveillance of animal diseases, animal inspection, and certification. RALIS serves as the country focal point to the International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC): Beatrice Uwumukiza E-mail: buwumukiza@yahoo.fr; buwumukiza@minagri.gov.org MINAGRI, PO BOX 621 Kigali-RWANDA (https://www.ippc.int/en/countries/rwanda/). Rwanda Ministry of Agriculture and Role: RAB was Established by Law N°14/2017 of a. Contributes to establishing, publicizing, and enforcing laws and regulations Agriculture and Animal Resources 14/04/2017 (O. G. Republic of Rwanda, 2017a). The governing agriculture, animal husbandry, research, and related products. Animal (MINAGRI) institution falls in the category of non-commercial RAB works closely with the local administration (districts) for effective law Resources public institutions. enforcement. Board (RAB) Specifically, with regard to food safety, 1) RAB b. Inspection of imports of domestic animals, semen, fertilized eggs, seeds, contributes to the development and implementation plants and cuttings, and other agricultural and animal husbandry products. of the national policy, laws, and strategies in RAB also ensures and monitors activities of production, control, and trade 4 agriculture and animal resources; 2) searches, collects, of selected seeds as well as licensing of agricultural and animal husbandry provides, and disseminates to farmers information, products meant for export, standards of veterinary and crop protection services, and other agricultural and animal resources products, and their import and export. extension activities that increase the quantity and c. Surveillance of animal diseases and implementation of appropriate quality of productivity required on the market and by strategies meant for ensuring control, prevention, diagnosis and treatment industries; 3) establishes mechanisms to support of animal diseases; Prevention and control of plant diseases, insects and farmers to preserve and add value to the productivity; pests and implementation of appropriate strategies meant for ensuring 4) conducts research on animal/plant diseases and control and prevention of plant diseases. pests that attack field and stored crops, puts in place d. Extension services offered by RAB through its 13 stations benefit and implements appropriate control measures to associations and cooperatives of producers, agrochemical dealers prevent and control them; 5) prevents, inspects, (specialized in import and distribution of agricultural inputs/chemicals, investigates and monitors the movement of animals including pesticides), Processors (Including those involved in post-harvest and animal products that are not processed by management), traders of agricultural and animal sources products. industries in order to prevent the introduction and e. Information is disseminated to associations and cooperatives of spread of animal diseases. agricultural producers and agro-chemical and agro-inputs dealers through an innovative “SMART NKUNGANIRE SYSTEM” Expected levels of involvement in the food value chain: (https://smartnkunganire.rw/). Also, a large information package is • Production channelled to traders of animals and animal products. • Harvesting/collection (https://arpms.rab.gov.rw/). • Storage/post-harvest management • Processing f. Other: • Food safety and quality control RAB is the Country Partner to the World Organization for Animal Health • Certification (OIE): Rwanda Delegate: Dr Fabrice Ndayisenga Head of Department Rwanda Agriculture and Animal Resources Development Board - RAB Ministry of Agriculture and Animal Resources P.O. Box 5016, Kigali, RWANDA. National Ministry of Agriculture and Role: NAEB advises on and implements policy and strategies for developing Agricultural Animal Resources Established by the law No 13/2017 of 14/04/2017 as a exports of agricultural and livestock products meeting international market Export (MINAGRI) commercial public institution (O. G. Republic of requirements. The institution has a “say” in facilitating negotiations for Development Rwanda, 2017b). NAEB has the following key roles: 1) setting and publishing minimum farm gate prices for agricultural and Board (NAEB) to advise on the development of/implementing policy livestock export commodities in collaboration with stakeholders. and strategies for developing exports of agricultural a. Participate in the setting and checking of quality standards for agriculture and livestock products meeting international market and livestock export commodities in collaboration with other relevant requirements; 2) to work with stakeholders’ networks institutions. Additionally, the institution handles licensing (certificates of and coordinate their activities in relation to the authenticity and origin of agricultural and livestock export commodities). processing and export of agricultural and livestock Also, NAEB is in charge of identifying places for installation of factories and products; 3) to provide timely and cost-effective 5 support services required for enhanced international other activities (premises) meant for processing agricultural and livestock competitiveness of the private sector in agricultural products for export (NAEB Quality Policy, n.d.). and livestock exports; 4) to identify places for b. NAEB works with stakeholders’ networks and coordinates their activities in installation of factories and other activities meant for relation to the processing and export of agricultural and processing agricultural and livestock products for livestock products. It puts in place strategies designed to provide support export; 5) to participate in the setting and checking of and train private operators and cooperatives involved in export of quality standards for agriculture and livestock export agricultural and livestock products. commodities in collaboration with other relevant c. Information is disseminated to producers and traders (accessible to the institutions; and 6) to issue certificates of authenticity general public as well) and is provided in regard to quality control and origin of agricultural and livestock export procedures through its Trade Information Portal commodities. (https://naeb.gov.rw/index.php?id=289) and Rwanda Trade Portal (https://rwandatrade.rw/EmbedSearch?l=en&embed=true&includeSearch Expected levels of involvement in the food value chain: =true). • Import/export • Food safety and quality control, d. Other: • Certification Public Investment: NAEB contributes to investments aimed at increasing production, industries, and infrastructure for adding value to agricultural and livestock products for export. Advocacy: establishing relations and cooperation with regional and international organizations with the aim of improving operations and collaboration with regards to exports of agricultural and livestock products. Ministry of The Republic of Rwanda Role: a. Regulation of food supplements (Republic of Rwanda, 2010), social and Health (MOH) The mission of the Ministry of Health is to provide and behavior change, nutrition and hygiene (National Early Childhood continually improve affordable promotive, preventive, Development Program [NECDP] & RBC, 2018), food and nutrition (Republic curative, and rehabilitative healthcare services of the of Rwanda, 2014). highest quality, thereby contributing to the reduction b. Key information can be disseminated through the MOH Information of poverty and enhancing the general well-being of the webpages (https://www.moh.gov.rw/index.php?id=390) and research population. database. The nature of information would include legal frameworks, policies, strategies plans, reports, health data, key health indicators, Expected levels of involvement in the food value chain: guidelines and protocols, research publications, etc. • Food safety and quality control (hygiene, c. Other institutional and legal support/advocacy to government and key foodborne disease prevention, diagnosis, control, donors: information gathering, foodborne outbreak, food MOH is a strategic stakeholder for the food safety agenda by controlling recall, etc.). more than 1,311 health facilities across Rwanda (2016 database) (https://www.moh.gov.rw/index.php?id=551). This includes eight National Referral Hospitals (NRH), four Provincial Hospitals, 36 District Hospitals, and 126 Private Clinics and polyclinics. In addition, the MOH has a close “say” on two University Teaching Hospitals (CHUK in Kigali and CHUB in the Southern Province). 6 Rwanda Food Ministry of Health (MOH) Role: a. With regards to food safety, the institution regulates human and veterinary and Drugs Rwanda FDA is a non-commercial public institution, drugs, processed food for humans and animals, food supplements and Authority (RW- established by the Law Nº 003/2018 of 09/02/2018 (O. fortified foods, and poisonous substances. It is also vested with the FDA) G. Republic of Rwanda, 2018b). authority to regulate compliance with quality standards for the With regard to food safety, FDA has the mission to: 1) manufacture, export, storage, sale, distribution, use, and export of regulate human and veterinary processed foods and products regulated by this Law. other biological products used in clinical and drug food b. Inspection of imported and exported food and beverages, veterinary drugs supplements, food fortificants, fortified foods, and products, household chemicals, and medical and diagnosis devices. poisonous substances, management of unfit food FDA also inspects food and drugs at ports of entry and licensing (premises products, and clinical trials on pharmaceutical used in the manufacture of products regulated by this Law (industry and products for human and veterinary use; 2) regulate outlets). Additionally, FDA licenses labels, packages, and raw materials compliance with quality standards relating to the used in the manufacture of products regulated by the law, as well as manufacture, storage, sale, distribution, use, import laboratory and cleaning chemicals and pesticides. and export, labelling, packaging, and raw materials c. Sanction abilities include the following: used in the manufacture of products regulated under 1) FDA has the power to grant or withdraw authorization relating to this Law; 3) regulate laboratory and cleaning chemicals matters regulated under the Law Nº 003/2018 of 09/02/2018 (Republic of and pesticides as well as premises involved in the Rwanda, 2018); 2) Seize and confiscate any product regulated under this manufacture of products regulated under this Law; 4) Law not conforming to the provisions of this Law; 3) Impose administrative establish, approve, and publish the list of human and sanctions arising from breach of the provisions of this Law. veterinary food regulated under this Law for which d. Surveillance of processed food, food supplements, and fortified food to marketing authorization has been granted; 5) establish meet the prescribed quality standards before they are placed on the the quality assurance and quality control of products market. regulated under this Law through designated quality e. Establish, approve, and publish the list of human and veterinary food and control laboratories when necessary. pharmaceutical products as well as other products regulated under this Law for which marketing authorization has been granted; Expected levels of involvement in the food value chain: establish and publish the list of prohibited cosmetics; • Storage/post-harvest management disseminate information on quality and safety of products regulated under • Processing this Law to health professionals and to other concerned persons. • Transportation f. Other • Import/export FDA possesses a quality control laboratory that analyzes human and • Food safety and quality control veterinary medicine, medical and diagnostic devices, and food products), • Certification etc. Rwanda Ministry of Health (MOH) Role: a. Surveillance of activities in the field of disease prevention, treatment, and Biomedical RBC was established by the Law N° 54/2010 of research. Centre (RBC) 25/01/2011 (O. G. Republic of Rwanda, 2011), later b. The RBC’s Rwanda Health Communication Centre (RHCC) is coordinating modified and complemented by the Law N° 48/2012 of health promotion interventions and handling media and public relations 14/01/2013 (O. G. Republic of Rwanda, 2013b). within the health sector (call centre: 114). E.g., in 2018–2019 the call It has a main mission to promote high-quality, centre received over 116,000 calls on various health topics, and over 10 affordable, and sustainable health care services to the million people were reached with messages on disease prevention through various media channels. 7 population through evidence-based interventions and RHCC manages and organizes media and public relations to facilitate access practices guided by ethics and professionalism. to information in order to inform the public on activities and news in the health sector. RHCC is also the Chair of the National Health Promotion, Expected levels of involvement in the food value chain: Social Determinant of Environmental Health Technical Working Group • Food safety and quality control (National (https://rbc.gov.rw/index.php?id=679). Reference Laboratory [NRL]) c. Other RBC is established as a country leader in Biomedical Laboratory activities through its National Reference Laboratory (NRL). Ministry of The Republic of Rwanda Role: a. Regulation of standards (of 28/06/2013), industrial innovation, and Trade and MINICOM has a core mission to facilitate Rwanda’s processing (Law N° 50/2013 and Law N° 51/2013 of 28/06/2013) (Republic Industry economic transformation through enabling a of Rwanda, 2013); regulation of trade, competition, and consumer (MINICOM) competitive private sector integrated into regional and protection (Law N° 36/2012 of 21/09/2012) (Republic of Rwanda, 2012). global markets, while ensuring a level playing field and MINICOM is the Rwanda custodian of trade treaties and conventions. It the protection of consumers. championed the ratification of the International Sale of Goods adopted in Vienna in 1980, through Law N° 68/2013 of 30/08/2013 (Republic of Expected levels of involvement in the food value chain: Rwanda, 2013), as well as the regulation of private certification products • Storage/post-harvest management and Systems (Law N°17/2012 of 10/07/2012) (Republic of Rwanda, 2012). • Processing Additionally, MINICOM regulates strategies for cross-border trade (M. of • Transportation T. and I. The Republic of Rwanda, 2012) and intellectual property (Republic • Import/export of Rwanda, 2017). • Food safety and quality control (recall system) b. Other • Certification (regulation of private certification). Institutional and legal support/advocacy for government and key donors. Government partner of key local and international organizations involved in trade regulation, e.g., Banque Rwandaise dé Developpement (BRD), Rwanda Development Board (RDB), EAC, COMESA, WTO, WIPO, Word Bank, EU, etc. Rwanda Ministry of Trade and Role: a. Regulation of standards, products, national standards, and conformity Standards Board Industry (MINICOM) RSB was established by the Law N° 50/2013 of assessment (RSB) 28/06/2013 (O. G. Republic of Rwanda, 2013a), with a b. Inspection of products and services and licensing of products and quality mission to 1) establish and publish national standards; service (RSB is an ISO 9001 Certified Body) 2) to disseminate information on standards, technical c. Surveillance of standardization at national, regional, and international regulations relating to standards, and conformity levels assessment; 3) to raise awareness and promote the d. Information dissemination to public on standards, technical regulations importance of standards and quality service as tools to relating to standards, and conformity assessment. improve market access, technology transfer, and The RSB has been designated as the World Trade Organization Technical sustainable development; 4) to provide products and Barriers to Trade (WTO/TBT) National Enquiry Point (NEP) to ensure that quality service certifications and monitor conformity manufacturers, importers, and exporters get the latest information on for issued certifications; 5) to act as a reference standards, technical regulations, and conformity assessment procedures laboratory in the quality domain. available in their target markets. 8 Expected levels of involvement in the food value chain: Detailed information on the following; • Processing • Online standards catalogue (www.portal.rsb.gov.rw) • Food safety and quality control • National Notifications sent to WTO • Certification • Foreign notification e. Other Operates standard and quality assessment laboratory (products, processes). RSB is the Country Partner to the Codex Alimentarius (CAC) of FAO/WHO. The Rwanda Standards Board (RSB) is an ISO Member Body, with Technical Committee Participation (TC: 25) and Participatory Design Conference Participation (PDC: 3). RSB is the Country Partner and affiliate to Regional and International Standardization Bodies; e.g., African Organisation for Standardisation (ARSO), International Standardization Organization (ISO), Codex Alimentarius Commission, IEC, etc. Rwanda Ministry of Trade and RICA was established by the Law N° 31/2017 of a. Regulation of the quality management system in accordance with regional Inspectorate, Industry (MINICOM) 25/07/2017, which also determines or international standards. Competition its mission, organization, and functioning (O. G. b. Inspection of quality and standards conformity for the following: a) trade and Consumer Republic of Rwanda, 2017c). products, b) agrochemicals, c) unprocessed animal products, d) Protection RICA has legal personality and enjoys administrative unprocessed plants and plant products, e) food products. RICA also has the Authority (RICA) and financial autonomy. It is also responsibility to inspect the goods and products that are not inspected by managed in accordance with relevant laws, and it falls other organizations that include: a) agriculture tools and b) animal feeds. within the category of non-commercial public Also inspected are process and mode of production and delivery to institutions consumers of products. Additionally, RICA has the responsibility to It has the following main missions: consider, inspect, register, and issue licenses related to imports, exports, 1) To carry out inspection of quality and standards and goods in connection with food products, plant pharmaceutical conformity for the following trade products: products and agrochemicals, plants, semen, fertilized eggs, seeds, • Agrochemicals seedlings, cuttings, animal food, other items, and processed agricultural, • Unprocessed animal products animal, and forest products. • Unprocessed plants and plant products c. Surveillance of process and mode of production and delivery to consumers • Food products of products, ensuring that imported or exported products falling within the • Process and mode of production and delivery to mission of RICA comply with prescribed quality standards and other laws. consumers of products referred to under item 1° d. Information dissemination: of this Article. • To train and inform a trader and service provider about their rights 2) To establish a quality management system in and obligations under laws related to the mission of RICA. accordance with regional or international standards. • To train and inform a consumer about his/her rights under laws related to the mission of RICA. 9 3) To ensure that the production of goods referred to e. Other under item 1° of this Article meant for public use or • RICA is entitled to ensure the monitoring, knowledge, analysis, and consumption is conducted in accordance with publication of information on the effects of the use of products regulations in force. referred to under Item 10 of Article 6: Responsibilities of RICA. 4) To ensure that imported or exported products falling within the mission of RICA comply with prescribed quality standards and other laws. 5) To consider, inspect, register, and issue licenses related to imports, exports, and goods in connection with food products, plant pharmaceutical products and agrochemicals, plants, semen, fertilized eggs, seeds, seedlings, cuttings, animal food, other items, and processed agricultural, animal, and forest products. RICA also has the power to: 1) Seize suspicious products to verify their compliance with standards. 2) Establish and issue directives related to the mission of RICA. 3) Impose administrative sanctions for breach of laws related to the mission of RICA. National Ministry of Trade and Role: a. Regulation of patenting of inventions (intellectual property) and traditional Industrial Industry (MINICOM) NIRDA was established by the Law N° 51/2013 of knowledge related to trade of research products. Research and 28/06/2013 (O. G. Republic of Rwanda, 2013a). b. Information dissemination on good manufacturing practices, quality Development Importantly, it has a mission to: 1) implement the management systems, and other ISO, such as ISO 22000 on food safety. Agency (NIRDA) national industrial development policy, patent Such information is communicated to food processors to ensure that they inventions and traditional knowledge in relation to are capacitated to achieve these practices in their processes, therefore industrial development, and promote the trade of rendering products more competitive on local and international markets. research products and 2) carry out industrial and c. Other technology development research through the Building the capacity of small and medium enterprises by providing establishment of technology incubation centres and prototype development, reverse engineering, manufacturing facilities, and pilot plants and rural industrialisation. business incubation. Expected levels of involvement in the food value chain: • Production • Harvesting/collection • Storage/post-harvest management • Processing • Standardization procedures (certification process) 10 Intellectual property (copyrights, patents, trade secrets, trademarks, industrial designs, geographical indications) Rwanda Republic of Rwanda Role: a. Organization and administration of cooperative organizations including the Cooperative RCA was established by Law N° 16/2008 of 11/06/2008 national cooperative unions, federations, and confederations. Agency (RCA) (O. G. Republic of Rwanda, 2013d), falling in the b. RCA implements government policies and supervises all matters relating to category of regulatory public institutions. RCA has a cooperative organizations, registration, regulation, and standards. mission to implement government policy in matters c. RCA sets standards and formulates professional ethics for prudent relating to management of cooperative organizations. cooperative organizations, registration, and regulating d. RCA is assisting cooperative organizations in their capacity building through and supervising cooperative organizations including training and seminars for its members and managers; promoting business the national cooperative unions, federations, and entrepreneurship in the cooperative organizations sector. confederations. Expected levels of involvement: • Production (promoting public-private investment, capacity building, and information packages) • Harvesting/collection (promoting public-private Investment, capacity building, and information packages) • Storage/post-harvest management (promoting public-private investment, capacity building, and information packages) • Processing (promoting public-private investment, capacity building and information packages) • Distribution, import/export, etc. Rwanda Rwanda Environment Role: a. Inspection of transboundary movement, transit, handling, and use of all Clearing House Management Agency With regard to the Convention of Biodiversity (CBD- living modified organisms that may have adverse effects on the direct use Mechanism (REMA)/Ministry of Cartagena Protocol), the Clearing-House Mechanism as food or feed or for processing, taking into account risks to human (RW-CHM) Environment and (CHM) constitutes a monitoring network that makes a health. Biodiversity final decision on the domestic use, including placing on b. SRW-CHM monitors the implementation of its obligations under the the market, of a genetically modified organism (GMO) Cartagena Protocol (Art. 33), overseeing the risk assessment and risk that may be subject to transboundary movement for management as part of a decision made in regard to a declared direct use as food or feed or for processing transboundary movement of a GMO (Art. 10, 11, 15 and 16 of the CBD- (https://www.informea.org/en/treaties/cartagena- Cartagena Protocol). protocol/text?tag=5989). a. RW-CHM is obligated to share information to partner CHMs on any For Rwanda, the RW-CHM has been established since decision taken pertaining to the movement of GMOs in food value 11 September 2003 and is functional, hosted in REMA chain/processing (including other related bioconservation matters). (Republic of Rwanda, 2014). 11 Expected levels of involvement; • Import/Export (Monitoring entry of GMO intended for direct use as food or feed, or for processing); Food safety and quality control (Risk assessment, Risk management, Recall system, etc.). Rwanda Republic of Rwanda Role: a. Inspection of trans-boundary movement of food products and persons. Directorate Create a secure, enabling environment for increased b. Information sharing with relevant organizations/institutions involved in General of trade, investments, tourism, and skills development food export/import, food safety, and quality control. Immigration and through professional conduct and offering high-quality Emigration service. The Directorate controls the national official borders and trans-boundary movement of goods and persons (Law N° 04/2011 of 21/03/2011 on immigration and emigration in Rwanda; Presidential Order N° 70/01 of 03/12/2013 establishing Border Posts). More details can be found in Republic of Rwanda (2011), Republic of Rwanda (2013), and O. G. Republic of Rwanda (2018a). Expected levels of involvement; • Import/export • Food safety and quality control (risk assessment, risk management, recall system, etc.). Rwanda The Republic of Rwanda Role: a. Inspection of practices, processes, products, and premises, in accordance National Police The Rwanda National Police (RNP) was established by with local and international laws. (RNP) the Law N°46/2010 OF 14/12/2010 (O. G. Republic of b. RNP operates a forensic laboratory with expertise in toxicology. Rwanda, 2010a). c. Sanction of noncompliance with laws in vigour, across various levels of The Rwanda National Police have jurisdiction over the food value chains. Closely works with the Rwanda Investigation Bureau entire national territory, with the following main (RIB) and the Office of the General Prosecutor for cases of noncompliance duties (with regard to food safety): 1) safeguarding the that constitute crimes, according to the law. fundamental rights guaranteed by the Constitution d. Information sharing with relevant organizations/institutions involved in and other laws; 2) maintaining safety and security of food export/import, food safety, and quality control; people and property. public awareness in regard to food safety issues. RNP would intervene on all levels of food value chain and food safety, in collaboration with other relevant organizations/institution, as long as the two main principles apply. University of Ministry of Education Role: a. With regard to food safety (FS), the following UR entities (colleges) build Rwanda (UR) (MINEDUC) capacity through the development of academic programs (both 12 The University of Rwanda (UR) was established by the undergraduate and postgraduate) and continuous professional Government of Rwanda through the law N° 71/2013 of development (CPD) courses: 10/09/2013 (O. G. Republic of Rwanda, 2013d). • College of Agriculture, Animal Sciences and Veterinary Medicine UR is an important partner to food safety (CAVM); School of Veterinary Medicine (SVM); School of Agriculture advancement through education, research and and Food Science and Technology (SAFST) research uptake, extension and community outreach, • College of Medicine and Health Sciences (CMHS): School of Public and public investment through public–private Health partnerships (PPP). b. UR possesses a number of laboratories, including a food technology lab, microbiology labs, and veterinary lab, capable of handling food poisoning Expected levels of involvement in the food value chain: and toxicology tests, etc. • Production (education, research, public c. The UR is a multi-campus institution offering a wide range of research and investment, extension services) extension services to surrounding stakeholders (farmers, local • Harvesting/collection (education, research, administration, private sector federation [PSF]) extension) at different locations across the country. • Storage/post-harvest management d. Information dissemination • Processing • UR has the capacity to publish peer-reviewed scientific publications • Food safety and quality control through the Rwanda Journal of Medicine and Health Sciences (RJMHS) (https://rjmhs.ur.ac.rw/). RJMHS is a biannual peer-reviewed journal that publishes topics of special interest and those that have relevance in various health- related fields, including, but not limited to, original research, review articles, short communications, letters to the editor, personal views, lessons from the field, editorials, and case reports. The journal may publish supplements of conference proceedings or special editions. • UR possesses the Radio Salus (http://salus.ur.ac.rw/), a powerful information dissemination channel, by FM (97.00 and 101.90 MHz) and live online through My Tuner (https://mytuner- radio.com/radio/radio-salus-432266/), Facebook, YouTube, etc. The radio is very reliable and locally trustful media, able to cover the whole country’s territory. On several occasions, Radio Salus has reported events pertaining to One Health (initiated by the School of Veterinary Medicine and Public Health), as well as other UR campaigns on various topics. e. Other: Research and research uptake services/partnerships. 13 Table 2. Rwanda Food Safety Stakeholders Analysis in June 2020 (Private Sector Operators) Name of the Ministry or other authority Where in the food chain Mechanisms stakeholder University of Partners in Health (PIH), Role: a. Training: Global Health The UGHE was registered in August 2014 as a Private UGHE has created a curricular platform specifically designed to take on the Equity (UGHE) Private Sector Federation University—Rwanda University of Global Health Equity complex, multi-dimensional challenges of equitable care. All courses are (PSF) (103380232)—owned by the Partners in Health (PIH), embedded within a One Health perspective, which recognizes the with the mission to train the next generation of interconnectedness of human, animal, and environmental health. With a Rwandan and international leaders in biosocial focus on both One Health and biosocial principles, UGHE breaks down the approaches to health care delivery, and create a global traditional boundaries between academic disciplines, fostering inter- intellectual hub for delivery of science through professional teaching and learning. education, research, clinical care, and implementation. Academics and research are being delivered through three main programs: • Bachelor of Medicine Expected levels of involvement: Food safety and • Bachelor of Surgery quality control (education, research, publication, • Master of Science in Global Health Delivery (MBBS/MGHD) resource mobilization, etc.) b. Information on food safety and other health/community topics can be spread at a relatively wide coverage through the UGHE popular online blog (https://ughe.org/category/blog/). UGHE also publishes a monthly newsletter (https://ughe.org/category/news/) with high-quality reports and editorials on various health issues/events. The channel would prove to be a significant communication tool to be leveraged to reach a varied audience: general public, scientists, donors, government officials, etc. c. Other Powerful lobbying instrument for information dissemination, publication, and resources mobilisation, UGHE works closely with the Cummings Foundation and the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, as well as the Government of Rwanda. The vast network would be leveraged to support/promote food safety in the country (Education, research, information dissemination, funding, etc.). Rwanda The Howard G. Buffett Role: RICA is a private institute (higher learning a. Training: Institute for Foundation, institution) of Conservation Agriculture and One RICA curriculum emphasizes Conservation Agriculture and One Health Conservation Health, with an objective to seed innovations in principles, teaching students farming, mechanization, and irrigation Agriculture Private Sector Federation agriculture that empower smallholder development techniques that improve agriculture productivity. (RICA) (PSF) and agribusiness to maximize the potential for food RICA students earn a Bachelor of Science degree in Conservation produced by Rwandans for Rwandans Agriculture in a three-year, internationally recognized program through (https://www.rica.rw/about/). five clusters: • Poultry and swine Expected levels of involvement: • Row and forage crops • Vegetable and tree crops 14 • Production (education, research, private • Irrigation and mechanization investment, extension services, etc.) • Dairy science • Harvesting/collection (education, research, private investment, extension services, etc.) RICA offers gracious extension services to the NASHO Irrigation • Storage/post-harvest management Cooperative (NAICO) of smallholder farmers in the Eastern Province. RICA, • Processing in partnership with the Howard G. Buffett Foundation and the Government • Food safety and quality control (education, of Rwanda, works with 2,000 smallholder farming families to support the extension) increased production of 1,173 hectares (2,899 acres) in the drought-prone region. Currently, there is a 63-center pivot irrigation systems, each providing irrigation for as many as 96 smallholder farms, with most averaging 40 smallholder farms. b. Other RICA represents a potential lobbying and resource mobilization hub, where key partners may be contacted to promote food safety: • The Government of Rwanda • Howard G. Buffett Foundation • University of Nebraska-Lincoln (UNL), etc. Farmers’ Rwanda Private Sector Role: The Private Sector Federation – Rwanda (PSF) is a a. Other (Development and Advocacy) Cooperatives, Federation (PSF) professional organization, established in December PSF is a member-based organization that has established business Producers, 1999. It is an umbrella organization that groups 10 development services (BDS) centres in all 30 Districts of Rwanda to Processors, professional chambers. promote training and development as well as advocacy to members. Distributers- Transporters, Expected levels of involvement: Import/Export • Production (private investment) Companies, • Harvesting/collection Consumers, etc. • Storage/post-harvest management • Processing • Distribution, import/export • Consumption 15 Table 3. Rwanda Food Safety Stakeholders Analysis in June 2020 (Regional and International Organizations) Name of the Ministry or other Where in the food chain Mechanisms stakeholder authority The African Union African Union (AU) Role: The African Union (AU) is a continental body a. Other: Commission (AUC) consisting of the 55 member states (including Rwanda) Strategic Planning and Resource Mobilization Partner: Linkage to United that make up the countries of the African Continent. It The priority areas of the AU Agenda 63 links the Member Countries with the Nations (UN) was officially launched in 2002 as a successor to the United Nations (UN) Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), both partially Sustainable Organisation of African Unity (OAU, 1963-1999). The AU addressing food safety issues: Development Goals Agenda 63, having key linkages with the UN DDGS, • Priority 1 (AU Agenda 63: A high standard of living, quality of life and (SDGs) defines priority areas to focus on, including those related well-being for all citizens) linked with the SDG 2 (End hunger, achieve to improved agriculture, food security and trade, access food security and improved nutrition, and promote sustainable to quality water, etc. Both development agendas, agriculture). however, are partially silent on food safety (no explicit • Priority 3 (Healthy and well-nourished citizens: Health and Nutrition) mention/provision) (AU Commission, 2015; UN SDGs, linked with the SDG 3 (Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for 2016). all at all ages). Expected levels of involvement: • Priority 5 (Modern agriculture for increased productivity and • Production production: Agricultural productivity and production) linked with the • Harvesting/collection SDG 2 (End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition and • Storage/post-harvest management promote sustainable agriculture). • Import/export AU Malabo The African Union Role: The Comprehensive Africa Agriculture a. Other: Declaration Commission (AUC) Development Programme (CAADP) is Africa’s policy Strategic planning, resource mobilization and Investment partner: (CAADP) New framework for agricultural transformation, wealth In the CAADP-NEPAD Pillar 2: Rural Infrastructure and Trade-Related Partnership for creation, food security and nutrition, economic growth, Capacities for Improved Market Access, “Strengthening food safety and Africa’s and prosperity for all. It was declared in the 2003 African quality control systems” was retained among key priorities for continental Development Union (AU) Summit as an integral part of the New public investment. Moreover, attention was drawn on rising consumer (NEPAD) Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD). NEPAD- concerns in the affluent countries. Food safety and quality compound the CAADP is a strategic mechanism for resource difficulty of the African countries in meeting ever-higher standards. Priority mobilization and investment to support agriculture and was given to education and investment to meet international trade food security in AU member countries (African Union standards and agreements. These include, in particular, Commission, 2003). preferences under the generalized system of preferences (GSP), the EU ACP agreements, the Euro-Mediterranean Free Trade Areas, and the US African Expected levels of involvement: Growth and Opportunity Act (AGOA). • Production • Harvesting/collection Indirectly, CAADP impacts food safety by championing reforms in the • Storage/post-harvest management agricultural sector, setting broad targets: • Processing • 6% annual growth in agricultural GDP • Import/export • An allocation of at least 10% of public expenditures to the • Food safety and quality control (accessing world agricultural sector markets) 16 • Certification (accessing world markets) Africa has recognized that enhanced agricultural performance is key to growth and poverty reduction through its direct impact on: • Job creation and increasing opportunities, especially for women and youth • Food security and improved nutrition • Strengthening resilience NEPAD-CAADP is a strategic partner to donors and international institutions playing key roles in resource mobilization, capacity building, and investment: World Bank (WB), Platform for African–European Partnership in Agricultural Research for Development (PAEPARD), etc. African Union The African Union Role: a. Contribute to the development of relevant standards and regulations and Interafrican Commission (AUC) The African Union – Interafrican Bureau for Animal enhance compliance by Member States; strengthen institutional capacity and Bureau for Animal Resources (AU-IBAR) provides leadership in the support policy development and harmonization. Resources (AU- development of animal resources for Africa. By b. Control and possible eradication of transboundary animal diseases and IBAR) supporting and empowering the African Union (AU) zoonoses within AU Member states. Member States and the Regional Economic Communities c. AU-IBAR disseminates information and knowledge on animal resources to (RECs), AU-IBAR's vision is that of an Africa free from Member States, Regional Economic Communities, and other relevant hunger and poverty in which animal resources make a institutions (e.g., the very popular Transboundary Animal Diseases and significant contribution within the global arena Zoonoses Compendium for Africa encyclopaedic fact sheets on the 39 most (https://www.au-ibar.org/). important TADs and Zoonoses in Africa. The bureau also works with the media to disseminate relevant information on animal resources management Expected levels of involvement: on the continent through regular alerts, news, press releases, features, • Production (support in improving management of multimedia, webinars, etc. animal resources and the natural resource bases on d. Other which they depend) Explore investment options and enhance competitiveness of African animal • Harvesting/collection products. • Processing • Food safety and quality control (contributing to Capacity building through regional and continental projects. development of food safety standards and regulations) African In carrying out its mandate, ARSO seeks to harmonize Organisation for national and/or sub-regional standards as African Standardisation Standards and issue necessary recommendations to (ARSO) member bodies for this purpose; initiate and coordinate the development of African Standards (ARS) with references to products which are of peculiar interest to Africa; encourage and facilitate adoption of international standards by member bodies; promote and facilitate exchange of experts, information and co-operation in training of personnel in standardization activities; and 17 coordinate the views of its members at the ISO, IEC, OIML, Codex, and other international organizations concerned with standardisation activities The Codex FAO/WHO Food Role: The Codex Alimentarius, or "Food Code," is a a. Regulation by Codex member states through Codex standards/international Alimentarius Standards collection of standards, guidelines, and codes of practice food texts, i.e., standards, codes of practice, codes of hygienic practice, Commission (CAC) Programme adopted by the Codex Alimentarius Commission. The guidelines and other recommendations, established to protect the health of Commission, also known as CAC, is the central part of the consumers and to ensure fair practices in the food trade. However, the Joint FAO/WHO Food Standards Programme and was Codex texts are voluntary and do not have binding effect on national food established by FAO and WHO to protect consumer legislation. However, WTO Agreements on Sanitary and Phytosanitary health and promote fair practices in food trade. It held Measures (SPS Agreement) and on Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT its first meeting in 1963. Rwanda has been a member Agreement) encouraged WTO members to harmonize national regulations since 1988 (http://www.fao.org/fao-who- with the international standards. Since the SPS Agreement specifically codexalimentarius/about-codex/members/en/). identifies Codex standards, guidelines, and recommendations as the international benchmark for food safety, national regulations consistent with Expected levels of involvement: Codex standards are deemed to meet the requirement of the SPS • Production Agreement. Rwanda assures compliance with WTO/SPS Agreement through • Harvesting/collection the RALIS-MINAGRI. Codex standards, guidelines, and other • Storage/post-harvest management recommendations may also be used as a reference in case of a food trade • Processing dispute. • Transportation b. Valuable information is regularly published by the Codex Alimentarius • Import/export through its website (http://www.fao.org/fao-who- • Food safety and quality control codexalimentarius/publications/pt/) resources (circular letters, online commenting system [OCS], Codex e-learning courses, information, etc.). The World International Role: The OIE is the WTO reference organization for a. Regulation of (1) The Terrestrial Animal Health Code Standards, first Organisation for Government standards relating to animal health and zoonoses. The published in 1968; 2) Aquatic Animal Health Code, introduced to the public in Animal Health Organization OIE publishes two codes (Terrestrial and Aquatic) and 1995; 3) Later extended to animal welfare, animal production food safety, (OIE) two manuals (Terrestrial and Aquatic) as the principal consistent with the expanded mandate of the OIE, which is “to improve references for WTO members. animal health worldwide”). Adopted by all 182 Member Countries, OIE international standards serve as a The Terrestrial Animal Health Code and Aquatic Animal basis for setting national legislation and ensuring improvements of terrestrial Health Code, respectively, aim to assure the sanitary animal health and welfare and veterinary public health worldwide. Standards that safety of international trade in terrestrial animals and address foodborne pathogenic agents of animal origin focus on eliminating aquatic animals, and their products hazards arising prior to the slaughter of animals or the primary processing of their (https://www.oie.int/) products. They also address the role of veterinary services in food safety systems, and the links between food production, processing, and distribution. Ensuring food safety from farm to fork: To minimize risks of food contamination, action is The relationship between the OIE and the Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC) needed at all stages of the food chain from production at is particularly important when developing international standards because risks to the farm through human consumption, i.e., “from farm human health and food safety may arise at the farm and any subsequent stage in to fork.” the food production continuum. The OIE and Codex collaborate closely in the 18 development of their respective standards relevant to the whole food production The prevention, detection, and control of many continuum, taking care to avoid gaps and contradictions. foodborne hazards of animal origin at the primary b. Monitoring of animal diseases worldwide, investigation of, and response to, production phase is important in order to reduce the foodborne disease outbreaks that might be attributable to or involve animal burden of disease in the animal and the risk of human products, including the implementation of control measures. The work is illness through foodborne contamination as well as done in partnership with veterinarians in member countries. human infections resulting from direct or indirect c. In order to support counties monitoring animal diseases (and foodborne contact with infected animals. disease outbreaks), the OIE publishes disease alerts notified by its members, to provide transparency on the animal health situation, in a platform called OIE-WAHIS, the World Animal Health Information System. This activity is key to enable better preparedness in countries, and to improve trust between countries within international trade. Because of the global nature of the food trade, veterinary authorities work with other national agencies in reporting to international emergency foodborne disease networks, such as the WHO International Network of Food Safety Authorities (INFOSAN). International Non-governmental Role: a. Informing regulation of National and ISO Standards. The Rwanda Standards Organization for international ISO is an independent, non-governmental international Board (RSB) is an ISO Member Body, with Technical Committee Participation Standardization organization organization with a membership of 164 national (TC: 25) and Participatory Design Conference Participation (PDC: 3). (ISO) (Geneva, standards bodies. It has a core role of developing and b. Information sharing with Country Member Bodies and the general public on Switzerland) publishing standards, including ISO 22000 Food Safety matters pertaining to Standards (updates in standard catalogues), Management Standards and other ISO management Certification and Conformity (Publications; e.g., ISO Focus Magazine, Media standards, such as ISO 9001. Kit, Archives, etc.). c. Other ISO’s food standards benefit producers and RSB is an ISO 9001 Certified Body, with Technical Committee Participation manufacturers, regulators and retailers, and, most (TC: 25), including; important of all, the consumers • ISO/TC 34/SC 3 Fruits and vegetables and their derived products (https://www.iso.org/member/288025.html). • ISO/TC 34/SC 4 Cereals and pulses • ISO/TC 34/SC 5 Milk and milk products • ISO/TC 34/SC 17 Management systems for food safety • ISO/TC 176 Quality management and quality assurance • ISO/TC 176/SC 2 Quality systems • ISO/TC 285 Clean cookstoves and clean cooking solutions, etc. International CGIAR Role: a. Other Livestock Research The International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) Strategic planning, capacity building, research, and resource mobilization Institute (ILRI) works for better lives through livestock in developing partners: countries (Asia and Africa; https://www.ilri.org/about- • With partners, to develop, test, adapt, and promote science-based us). practices that—being sustainable and scalable—achieve better lives through livestock. 19 ILRI’s mission is to improve food and nutritional security • With partners, to provide compelling scientific evidence in ways that and to reduce poverty in developing countries through persuade decision makers—from farms to boardrooms and research on efficient, safe, and sustainable use of parliaments—that smarter policies and bigger livestock investments can livestock—ensuring better lives through livestock. deliver significant socio-economic, health, and environmental dividends to both poor nations and households. • With partners, to increase capacity among ILRI’s key stakeholders to make better use of livestock science and investments for better lives through livestock. d. ILRI’s second 10-year strategy incorporates a number of changes, many based on learning from the previous strategy (2000–10, produced in 2000 and modified in 2002), an interim strategy (2011–12) and an assessment of the external and internal environments in which the institute operates. International Food CGIAR Role: The International Food Policy Research Institute a. Informing policymaking to sustainably reduce poverty and end hunger and Policy Research (IFPRI) provides research-based policy solutions to malnutrition in developing countries), Institute (IFPRI) sustainably reduce poverty and end hunger and b. IFPRI is a powerful machinery for information dissemination, through its malnutrition in developing countries. Established in regular research-based publications: books, brochures, briefs, datasets, 1975, IFPRI is currently working in over 50 countries. It is journal article, etc. a research centre of CGIAR, a worldwide partnership c. Other: Enhancing partnerships, communicating research, strengthening engaged in agricultural research for development partners’ capacity, and leveraging data and analytical tools are critical to (https://www.ifpri.org/about). implementing and achieving impact through IFPRI’s strategic research areas The Global Food World Bank (WB) The Global Food Safety Partnership (GFSP) is a public- a. Other: Safety Partnership private partnership dedicated to promoting global 1) Lobbying, advocacy and resource mobilization partners: (GFSP) cooperation for food safety Hosted at the World Bank, the GFSP promotes food safety systems capacity building in developing countries based on prevention underpinned by science to reduce the public (https://www.gfsp.org/our- health burden of foodborne disease and advocates that the Sustainable work?field_portfolio_category_tid=17). Development Goals (SDGs) are unattainable without the achievement of safe, adequate, and nutritious food for all. Key partners: • Global Food Safety Initiative (GFSI) • The World Bank Group 2) United States Agency for International Development (USAID) Capacity building: The Global Food Safety Partnership (GFSP) priorities and activities include supporting and sharing analytical work, convening and collaboration events with our partners, and enabling effective implementation of capacity building initiatives 3) Knowledge analysis and dissemination: GFSP priorities and activities include supporting and sharing analytical work, convening and collaboration events with our partners, and enabling effective implementation of capacity building initiatives. 20 3.2 Important food law changes in the past 10 years In addition to the legislative developments within the Ministry of Agriculture and Animal Resources (MINAGRI), key laws have been passed within the Ministry of Trade and Industry (MINICOM) and the Ministry of Health (MOH) to improve regulation of food safety in the past 10 years. Amid changes in MINAGRI regulations, the establishment of the Law N° 30/2012 of 01/08/2012 governing agrochemicals came into force and later was complemented by the Ministerial Orders N° 001/11.30 of 15/02/2013 and N° 002/11.30 of 14/07/2016, respectively determining the duties of the registrar of agrochemicals and the regulation of agrochemical trade and use. Related to that, the Law N° 16/2016 of 10/05/2016 on plant health protection in Rwanda was voted, alongside the publication of the list of regulated plant pests, to the list of restricted chemicals in Rwanda (RALIS, 2014) and procedure for importing seed/planting materials into Rwanda (MINAGRI, 2016). Regulations related to the quality and safety of animal source foods have also improved. Law N° 25/2013 of 10/05/2013 determined the organization and functioning of beekeeping in Rwanda; Ministerial Order N° 001/11.30 of 10/02/2016 regulates the collection, transportation, and selling of milk. Those regulations came into force after the publication of Ministerial Order N° 012/11.30 of 18/11/2010. Animal Slaughtering and Meat Inspection and Ministerial Order N° 013/11.30 of 18/11/2010 on Transport and Trade of Meat sought to improve food safety in the meat sector. Additionally, major changes in MINAGRI have been effected in the last five years, with the new Law N° 14/2017 of 14/04/2017 and Law N° 13/2017 of 14/04/2017, respectively, establishing the Rwanda Agriculture and Animal Resources Development Board (RAB) and the National Agricultural Export Development Board (NAEB), both implementation bodies of MINAGRI legislations, policies, and strategies. Key changes in laws pertaining food and chemicals trade (Ministry of Trade and Industry; MINICOM) have been voted following the publication of Rwanda Competition and Consumer Protection Policy (MINICOM, 2010) and Rwanda Trade Policy (MINICOM, 2010b). The publication of the Law N° 50/2013 of 28/06/2013 (Republic of Rwanda, 2013), establishing the Rwanda Standards Board (RSB) and determining its mission, organization, and functioning automatically repealed the Law N° 3/2002 of 19/01/2002 creating the National Bureau of Standards, Law N° 43/2006 of 05/10/2006 determining the responsibilities, organization and functioning of the Rwanda Bureau of Standards (RBS) and all prior legal provisions contrary to it (Article 20). This came shortly after the vote of the Law N° 47/2012 of 14/01/2013 relating to the regulation and inspection of food and pharmaceutical products. Law N° 61/2013 of 23/08/2013 established the National Standards Inspectorate, Competition and Consumer Protection Authority (NICA; Republic of Rwanda, 2013b) to complement the Law N° 50/2013 of 28/06/2013 (RSB Law), with NICA being the implementation arm of the RSB. This new law (NICA) was later reviewed, resulting in the vote of the Law N° 31/2017 of 25/07/2017 establishing the Rwanda Inspectorate, Competition and Consumer Protection Authority (RICA) and determining its mission, organization, and functioning. Subsequently, RICA law repealed the Law N° 61/2013 of 23/08/2013 (establishing NICA) as well as all other prior provisions (Article 38; Republic of Rwanda, 2017). Additionally, Ministerial Instructions N° 23/2015 of 18/03/2015 (Republic of Rwanda, 2015) were published to modify and complement the Ministerial Instructions N° 21/2013 of 03/07/2013 declaring compulsory Rwandan Standards. Other important laws regarding health have been promulgated and subjected to reviews and repealing in some cases. Law N° 74/2013 of 11/09/2013 establishing the Rwanda Food and Medicine Authority (RFMA) and determining its mission, organization, and functioning was promulgated following the Presidential Order N° 67/01 of 20/10/2009, establishing food supplements regulation (Republic of Rwanda, 2010). Since its establishment in 2013, there are no indications confirming the effective creation of the RFMA. Instead, the Law N° 74/2013 of 11/09/2013 (RFMA Law) was reviewed, resulting in the establishment of Rwanda Food and Drug Authority (RW-FDA), a non-commercial public institution affiliated to the MOH, which was established by the Law N° 003/2018 of 09/02/2018 (Republic of Rwanda, 2018). The RW-FDA Law (Article 37) automatically repealed the Law N° 74/2013 of 11/09/2013 (RFMA Law) and all prior legal provisions contrary to it. With regard to food safety, FDA has the relatively powerful mission to: 1) regulate human and veterinary processed foods and other biological products used in clinical as drugs food supplements, food fortificants, fortified foods, poisonous substances, management of unfit food products, and clinical trials on 21 pharmaceutical products for human and veterinary use; 2) regulate compliance with quality standards relating to the manufacture, storage, sale, distribution, use, import and export, labels, packages, and raw materials used in the manufacture of products regulated under this Law; 3) regulate laboratory and cleaning chemicals and pesticides as well as premises involved in the manufacture of products regulated under this Law; 4) establish, approve, and publish the list of human and veterinary food regulated under this Law for which marketing authorization has been granted; 5) establish the quality assurance and quality control of products regulated under this Law through designated quality control laboratories when necessary (Republic of Rwanda, 2018). In Figure 1, national food safety control bodies are assembled in an attempt to link their respective organizational structures with the exiting responsibilities at country level. As per current regulation and on the basis of collected information (as of June 2020), there is no clear coordination framework /coordinating unit. Additionally, the Rwanda Inspectorate, Competition and Consumer Protection Authority (RICA)—revised old (NICA) by the Law N° 31/2017 of 25/07/2017—is set to start operations by 2021 (No clear date of commencement), where experienced staff and administration of the MINAGRI-RALIS is expected to be transferred. However, with the establishment of Rwanda Food and Drug Authority (RW-FDA; Law N° 003/2018 of 09/02/2018), all prior legal provisions contrary to it were repealed. It is expected that the new agency will be empowered to oversee the coordination of food safety across the entire food production chain. As of June 2020, RW-FDA was undergoing a structuring and staffing process and soon would start operating. 22 The Republic of Rwanda The Government of Rwanda The Parliament of Rwanda Office of the Prime Minister Ministry of MOH Ministry of Ministry of Agriculture Ministry of Trade and Ministry of Justice and Animal Resources HealthIndustry Local (MINAGRI) (MOH) Government (MINIJUST) (MINICOM) (MINALOC) Rwanda Rwanda Rwanda Rwanda Inspectorate Rwanda Food Rwanda National Agriculture National Rwanda Rwanda Agriculture , and Drug Biomedical Police and Animal Agricultural Standards Cooperatives and Livestock National Competition Authority Centre Directorate (RNP) Resources Agency Inspection and Export Board (RSB) Industrial and (RW-FDA) (RBC) General of Certification Devt. Board Development + Research and Consumer Immigration Rwanda Services Board (NAEB) Development Protection Investigation (RAB) Private Agency Authority Bureau (RALIS) National National Sector (NIRDA) Department of National National (RICA) Postharvest Animal Animal Standards Certificatio Quality Federation Drugs and Food Reference Local (RIB) Seed Resources Division Testing Assessment and Laboratory Government Mgmt. & Resources Emerging Quality n Division Registration Biotechnology Systems Research & Procesing & Laboratories Commodities Assurance (Districts) Division Division Technology Biotechnology DivisionDivision and Rwanda Health Transfer Division Regulatory Department of Communication Department Vegetable VC Division Food and Centre Fruits VC Drugs Animal VC Inspection and Veterinary Safety Services Monitoring Quality Control Laboratory Division Figure 1. Organogram of national agencies/bodies in charge of food safety control in Rwanda 23 3.3 Food safety risk assessment in Rwanda Four agencies are involved in food safety risk assessment in the country, but with little information on existing coordination mechanism. Table 4 highlights the main food safety risk assessment approaches in Rwanda, based on expert opinion. Table 4. Summary of the food safety risk assessment approaches in Rwanda (as of June 2020) Risk assessment approaches Agency Qualitative Quantitative Qualitative Qualitative codex codex OIE IPPC RSB X X MINAGRI/ X RALIS RAB/ASF X RW-FDA X RICA X X X 3.4 Policies and regulations Policies and legislation addressing food safety of ASF and FV value chains in Rwanda have been reviewed, with focus on sections addressing food safety as well as their implementation mechanism, during the last 10 years (2010–2020). Details are given in Table 5 (for policies) and Table 6 (for regulations). 24 Table 5: Summary of policies addressing food safety of ASF and FV value chains in Rwanda Policy/legislation Relevant section addressing food safety Implementing Where Implementing addressing food authority authority(s) draws safety of ASF and power FV value chains National (M. of A. and A. R., Republic of Rwanda, 2018a). The NAP will be Ministry of Agriculture Agriculture Policy Pillar 4: Inclusive markets and off-farm opportunities (4 pillars): implemented and Animal Resources (MINAGRI, 2018) • “Efficiently working market systems are deciding factors for consumers, producers, processors, and traders alike.” primarily through Single Project • “The objective (3rd) is to promote food safety and access to higher-end markets with expanded access, SPS, and the fourth Sector Implementation Unit quality standards certification.” Strategic Plan for (MINAGRI-SPIU) Pillar 4: Food Safety and Quality Standards Section: Agriculture (PSTA4) “Food safety is critical for maintaining public health as well as accessing high-end consumer markets. With growing urban markets in the region and increased readiness for export diversification among producers, this will be increasingly important. However, there is currently relatively few Rwandan companies certified for international standards such as HACCP, FSMS, QMS, and Global GAP.” Pillars of the NAP are: Pillar 1: Enabling Environment & Responsive Institutions Pillar 2: Technological Upgrading and Skills Development Pillar 3: Productivity and Sustainability Pillar 4: Inclusive Markets and Off-Farm Opportunities Rwanda National (M. of A. and A. R., Republic of Rwanda, 2013). The RAB, as its MINAGRI Dairy Strategy 3.3.7. SO 3.7. Safe Dairy Products for Domestic and Regional Markets, Activities 3.7.1. – 3: implementer, shall (MINAGRI, 2013) • “This set of activities will address safe handling of milk along the value chain…. Trained technicians will be needed ensure that along the value chain to train, inspect, audit, and certify that a quality milk chain exits. The Food Safety Manual strategic will be updated for dairy products in line with COMESA standards.” interventions and • “The goal is for household food expenditures on dairy products to increase by 50 percent over the available actions in the NDS baseline level. The main actors are RBS, MINICOM, MINAGRI, RNDB, RAB, RALIS, and private dairy businesses. The are mainstreamed budget is Rwf 694.95 million (US$1.13 million)”. in the District Development Plans (IMIHIGO). Strategy and (M. of A. and A. R., Republic of Rwanda, 2012a). RAB MINAGRI Investment to 4.2.2.7 Institutional constraints: Strengthen the 4.2.2.8 Poultry Industry in “Weaknesses to be removed to get the full potential of poultry sector: Price, Product Quality and Food Safety”Animal Rwanda (MINAGRI, Welfare and Health.” 2012) 1.4 Strategic axis n°2: Marketing 1.4.1 Component 1: Mastery of the sanitary quality 1.4.2 6.4.2 Component 2: Promotion of the poultry products Strategy and (M. of A. and A. R., Republic of Rwanda, 2012 b.) RAB MINAGRI Investment Plan for 6.3 Strategic axis 1: Enhancing livestock production 25 Small Animal 6.3.3 Component 3: Animal Health Industry in Rwanda Strategic Objectives: (MINAGRI, 2012) • 6.3.3.1.1 Communication of animal diseases and zoonoses information: “The objective is to communicate timely and accurate animal disease information, including information on zoonosis, by making the best use of scientific data modeling, modern information technologies, and non-official information tracking systems.” • 6.3.3.1.2 Development and implementation of scientifically based standards and guidelines: “The objective is to develop scientifically based standards and guidelines on all matters concerning animal health, veterinary public health, animal welfare, diagnosis and control of diseases, assessment and relevant recognition of animal health status, and sanitary safety in animal production and international trade in animals and animal products.” Rwanda’s Strategic (M. of A. and A. R., Republic of Rwanda, 2018b). RAB, NAEB, The Government of Plan for Agriculture 3.1.12 OPPORTUNITIES: “There are opportunities for export and domestic strategies focused on high-quality niche MINAGRI Rwanda, MINAGRI Transformation products competing in higher-price and lower-volatility markets, catering to a middle-class consumer who demands 2018–2024, phase product quality and food safety.” 4 (PSTA 4) 1.3.2 SKILLS DEVELOPMENT IN AGRICULTURE VALUE CHAINS: “Youth need to access specialized training and assistance to address issues such as meeting local and international food safety standards and developing appropriate, low-cost packaging and labelling.” 2.3.4 KNOWLEDGE-BASED FISHERIES AND AQUACULTURE DEVELOPMENT: “To ensure food safety, investments are proposed on improving food quality and safety standards” 6.4. PRIORITY AREA 3: INCLUSIVE MARKETS AND VALUE ADDITION: “Aflatoxins and other mycotoxins remain a real threat to food safety and human health in Rwanda.” 3.3.1 SANITARY AND PHYTO SANITARY (SPS) REGULATION: “The Rwanda Food and Drug Authority (also soon to be established) is responsible for issues dealing with food safety (CODEX Alimentarius).” IA3.3.2 CAPACITY BUILDING AND AWARENESS CREATION: “The target audience also includes consumers along with agribusinesses and farmers regarding the rights and obligations under food safety and standards conformity.” 10.2.2 ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES, 3.3 Quality Assurance and Regulation: “MOH is responsible for the strengthening of food safety and health standards in close coordination with other partners.” National ICT4RAg (M. of A. and A. R., Republic of Rwanda, 2016). RAB, NAEB, The Government of Strategy 3. Mobile-Telephone Enabled Agriculture Technology Apps, e-Trace Dairy: “1. Guarantees traceability, quality and food MINAGRI Rwanda, MINAGRI (2016–2020) safety.” Impact: “ICT4RAg has potential to contribute enormously in the efforts to achieve food security and reduce food losses.” 3.4 Review of current context of ICTR4Ag and 3.5 ICT in the Farming Cycle: “Post-harvest…. Food marketing, transport, packaging, food processing.” IV. Agriculture Growth Management System: “Quality, safety, and traceability of food and feed are the main objectives of automated quality control.” Rwanda Health (M. of H., Republic of Rwanda, 2015). Rwanda Biomedical The Government of Sector Policy (MOH, Rwanda’s Health Sector Policy translates the Government’s overall vision of development in the health sector, as set Centre (RBC), MOH Rwanda, MOH 2015) out in Vision 2020 and the Economic Development and Poverty Reduction Strategy (EDPRS II 2013–2018). It refers to food safety in the following sections: 26 4.2. Governance, 4.2.3. Partnership and Coordination structures: International Health Regulations. MOH puts in place all regulations and public health mechanisms to align with International Health Regulations (IHR) designed under the authority of WHO for the following public health issues: • Laboratory capacity to test, diagnose, and confirm public health threats • Specific mechanisms to detect and respond to different public health events: points of entry, zoonotic events, food safety, chemical events, and radiation emergencies. 1.5. Policy Directions, 3.5.2.2 Health Products: • The policy recommends “Establishing a Rwanda Food and Medicine Regulatory Authority which will ensure the regulatory part of health products so to ensure availability and accessibility and product with quality and efficacy which are rationally and safe used in order to ensure patient safety” (M. of H., Republic of Rwanda, 2015). The Knowledge and (M. of A., and A. R., Republic of Rwanda, 2012b). MINAGRI The Government of Communication The Knowledge and Communication Strategy is in line with main national strategic documents such as Rwanda’s Vision Rwanda Strategy for the 2020, National Agricultural Policy (NAP), National Extension Strategy (NAES), the Economic Development and Poverty Agricultural Sector Reduction Strategy (EDPRS), and MINAGRI’s Strategic Plan for the Transformation of Agriculture in Rwanda – Phase II (MINAGRI, 20120) (PSTA-II). It addresses methods of managing knowledge needs and its communications, which might include food safety in case it is prioritized. The National Post- (M. of A. and A. R., Republic of Rwanda, 2011). MINAGRI The Government of Harvest Staple Crop Directly addresses quality and safety of foods. Rwanda Strategy (MINAGRI, 1. Rwanda Bureau of Standards (p. 18): “Until the Quality Policy is fully implemented, RBS continues some enforcement 2011) role. In mid-2010, RBS visited some Kigali-based informal small maize mills. Twenty were found to have serious enough food safety and contamination issues to have operations suspended.” Contaminated staple crops can have implication on ASF, such as milk when it is fed animals. National Export (Government of Rwanda, 2011). Ministry of Trade The Government of Strategy II (Ministry The national export strategy (Government of Rwanda, 2011) highlights a need for technical assistance (standards, and Industry Rwanda of Trade and certifications, etc.) for SMEs and calls for training in that area that is key to food safety. Industry, 2011) 2.4.1.1 Potential New Exports to International Markets, Rules of Origin under the EPA: “Since 2002, the EU has obliged food business operators to implement HACCP systems on the basis of legislation” (Council Directive 93/43/EEC on the hygiene of foodstuffs). “HACCP requires a detailed description in a concise process flow diagram with underlined points where hazards may occur that can be subject to verification by food safety authorities. All firms exporting horticulture products to the EU should therefore be HACCP certified.” 3.3.1.2 The European Union: “New investment in the horticultural and floricultural sectors reaching production stage in the next two years,” “These investors are already operating in other countries in the region and have established links with markets in the EU. They also have the ability to meet EU food safety standards and requirements,” “The RBS’ schemes for food production and product quality certification accredited (HACCP)…. It is also essential for meeting EU food safety requirements.” 27 Table 6. Summary of regulations addressing safety of ASF and FV value chains in Rwanda Number Policy/Legislation Relevant section addressing food safety Implementing authority Where implementing addressing food authority(s) draws safety of ASF and power FV value chains Regulations 1 Law N° 14/2017 of (O. G. Republic of Rwanda, 2017a). Board of Directors (RAB) President of the 14/04/2017 Article 6: Mission of RAB Republic/The establishing • “10º to conduct research on animal diseases, put in place and implement appropriate Parliament (The Rwanda measures to prevent and control them” Chamber of Deputies, Agriculture and • “11º to conduct research on diseases and pests that attack field and stored crops, put in in its session on Animal Resources place and implement appropriate control measures to prevent and control them” February 22, 2017) Development • “17º to prevent, inspect, investigate, and monitor the movement of animals and animal Board (RAB) and products that are not processed by industries in order to prevent the introduction and determining its spread of animal diseases” mission, • “18º to carry out inspection and authorize the movement within and out of the country of organization, and animals and animal products that are not processed by industries” functioning 2 Law N° 13/2017 of (O. G. Republic of Rwanda, 2017b). Board of Directors (NAEB) The Parliament (The 14/04/2017 CHAPTER II: MISSION AND POWERS OF NAEB Chamber of Deputies, establishing Article 5: Mission of NAEB: in its session on March National • “3º to work with stakeholders’ networks and coordinate their activities in relation to the 28, 2017) Agricultural Export processing and export of agricultural and livestock products” Development • “4º to provide timely and cost-effective support services required for enhanced Board (NAEB) and international competitiveness of the private sector in agricultural and livestock exports” determining • “8º to participate in the setting and checking of quality standards for agriculture and its mission, livestock export commodities in collaboration with other relevant institutions” organization, and • “9º to issue certificates of authenticity and origin of agricultural and livestock export functioning commodities” 3 Law N° 30/2012 of (O. G. Republic of Rwanda, 2012a). Rwanda Agriculture and President of the 01/08/23012, on Article 2: Definitions of terms: Livestock Inspection and Republic and the governing of • “4 º agrochemical residues: the quantity of residues in terms of active ingredient which is Certification Services Parliament (The agrochemicals present in foodstuffs to which an agrochemical product was applied” (RALIS)/MINAGRI Chamber of • “9º maximum residue limit (MRL): the maximum concentration of a residue that is legally Deputies, in its permitted or recognized as acceptable in or on a food or agricultural commodity or animal session on February feedstuff” 13, 2012). Article 13: Examination of applications for authorization: • “4º negative impact which may result from the following: d) agrochemical residues which result into food and environment poisoning” Article 24: Storage of agrochemicals: 28 • “No person shall neither be allowed to: 1 º store or sell an agrochemical in an area in which food or animal feed is stored or prepared for consumption” Article 25: Transport of agrochemicals: • “No person shall transport any agrochemical in a vehicle transporting people, other living beings, or transporting food or animal feed” Article 28: Seizing and analyzing agrochemicals: • “Whenever an inspector notices that a condition of agrochemicals uses prescribed in the registration certificate has been contravened such that any food or other agricultural product has residues exceeding the prescribed maximum residue limits, he/she shall seize such agrochemicals for analysis” Article 30: Examination of agrochemicals and their residues: • “The Advisory Council shall designate legal or natural persons to examine the quality of agrochemicals and their residues whether in soil, in food, or other agricultural products in order to enforce and improve controls” 4 Law N° 16/2016 of (O. G. Republic of Rwanda, 2016a). Rwanda Agriculture and The Chamber of 10/05/2016 No specific mention on food safety/food Livestock Inspection and Deputies, in its session on plant health However, the law contains some interesting sections: Certification Services on February 25, 2016. protection in • Article 10: Phytosanitary inspection of a plant and plant product (RALIS)/MINAGRI Rwanda • Article 11: Action to be taken with regard to unlawfully imported plant, plant product, or any other product • Article 12: Treatment of an infested plant or plant product • Article 13: Treatment of an abandoned consignment • Article 14: Modalities for inspection of premises, vehicle, vessel, train, and aircraft containing a plant • Article 16: Inspection of storage places, goods, and other articles in transit that may spread pests and disease • Article 19: Declaration of pest or disease outbreak • Article 20: Importation of pest, plant, or plant product for scientific and research purposes Article 23: Powers of inspectors in relation to imported plant, plant products, or other regulated articles, etc. 5 Law N° 25/2013 of (O. G. Republic of Rwanda, 2013c). Rwanda Agriculture and The Chamber of 10/05/2013 No specific mention on food safety/food Animal Resources Board Deputies, in its session determining the However, the law contains some interesting sections in CHAPTER IV: Hygiene and prohibitions in (RAB) on February 25, 2013. organization and beekeeping: functioning of • Article 12: Hygiene beekeeping in • Article 13: Modalities for the use of toxic substances in beekeeping Rwanda Article 14: Honey harvesting equipment 6 Law N° 50/2013 of (O. G. Republic of Rwanda, 2013a). The Board of Directors The Chamber of 28/06/2013 Article 4: Mission of RSB (RSB)/MINICOM Deputies, in its session 1º to establish and publish national standards on May 16, 2013; 29 establishing 2º to disseminate information on standards, technical regulations relating to standards and The Senate, in its Rwanda Standards conformity assessment session on 16 May 16, Board (RSB) and 6º to participate in putting in place technical regulations relating to standards 2013. determining its 7º to provide products and quality service certifications and monitor conformity for issued mission, certifications organization, and 8º to provide legal, scientific and industrial metrology services functioning 10º to establish laboratories capable of conducting tests and offering testing services 11º to act as reference laboratory in the quality domain 7 Law Nº 003/2018 (O. G. Republic of Rwanda, 2018b). RW-FDA/ The Chamber of of 09/02/2018 Article 8: Missions of Rwanda FDA: Ministry of Health Deputies, in its session establishing 1° regulate pharmaceutical products, vaccines, human and veterinary processed foods, and other on December 28, 2017. Rwanda Food and biological products used in clinical as drugs food supplements, food fortificants, fortified foods, Drugs Authority poisonous substances, herbal medicines, medicated cosmetics, medical devices, tobacco and tobacco and determining products, management of unfit pharmaceutical and food products, and clinical trials on its mission, pharmaceutical products for human and veterinary use organization, and 2° regulate compliance with quality standards relating to the manufacture, storage, sale, distribution, functioning use, import and export, labels, packages, and raw materials used in the manufacture of products regulated under this Law 8 Ministerial Order (O. G. Republic of Rwanda, 2012c). Rwanda Agriculture and The Ministry of No 002/11.30 of Article 17: Location of premises: Livestock Inspection and Agriculture and Animal 14/07/2016, • “Any premise in which agrochemical business is carried out is located: 1° away from residential Certification Services (RALIS) Resources (MINAGRI) determining areas, schools, hospitals, shopping areas and food manufacturers” regulations Article 48: Premises for storage of agrochemicals: governing • “Premises on which agrochemicals are stored conform to the following requirements: 2° not to agrochemicals keep food, feeds and drinking water in it, nor use it as a sleeping house for human beings, animals or livestock” Article 51: Safe handling and use of agrochemicals: • “5° no foods are consumed in a store or a shop or during application of agrochemicals” • “6° no smoking, eating, breastfeeding, drinking, or handling of food and food utensils by any person is permitted in agrochemical premises or while in the process of applying agrochemicals” Article 52: Precautions on the use of agrochemicals: • “The user of agrochemicals must take the following precautions: 2° no food product is consumed immediately after application of agrochemicals in accordance with instructions of use on the label” 9 Ministerial Order (O. G. Republic of Rwanda, 2016c). Rwanda Agriculture and The Ministry of N° 001/11.30 of CHAPTER II: MILK COLLECTION: Animal Resources Board Agriculture and Animal 10/02/2016, • Article 3: Milk collection center (RAB) Resources (MINAGRI) regulating the • Article 4: Requirements for a milk collection center collection, • Article 5: Milk quality testing equipment • Article 6: Milk collection 30 transportation, • Article 7: Technician responsible for milk quality testing and selling of milk CHAPTER III: MILK TRANSPORTATION • Article 8: Transportation of milk • Article 11: Requirements for a vehicle that transports milk • Article 12: Duration of transportation of milk • Article 13: Certificate of origin CHAPTER IV: SELLING OF MILK • Article 14: License to sell milk • Article 15: Requirements of milk for sale • Article 16: Utensils and equipment CHAPTER V: MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS QUALITY CONTROL INSPECTION • Article 17: Milk allowed to be commercialized in Rwanda • Article 19: Temporary suspension of a milk chain actor • Article 20: Milk inspection report 10 Ministerial Order (O. G. Republic of Rwanda, 2010b) RAB The Ministry of Nº 012//11.30 of CHAPTER II: ANIMAL SLAUGHTERING Agriculture and Animal 18/11/2010, Article 3: Application for authorization to slaughter an animal for people who do not normally Resources (MINAGRI) on animal practice butcher occupation slaughtering, meat Article 6: Slaughterhouse hygiene inspection Article 7: Animal slaughtering outside public slaughterhouse CHAPTER III: MEAT INSPECTION Article 8: Meat subject to inspection Article 9: Persons authorized to inspect meat Article 10: Period for inspection Article 11: Sale of meat Article 12: Categories of meat Article 13: Case of meat unfit for consumption Article 14: Certificate of meat inspection Article 15: Inspection of poultry Article 16: Meat import permit Article 17: Preservation of meat Article 18: Examination of poorly preserved meat Article 19: Contaminated meat Article 20: Sale of contaminated meat Article 21: Holding meat and its by-products not intended for consumption 11 Standards (Ministry of Trade and Industry, 2016). RSB MINICOM published (RSB, Food Safety Maturity Model to support SMEs’ growth toward certification: 2016) This publication provides a dynamic standard framework, indicating the category of compliance and certification of SMEs in Rwanda: • Standard 0: No basics for food safety. SME category: Non-compliant 31 • Standard 1: Basic (the company is committed and demonstrates the basics of food safety performance). SME category: Recognition 1 • Standard 2: Satisfactory (the company satisfactorily controls the work in a relative manner, with slight inconsistency). SME category: Recognition 2 • Standard 3: Very good (the company is capable of planning and effectively using s set of requisites and demonstrates a very good food safety performance). SME Category: Recognition 3 • Standard 4: Excellent HACCP (the company is capable of integrating HACCP requirements with other systems and demonstrated excellent food safety performance). SME category: Certification 1 • Standard 5: Outstanding FSMS (the company uses FSMS to drive the company effectively and demonstrates an outstanding level of food safety performance). SME category: Certification 2. The standards are grouped in the following broad areas: 1. Food and Agriculture (28 standards) 2. Water and Environment Protection (15 standards) 3. Chemicals and Chemical Products (9 standards) 4. Services (5 standards) 5. Engineering (82 standards) 6. 651 International standards to replace withdrawn East African Standards 12 Ministerial (O. G. Republic of Rwanda, 2012b). RSB Ministry of Trade and Instructions N° Pursuant to the Ministerial Instructions N° 21/2013 of 03/07/2013 declaring Compulsory Rwandan Industry (MINICOM) 23/2015 of Standards, especially in its article 8. 18/03/2015 Article One: Modifying and complementing the annex modifying and All Rwanda Standards attached to these Ministerial Instructions modify and complement the annex to complementing the Ministerial Instructions N° 21/2013 of 03/07/2013 declaring Compulsory Rwandan Standards. the Ministerial ANNEX TO THE MINISTERIAL INSTRUCTIONS N° 23/2015 OF 18/03/2015 MODIFYING AND Instructions N° COMPLEMENTING THE MINISTERIAL INSTRUCTIONS N° 21/2013 OF 03/07/2013 DECLARING 21/2013 of COMPULSORY RWANDAN STANDARDS: 03/07/2013 “LIST OF RWANDAN COMPULSORY STANDARDS (2013-2014)”: declaring 30 standards on food and agriculture were published in this Law. compulsory A total of 43 standards were promulgated as compulsory in Rwanda: Rwandan • FOOD AND AGRICULTURE (30) Standards • CHEMISTRY AND CONSUMER PRODUCTS (7) • ENGINEERING (4) • ENVIRONMENT, HEALTH, AND SAFETY (2) 13 Presidential Order (O. G. Republic of Rwanda, 2010c) Rwanda Biomedical Centre President of the N° 67/01 of Article 3: General labelling requirements (RBC)/Ministry of Health Republic/Rwanda 20/10/2009 Article 4: Product name Article 5: List of ingredients 32 establishing food Article 6: Nutritional information supplements Article 7: Packaging particulars regulation Article 9: Safety requirements Article 10: Import and distribution requirements Article 11: Storage, packaging, and delivery requirements 14 Law N°005/2016 of (O. G. Republic of Rwanda, 2016b) Rwanda Agriculture and The Chamber of 05/04/2016 The law addresses quality seed production, processing, and marketing that could have overarching Animal Resources Board Deputies, in its session governing seeds impact on control hazards, such as aflatoxin in feeds and food, that it is established contaminate (RAB)/MINAGRI on 05/02/2016. and plant varieties animal feeds. in Rwanda Specifically: Article 8: Quality seed production • Quality seed production is carried out by a seed producer authorized to do so and is registered on the list of recognized seed producers. Article 9: Quality seed processing • Quality seeds must be well processed and packed in a sealed container. • Quality seed packaging must be labelled. • A ministerial Order determines the information that a quality seed label and container have to bear. Article 10: Quality seed marketing • Quality seed marketing is be carried out by a person authorized to do so and who is registered on the list of recognized seed dealers. • Quality seed marketing applies only to those plant varieties that are entered on the national plant variety list. 33 3.5 Regulation and control: inspection 3.5.1 Key steps in food value chain This section on regulations and control (Inspection) emphasises the key steps and actors (nodes) in Animal Source Food (ASF) and Fruits and Vegetables (FV) value chains. The proportions of actors representing the formal sector (e.g., undergo regular food safety inspection) and informal sector (e.g., escape regular food safety inspection) are given in Table 7. 34 Table 7: Summary of food (ASF and FV) value chains inspection in Rwanda Steps in animal source food value chain Steps in fruits and vegetables [FV] value chain 1. Collection sites (e.g. milk collection, egg collection): 1. Smallholder farms: >95% are reported as informal. No regular 1.1. Proportion of actors working in the formal sector: control. Their production estimates are reported high (65-80%) • 129 Milk Collection Centers (MCCs): 392,486 l/day, representing an estimated proportion 2. Commercial farms (tomato, hot pepper, onion, carrots, cabbage, of 19.6% to 26% (NISR-AHS, 2017; RDDP report, 2018). After collection, this is the only broccoli, African eggplant, French beans, snow peas, cucumber, proportion allowed for processing and export. avocado, leek) are 100% formal, registered, and regularly inspected • Local milk sellers: 34.75%. This category of actors undergo training and must be equipped by RAB (up to the processing plant and/or market gate), and with milk coolers and have required milk quality testing equipment (alcoholmeter; MINAGRI/RALIS for processing and export (MINAGRI Report, 2019). lactodensimeter; thermometer; antibiotic residue test kit; mastitis test kit). At the export level, RSB controls HACCP certification (Law N° (Ministerial order N° 001/11.30 of 10/02/2016, regulating the collection, transportation, 16/2016 of 10/05/2016 on plant health protection in Rwanda; and selling of milk). Republic of Rwanda, 2016). • Eggs collected from certified Poultry Farms (layers) are all (100%) formal and inspected by 3. Harvesting: 65-80% informal (smallholder farms, essentially for RAB. This proportion is allowed for national consumption (tested for organoleptic quality domestic consumption). Commercial farms (20-35%) are formal and standards) and for export. They undergo organoleptic and diseased control inspection undergo random inspection by RAB (for Good Agricultural Practices (Rukundo-RAB, Personal Communication). [GAP]) and MINAGRI/RALIS, for Sanitary and Phytosanitary (SPS) • Fishing: 95%-100% of fishery is organized in cooperatives and regularly inspected by RAB Measures. (Robert-RAB Aquaculture Inspector, personal communication). RAB inspection and 4. Packing and cold storage: 65-80% informal (smallholder farms). certification is limited to fishing equipment and organization (System Certification), as well 5. Processing companies for dried, frozen, juices, and pulp (fruit): as for organoleptic quality (e.g., freshness, size, etc.). Officially 100% formal, registered, and inspected by MINAGRI/RALIS • Fish products for export are inspected for food safety quality control by MINAGRI (RALIS) and RSB (for certification and export purposes). Also inspected by and HACCP Certification (Rwanda Standard Boards). FDA for good manufacturing and hygiene practices. Ministerial Order N° 006/11.30 of 18/11/2010 determines the form and content of the 6. Distribution transport for export, supermarkets, and local retailers: aquaculture and fishing concession contract (Republic of Rwanda, 2010). The sector is officially 100% formal. • Honey collection centers and processing units: Only 52 (<5%) cooperatives are formally 7. Display in markets and shop kiosks [environment]: Officially formal. registered, inspected (by MINAGRI/RALIS), and certified by RSB. Only certified honey Regular inspections for food quality by local “Sanitary Committees” producers are allowed to collect, process, and commercialize their products on the formal appointed at district level, comprising agents from RAB, health market (export, supermarkets, hotels, restaurants, etc.). This information was provided professionals, and local security organs. Visits and inspections are through a knowledgeable source (Musabyimana-ARDI, personal communication) and later carried out randomly (Rukundo-RAB, Personal Communication). verified through the Law N° 25/2013 of 10/05/2013, determining the organization and Data pertaining to informal shops could not be verified. functioning of beekeeping in Rwanda (Republic of Rwanda, 2013b). 8. Purchases: Local purchases through official shops are formally done 1.2. Proportion of actors working within informal sector: and controlled by District sanitary committees. However, a non- • Domestic collected for domestic consumption (including house-to-house sales and that identified proportion (<5-10%) may be expected to be informally donated to neighbors): 42.14% managed. This section may be confirmed by market visit surveys. • Spoiled milk/not consumed: 3.56% 9. Consumers: This section may be confirmed by market visit surveys. • Eggs collected by small house farmers: Estimated to be around 20-35% (essentially local chicken eggs) • Local beekeepers/honey collectors (estimated number of 37.350 individuals or family hives) are reported to be informally working in the honey sector. 35 • Fishing: <5% of informal fishing. This sector is not allowed to operate in the existing value chain (no access to market), hence ending up in domestic consumption, according to the Ministerial Order N° 006/11.30 of 18/11/2010, determining the form and content of the aquaculture and fishing concession contract (Republic of Rwanda, 2010). 2. Informal slaughter sites and butcheries (estimated between 340 and 360 sites): Very rare cases (e.g., domestic consumption). As per the law, 100% of slaughter sites are registered, certified, and regularly inspected by RAB (Rukundo-RAB, Personal Communication; Ministerial Order N° 012/11.30 of 18/11/2010, on animal slaughtering, meat inspection) (Republic of Rwanda, 2010). 3. Abattoirs, landing sites: 100% are formally registered (N=9), certified and inspected by RAB (Ministerial Order N° 012/11.30 of 18/11/2010, on animal slaughtering, meat inspection). 4. Exporters of processed animal source food: 100% formally registered, certified and inspected for food safety quality control by MINAGRI (RALIS) and HACCP Certification (Rwanda Standard Boards). 5. Exporters of unprocessed animal source food: No reliable data/report (N/A). However, the National Institute of Statistics of Rwanda Comprehensive Food Security and Vulnerability and Nutritional Analysis Survey (NISR-CFSVA, 2018) suggested that 26% of informal trade, including transborder trade, includes livestock, processed food, and fast-moving consumable goods to neighboring countries (NISR, 2018). 6. Transporters of unprocessed animal source foods: Informal sector may represent a seldom proportion as the activity is illegal and severely punishable by the law (Law N° 54/2008 of 10/09/2008) determining the prevention and fight against contagious diseases for domestic animals in Rwanda; Ministerial Order N° 012/11.30 of 18/11/2010, on animal slaughtering, meat inspection (Republic of Rwanda, 2010). 7. Transporters of processed animal source foods: 100% formal. The sector is tightly inspected by RAB (from the slaughter gate up to market) as well as MINAGRI/RALIS on the marketplace, exports, etc. 8. Food processing sites: >90% of the sector is regulated, registered, and inspected for food quality control by the Rwanda Standards Board (compulsory requirement of a quality standard certificate-ISO). Additional HACCP control and certification is required for export (MINAGRI/RALIS and RSB). Currently, RFDA has taken on this task to inspect and offer licenses to food processing plants and sites. 9. Markets: Formal markets (>95%) are inspected for food quality by local “Sanitary Committees” appointed at District level, comprising agents from RAB, health professionals, and local security organs. Visits and inspections (mainly concerning general hygiene of food, premises, and vendors) are carried out randomly (Rukundo-RAB, Personal Communication). 10. Shops: Formal shops (including supermarkets) are inspected for food quality by local “Sanitary Committees” appointed at District level, comprising agents from RAB, health professionals, and local security organs. Visits and inspections (mainly concerning general hygiene of food, premises, and vendors) are carried out randomly (Rukundo-RAB, Personal Communication). Data pertaining to informal shops could not be verified. 36 3.5.2 Inspection of each value chain step This section indicates inspection done at each step in ASF and FV food value chains. Product inspection means inspectors examine the safety of the product (e.g., meat, carcass), while process inspection means inspectors also consider hygiene of premises, workers, what they are doing, at which stage the inspection is done (both products and processes), as well as the information on the agency responsible for the inspections. MINAGRI / Rwanda Agriculture and Livestock Inspection and Certification Services (RALIS) This department is an important wing of MINAGRI and is responsible for the overall coordination of all the functions of the National Plant Protection Services (NPPS), including the enforcement of the Rwanda plant health law and regulations for phytosanitary measures necessary for trade, plant pest/disease monitoring, surveillance and diagnosis, conducting pest risk analysis, and inspection and certification. It also delivers animal products certification services, including enforcement of sanitary laws, monitoring and surveillance of animal diseases, and animal inspection and certification. In addition to this, it contributes to the preparation and the implementation of agrochemical law (RALIS: https://www.minagri.gov.rw/index.php?id=613). RALIS also carries out the inspection of plants and/or plant material health, quality of animal products for trade, and imports of animal pets and animal products. MINAGRI-RALIS also conducts licensing of plants and animal products for trade/exports. Rwanda Agriculture and Animal Resources Development Board (RAB) Both veterinary and crop health inspection services are involved in regular food inspection. Inspection is focused on imports of domestic animals, semen, fertilized eggs, seeds, plants and cuttings, and other agricultural and animal husbandry products. RAB also ensures and monitors activities of production, control, and trade of selected seeds. Besides inspection services, RAB is involved in licensing of standards for agricultural and animal husbandry products meant for export, standards of veterinary and crop protection products, and their import and export (Law N° 14/2017 of 14/04/2017; Republic of Rwanda, 2017). National Agricultural Export Development Board (NAEB) The role of NAEB, with regard to food safety inspection, is to participate in the setting and checking of quality standards for agriculture and livestock export commodities, in collaboration with other relevant institutions, and issuing certificates of authenticity and origin of agricultural and livestock export commodities. Also, NAEB is in charge of identifying and inspecting places for installation of factories and other activities (premises) meant for processing agricultural and livestock products for export (7_NAEB Quality_Policy.pdf, n.d.). Rwanda Clearing House Mechanism (RW-CHM) RW-CHM assures inspection of transboundary movements, transits, handling, and use of all living modified organisms that may have adverse effects on the direct use as food or feed or for processing, considering risks to human health. Rwanda Directorate General of Immigration and Emigration Involved in the inspection of trans-boundary movement of food products and persons, in collaboration with other relevant organs (activities include information sharing and seizure of counterfeits and litigious food products). Rwanda National Police (RNP) Inspection of practices, processes, products, and premises, in accordance with local and international laws, in collaboration with other competent organs. It also enforces the food safety laws. The RNP is also mandated to impose sanctions against noncompliance with laws in vigor (counterfeits, prohibited-poisonous products, adulterated food, etc.) across various levels of food value chains. Closely works with the Rwanda Investigation Bureau (RIB) and the Office of the General Prosecutor for cases of noncompliance that constitute crimes, according to the law. Rwanda Standards Board (RSB) Inspection concerns products, premises, and services. RSB is also licensing products and quality service. (Law N° 50/2013 of 28/06/2013; Republic of Rwanda, 2013). Rwanda Food and Drugs Authority (RW-FDA) 37 RW-FDA is a new government organ vested with the power to inspect all imports and exports of food and beverages, veterinary drugs and products, household chemicals, and medical and diagnosis devices. RW-FDA also inspects food and drugs at ports of entry and provides licenses to premises used in the manufacture of products regulated by the Law (Law N° 003/2018 of 09/02/2018; Republic of Rwanda, 2018). Additionally, FDA will license labels, packages, and raw materials used in the manufacture of products regulated by the law, as well as laboratory and cleaning chemicals and pesticides. With its recent establishment and entry into operation, the RW-FDA is anticipated to take over most of the food inspection services across Rwanda in the near future. Available information (unofficial) suggests that all food inspections services will gradually be migrated from existing food inspection services to be fully managed by the new agency. At this time, limited information is officially available (https://www.rwandafda.gov.rw/web/fileadmin/organizational_chart.pdf). Rwanda Inspectorate, Competition and Consumer Protection Authority (RICA) RICA was established following the review of the National Standards Inspectorate, Competition and Consumer Protection Authority (NICA; Republic of Rwanda, 2013b), by the Law N° 31/2017 of 25/07/2017. The agency is set to start operations by 2021 (no clear date of commencement). Experienced staff and administration of the MINAGRI-RALIS are expected to be transferred to RICA. A review of the proportion of premises inspected and food safety violations reported each year is given in Table 8. Available information indicates there are 124 food inspectors at the central level. At the local (district) level, 476 inspectors are involved in food inspection. This includes 30 District Veterinary Officers and 30 District Agronomists, as well as 416 Veterinary and Animal Resources Technicians at the sector level. Those local inspectors work with MINAGRI/RALIS and RAB inspectors, as well as all competent organs (including the Rwanda National Police, Immigration services, Sanitary Services, etc.). Inspectors are fully paid as government employees. Inspectors have the authority to impose civil fines, seize food, reject non-compliant imports, dispose of unfit foods, impose quarantine inspection of imported animal products, etc. (MINAGRI Report, 2019). All food inspectors recruited at the national level (MINAGRI/RALIS, RAB and NAEB Officers, RSB Officers, RW- FDA Officers and Directors) are university graduates (at both the bachelor and master levels). A job listing from RSB published on April 24, 2019 (https://mucuruzi.com/job/job-at-rwanda-standards-board-food-certification- officer-deadline-24-april-2019/) indicates the minimum job requirements include and A0 (bachelor’s degree) in food sciences, microbiology, laboratory technology, agriculture sciences, or quality management systems. In RAB and MINAGRI, officers are graduates from the Bachelor of Veterinary Medicine, Animal Production, Crop Sciences, Horticulture, etc. 38 Table 8: Available data on food inspection in Rwanda (mostly based on expert opinion) Premises Estimated total Estimated Estimated Average number of total number proportion of number of food premises of premises premises safety inspected inspected each violations year reported each year Animal Source Food Smallholder livestock farms 1 1.7 million N/A N/A N/A Milk collection centers (MCCs) 2 126 89 Milk kiosks 3 250 102 Poultry farms (layers): big and medium sizes 4 123 Poultry farms (layers): smallholder farms (1- 222 5k) 4 Poultry farms (broilers): big and medium 35 sizes 4 Fishing cooperatives (registered) 77 Aquaculture farms Local beekeepers (active) 37,350 N/A N/A N/A Honey collection centers and processing 52 37 units 3 Livestock markets 5 84 23 Abattoirs, landing sites 3 9 7 N/A Butcheries 6 340 311 22% closed Exporters of processed animal source foods Exporters of unprocessed animal source 47 47 foods Transporters of unprocessed animal source foods Transporters of processed animal source foods Food processing sites 42 Markets Shops Fruits and Vegetables Smallholder farms1 2.1 Million Commercial farms N/A Harvesting Packing and cold storage Processing companies for fruit: dried, frozen, juices and pulp Distribution–transport for export, supermarkets, and local retailers Display: markets, shop kiosks (environment) Purchases Consumers 1. National Institute of Statistics, Agricultural Household Survey (2017) 2. Rwanda Dairy Development Project, Report (2018) 3. MINAGRI, Annual Report (2017-2018) 4. The New Times, Rwanda (Published: October 05, 2019/Updated: October 05, 2019) 5. Ministry of Trade and Industry (MINICOM), Rwanda Strategy for Meat Export to DRC (2016) 6. MINAGRI, Annual Report (2018-2019) Another job listing from the Rwanda Food and Drugs Authority, as displayed on the Government Recruitment Portal, (http://recruitment.mifotra.gov.rw/Vacancies/Details/5587) indicated relatively higher entry requirement for the position of Director Food and Drugs Inspection & Compliance Unit (Head Inspector) as follows: “Master's Degree in Food Nutrition, Food Engineering, Chemistry, Pharmacy, Chemical Engineering, Biotechnology, Microbiology and Veterinary Medicine with one (1) year of relevant working experience or Bachelor’s Degree in Food Nutrition, Food Engineering, Chemistry, Pharmacy, Chemical Engineering, Biotechnology, Microbiology and Veterinary Medicine with three (3) years of relevant working experience.” 39 Food inspectors at the district level have a minimum requirement of a bachelor’s degree in veterinary medicine (mostly in charge of meat and fish inspection), animal production, crop production, and horticulture (and related fields). This is, to a certain extent, differs from technicians recruited at the sector level (416 administrative units within districts countrywide), who are recruited with at least an advanced degree (A1) in veterinary medicine or animal health (para-veterinarians), agronomist technicians, or community health managers. ASF inspectors are mostly veterinarians (VDM), animal scientists, and food scientists. All veterinary officers and technicians (para-veterinarians) are required to undergo compulsory continuous professional development (CPD) trainings every year. This is also a requirement for health officers and technicians at the district and sector levels (https://www.minagri.gov.rw/index.php?id=613; https://www.rwandafda.gov.rw/web/fileadmin/organizational_chart.pdf; https://www.minagri.gov.rw/index.php?id=16; http://www.rab.gov.rw/index.php?id=180; https://www.rsb.gov.rw/index.php?id=8). Currently, clear emphasis is seen on food control and certification for both imports and exports but excludes domestic markets. This status may change with the introduction of the new RW-FDA, as the agency is vested with relatively more powers and control means. Meat, milk, and fish are subjected to compulsory and mandatory inspection. This is done from the collection centres, abattoirs, processing plants, and butcheries/markets/shops. According to available information (personal communications), eggs and fish for export are regularly inspected for organoleptic, microbiology, and chemical quality, while local consumption is only randomly subjected to control (organoleptic quality/freshness) at the collection centres and marketplaces. Honey is normally inspected once (RSB) for honey collection centres and processing companies applying for quality certification (Musabyimana-RDI, Personal communication). Fruits and vegetables are randomly inspected for hygiene and organoleptic quality at marketplaces, restaurants, and hotels. Meat (including poultry) abattoirs, slaughterhouses, and processing plants are regularly inspected. It is a requirement to hire a veterinarian for meat inspection at every abattoir, slaughterhouse, and meat processing unit. At the same pace, fish processing units are regularly inspected by RAB and district inspection offers. Milk collected through milk processing centres (MCCs) is regularly inspected by a permanent veterinarian or animal scientist posted at each MCC, and later inspected at the processing plant by another permanent veterinary officer/technician. Honey, eggs, fruits, and vegetable processing plants are rarely inspected. Inspection may only take place when the factory applies for RSB Quality/Standard Certification. RSB does periodic inspections of food processing plants that are referred for auditing. Street food is not common in Rwanda, and hence it is not uniformly inspected. In rare cases, District Sanitary Committees step in to inspect general hygiene of food products, premises, and workers. Such impromptu inspections are believed to take place upon sanitary or epidemiology alerts (https://www.newtimes.co.rw/business/meet-diaspora-returnee-seeking-introduce-street-food-culture). Estimated proportions/probabilities of food inspections carried out are reported in Table 9. In most cases, this section relies on expert opinion and will need to be confirmed through stakeholder interviews. 40 Table 9: Estimated probability of food inspections by food categories Food category Probability Animal Source (AS) Foods Street foods 0 AS foods sold in small rural villages 1 in 100 AS foods sold in pastoralist areas 1 in 100 AS foods sold in open markets 1 in 1 AS foods hawked door to door 1 in 100 AS foods at celebrations, feasts, events (by definition, these can’t be inspected regularly) 1 in 100 AS foods in remote areas 1 in 100 Animals killed for home consumption 0 AS foods in institutions (hospitals, schools, canteens) 1 in 1 AS foods sold in supermarkets 1 in 1 AS foods sold in eating places: i) established hotels, ii) kiosks, and iii) streets 1 in 1 AS foods exported 1 in 1 Fruits and Vegetables Street foods 0 Fruits and vegetables sold in small rural villages 1 in 1,000 Fruits and vegetables sold in pastoralist areas 1 in 1,000 Fruits and vegetables sold in open markets 1 in 100 Fruits and vegetables hawked door to door 1 in 1,000 Fruits and vegetables at celebrations, feasts, events (by definition, these can’t be inspected regularly) 1 in 1,000 Fruits and vegetables in remote areas 1 in 1,000 Fruits and vegetables harvested for home consumption 0 Fruits and vegetables in institutions (hospitals, schools, canteens) 1 in 100 Fruits and vegetables sold in supermarkets 1 in 1 Fruits and vegetables sold in eating places: i) established hotels, ii) kiosks, and iii) streets 1 in 100 Fruits and vegetables exported 1 in 1 Staple food Street foods 0 Staples sold in small rural villages 0 Staples sold in pastoralist areas 0 Staples sold in open markets 1 in 1,000 Staples hawked door to door 0 Staples at celebrations, feasts, events (by definition, these can’t be inspected regularly) 0 Staples in remote areas 0 Staples harvested for home consumption 0 Staples in institutions (hospitals, schools, canteens) 1 in 1,000 Staples sold in supermarkets 1 in 100 Staples sold in eating places: i) established hotels, ii) kiosks, and iii) streets 1 in 100 Staples exported 1 in 1 In apparent logic, foods are regulated according to risks posed to consumers. However, as in most of developing countries, it is believed that food regulations in Rwanda are most likely enforced for legislative requirement (on the side of local administration) and for import, mainly for economic reasons. If food regulation could be solely based on risk to consumer, the regulation process would have its fundamental basis in established food safety risk analysis evidence. This fact, most likely, can be applied to Rwanda today as well. There are many bodies that have the power to set standards for ASF and FV (e.g., RSB, MINAGRI/RALIS, NAEB), with no specific role on coordination and enforcement. However, it is expected that the new RW-FDA will be empowered to set standards for both ASF and FV as well as monitor food quality across the whole value chains. The body is not yet fully operational today. 41 3.6 Regulation and control: private sector Available information leaves a shadow on the private sector’s role in setting standards. The main standards body remains the Rwanda Standards Board (RSB, government), which has also been designated as the World Trade Organization Technical Barriers to Trade (WTO/TBT) National Enquiry Point (NEP), to ensure that manufacturers, importers, and exporters get the latest information on standards, technical regulations, and conformity assessment procedures available in their target market. The agency works closely with the private sector to support compliance with national and international standards for domestic consumption and exports. The private sector is represented in the RSB A Technical Committee (TC) (a demonstration of how RBS works closely with private sector). To support the process of compliance with standards, RSB has introduced a Food Safety Maturity Model referred to as the Zamukana Ubuziranenge Program, and in consultation with the private sector (2015-2016 publication). The program systematically prepares and supports the private sector, especially SMEs, toward the desired quality and safety performance while building a standardization culture in the industries. The program is built on a series of five standard/certification levels from Non-compliance (Standard 0) to Standard 4 or Certification 1 (Excellent HACCP = the company is capable of integrating HACCP requirements with other systems and demonstrates excellent food safety performance) and Standard 5 or Certification 2 (Outstanding FSMS = the company uses FSMS to drive the company effectively and demonstrates an outstanding level of food safety performance). Like the RSB booklet published in the Fiscal Year 2014–2015, the focus of this publication is on contributing to SME growth with a particular emphasis on “Made-In-Rwanda” products and services, food safety, and the protection of consumers. Table 10 summarizes the available information on the participation of private firms in terms of standards usage. Table 10: Participation (proportions) of private firms in use and compliance of standards, both in ASF and FV value chains Individual Prerequisites HACCP HACCP ISO QMS ISO food standards approach certification standards safety Smallholder farms1 X Commercial X X X X X farms1 Food collection X X X units/bulking, packing, and storage1 Slaughter/ X X X X processing: juices, pulps, dried, frozen /fish landing sites1 Food transporters1 X X Food processing X X X X sites1 Markets/local X X Shops X X Eating places X X Other (export) X X Prerequisites = construction, personal hygiene, water and waste disposal, pest and vermin control, etc. 1 RSB (2016): Standards Published by RSB, Food safety maturity model to support SMEs growth towards certification or “Zamukana Ubuziranenge.” 3.7 Regulation and control: civil society In 2010, the government of Rwanda adopted the competition and consumer protection policy, with the associative law officially gazetted in November 2012. A competition and consumer protection unit was established under the Ministry of Trade and Industry (MINICOM) in 2011 to support the implementation of the policy and law. In line with this progress, reports indicate that MINICOM has supported the creation of two viable consumer associations: 1) Association pour la défense des Droits des consommateurs au Rwanda (ADECOR) based in Kigali, and 2) and the Consumer Human Rights Organization of Rwanda (CHROR) based in 42 Rubavu (Western Province). These organizations work to support MINICOM’s programs advocating for the rights of consumers and act as an effective consumer rights watchdog in the country (Trade and Industry, e- Newsletter, vol. 1 Issue 8 March-April 2014). Available details are reported in Table 11. Table 11. Descriptions of consumer associations operating in Rwanda Name Number of Source of Main activities members funding Association pour la > 400 MINICOM 1. Promotion of consumers’ right to a decent life (safe défense des Droits and quality goods and services) des consommateurs 2. Representing consumers and civil society in the fight au Rwanda (ADECOR) for the right to free choice (accessibility to multiple and affordable choices of goods and services) and the right to information (about prices, descriptions, and effects of products and services) 3. Express consumers’ satisfaction or grievances Consumer Human N/A MINICOM N/A Rights Organization of Rwanda (CHROR) Descriptions of consumer organizations • Effectiveness: ADECOR a not-for-profit organization (member of Consumers International). In addition, the organization is working under the auspices of MINICOM, which confers to it necessary power to represent consumers. As per the little information available, the organization is very effective in its operations (Negotiations with the Government and Private Sector Federation). • Coverage: ADECOR has now more than 400 members across the country volunteering when there is necessity. ADECOR has also initiated provincial committees of consumers (https://www.consumersinternational.org/members/members/rwanda-consumers-rights-protection- organization-adecor/). 3.8 Production and consumption levels In this section, the review focuses on the consumption of ASF and FV, as well as production, exports, and imports. Information was retrieved from the FAOSTAT database and the Rwanda National Institute of Statistics Statistical Yearbook (publications from 2010–2019). Available data for ASF and fruits and vegetables, on a basis of available information from 2010, is given in Table 12. 43 Table 12. Available data on ASF and FV production, consumption and imports/exports ASF Consumption Total production (t) Exports (Kg) Imports (Kg) (per person/year) Beef 7,9 (Kg) 32,209 3,655,694 Goat 17,492 Poultry 16,304 Camel N/A N/A N/A N/A Ovine (sheep) 6,028 Rabbit 4,105 Pork 10,210 Eggs 0,63 (Kg) 6,973 Milk and milk products 59,0 (L) 706,030 15,038,406 Fish 2,59 (Kg) 28,450 4,999,556 Honey 0,41 (Kg) 4,585 FVs Consumption (T) Total production (t) Exports (Kg) Imports (Kg) Aggregate (Total) Fruits 458,8741 Mangoes 9,1713 300 Pineapples 31,3293 256,227 Oranges 3,1543 194,988 Lemons 4,0963 1,780 Bananas 69,2263 266,470 Watermelons Avocadoes 81,6973 Passion fruit 5,4923 200 Aggregate (Total) vegetables 484,8292 French beans 15,173,917 Carrots 18,2573 528,137 Tomatoes, 69,7433 126,376 Kale, Spinach, Cauliflower Onions, 8,2023 1,255,929 Managu, Terere Green pepper 1,7283 18,370 Red pepper 2363 710 Poivron Fresh peas 27,878 155,584 Garlic 1,043 Cabbages 72,0193 1,505,125 Cassava leaves 217,055 Ginger 410 Pumpkins 4,680 Eggplants 38,0683 Available information on production dates back to 2015 (National Statistical YearBook, 2015). Information on exports/imports are scattered from Statistical YearBook (2018, 2019), Central Bank (Banque nationale du Rwanda, or BNR), and the Rwanda Central Bank Annual Report (Rwanda Central Bank, 2019). 1, 2: From 2010, there is no longer disaggregated data by type of fruit and vegetables. Only total production (tons) of fruits and vegetables are reported, counting for the year 2013 (National Statistical Yearbook, 2015). 3: Only data from 2009 are available (National Statistical YearBook, 2009). Section B2 highlights the proportion of consumers (urban vs. rural population) who purchase ASF and FVs, as summarized in Table 13. UN Habitat forecast data were used and compared with the latest census data, where applicable. 44 Table 13: Proportion estimates of consumers, by habitat, purchasing each of the main ASF and FV products Consumer category1 Milk Meat and fish Fruits and vegetables (% consumers) (% consumers) (% consumers) Farmers, directly 34.75-42.14 30-40 50-70 Wet markets (already processed) 19.6-30 <5 Wet markets (for slaughter at the market 70-80 70-80 /domestic markets [F&V]) Wet markets (for slaughter at home/ home 50-80 grown) From small shops/kiosks/vegetable stalls 19.6-30 10-20 17-20 Supermarkets 19.6-30 10-18 <5 1: Urban Population (2018): 17.2%/ Urban Growth Rate (2015-2020): 2.86% (https://unhabitat.org/rwanda) The proportion of the population that is largely dependent on subsistence production for foods of animal origin and FV may be estimated between 61% and 70%. On one hand, this is based on the fact that about 18% of the population is living in the cities, with no possibilities to produce their food. On the other hand, it is estimated that the national poverty line stands at 39% (https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/rwanda/overview), meaning that the vast majority of Rwandans have a very limited purchasing power; hence, living in subsistence conditions. Table 14 below summarized recorded statistics, mainly gathered from the key informants and reports from the National Institute of Statistics of Rwanda (NISR) on the actual proportions of various animal source food /FV produced, processed, and sold in the large-scale, formal sector. Table 14: Proportions of various AS and FV foods going through formal or informal sector Produced Processed Sold informal Source of data (tons) formal sector sector (%) (%) Animal Source Foods (ASF) Beef 32,209 >70 26-30 National Institute of Statistics of Rwanda Comprehensive Food Security and Vulnerability Nutrition Analysis Survey (NISR-CFSVA, 2018) Goat 17,492 10-30 70-90 Expert opinion Poultry 16,304 65-80 20-35 Rukundo-RAB, Personal Communication Pork 10,210 >80 10-20 RAB Reports, Ministerial Order N° 12/11.30 of 18/11/2010, on animal slaughtering, meat inspection Eggs 6,973 65-80 20-35 Rukundo-RAB, Personal Communication Milk and milk products 706,030 19.6 -26 42.14 NISR-AHS, 2017; RDDP report, 2018; National Statistical YearBook (2016) Fruits and Vegetables (FVs) Mangoes 9,171 90-95 5-10 National Statistical YearBook (2009) Oranges 3,154 90-95 5-10 National Statistical YearBook (2009) Bananas 69,226 90-95 5-10 National Statistical YearBook (2009) Tomatoes 69,743 90-95 5-10 National Statistical YearBook (2009) Onions 8,202 90-95 5-10 National Statistical YearBook (2009) Cabbages 72,019 90-95 5-10 National Statistical YearBook (2009) Carrots 18,257 90-95 5-10 National Statistical YearBook (2009) Green peppers 1,728 90-95 5-10 National Statistical YearBook (2009) Red peppers 236 90-95 5-10 National Statistical YearBook (2009) 45 3.9 Linkages between the formal, informal, and export food sectors • Informal slaughter sites and butcheries (estimated between 340 and 360 sites): Very rare cases (e.g., domestic consumption). As per the law, 100% of slaughter sites are registered, certified, and regularly inspected by RAB (Rukundo-RAB, Personal Communication; Ministerial Order N° 12/11.30 of 18/11/2010, on animal slaughtering, meat inspection) (Republic of Rwanda, 2010). • Abattoirs, landing sites: 100% are formally registered (N=9), certified and inspected by RAB (Ministerial Order N° 012/11.30 of 18/11/2010, on animal slaughtering, meat inspection). • Exporters of processed ASF: 100% formally registered, certified, and inspected for food safety quality control by MINAGRI (RALIS) and HACCP certification (Rwanda Standard Board). • Exporters of unprocessed animal source food: No reliable data/report (N/A). However, the National Institute of Statistics of Rwanda Comprehensive Food Security and Vulnerability and Nutrition Analysis Survey (NISR-CFSVA, 2018) suggested that 26% of informal trade, including transborder trade, includes livestock, processed food, and fast-moving consumable goods to neighboring countries. (NISR, 2018). • Transporters of unprocessed animal source foods: Informal sectors may represent a seldom proportion as the activity is illegal and severely punishable by Law N° 54/2008 of 10/09/2008, determining the prevention and fight against contagious diseases for domestic animals in Rwanda, and Ministerial Order N° 12/11.30 of 18/11/2010, on animal slaughtering and meat inspection (Republic of Rwanda, 2010). • Transporters of processed animal source foods: 100% formal. The sector is tightly inspected by RAB (from the slaughter gate up to market) and MINAGRI/RALIS in the marketplace, exports, etc. • Food processing sites: >90% of the sector is regulated, registered, and inspected for food quality control by the Rwanda Standards Board (compulsory requirement of a quality standard certificate–ISO). RW-FDA has started inspecting processed products. Additional HACCP control and certification is required for export (MINAGRI/RALIS and RSB). • Markets: Formal markets (>95%) are inspected for food quality by local “Sanitary Committees” appointed at district level, comprising agents from RAB, health professionals, and local security organs. Visits and inspections (mainly concerning general hygiene of food, premises, and vendors) are carried out randomly (Rukundo-RAB, Personal Communication). • The ASF informal sector may represent a seldom proportion as the activity is illegal and severely punishable by the Law N° 54/2008 of 10/09/2008 determining the prevention and fight against contagious diseases for domestic animals in Rwanda, and Ministerial Order N° 12/11.30 of 18/11/2010, on animal slaughtering and meat inspection (Republic of Rwanda, 2010). In addition, transporters of processed animal source foods are all 100% formal. The sector is tightly inspected by RAB (from the slaughter gate up to market) and MINAGRI/RALIS in the marketplace, exports, etc. Food processing sites: >90% of the sector is regulated, registered, and inspected for food quality control by Rwanda Standards Board (compulsory requirement of a quality standard certificate—ISO). Additional HACCP control and certification is required for export (MINAGRI/RALIS and RSB). Formal markets (>95%) are inspected for food quality by local Sanitary Committees appointed at district level, comprising agents from RAB, health professionals, and local security organs. Visits and inspections (mainly concerning general hygiene of food, premises, and vendors) are carried out randomly (Rukundo-RAB, Personal Communication). • In FV food value chains, smallholder farms: >95% are reported as informal. No regular control. Their production estimates are reported high (65-80%) as per the National Statistical Yearbook (2016). However, commercial farms (tomatoes, hot peppers, onions, carrots, cabbage, broccoli, African eggplants, French beans, snow peas, cucumbers, avocadoes, leeks) are 100% formal, registered, and regularly inspected by RAB (up to the processing plant and/or market gate) and MINAGRI/RALIS for processing and export (MINAGRI Report, 2019). At the export level, RSB controls HACCP certification. (Law N° 16/2016 of 10/05/2016 on plant health protection in Rwanda; Republic of Rwanda, 2016). Packing and cold storage: 65-80% informal (smallholder farms), while processing companies for dried, frozen, juices, and pulp are officially 100% formal, registered, and inspected by MINAGRI/RALIS and RSB for certification and export purposes. • Display (markets, shop kiosks [environment]): Officially formal. Regular inspections for food quality by local Sanitary Committees appointed at district level, comprising agents from RAB, health professionals, and local security organs. Visits and inspections are carried out randomly (Rukundo-RAB, Personal Communication). Data pertaining to informal shops could not be verified. Table 15 describes the main players in the formal private sector. It includes the most important producers, processors, retailers, importers, and exporters. Presented data pertain to ASFs and FV. 46 Table 15: Main players in the formal private sector Animal Source Food Beef • Gako integrated beef project: leading beef production and processing (equipped with a modern beef slaughterhouse; capacity of 20 cows per hour) • SABAN Slaughterhouse: leading abattoir (capacity of 400 cows per hour) • Rugari Meat Processing Ltd: leading in beef processing and distribution • Paniel Meat Processing Ltd: leading company in meat export Goat • Gako integrated beef project: leading in goat meat production • Rugari Meat Processing Ltd: leading in goat meat processing and distribution Poultry • Zamura Feeds Ltd: leading in animal feed manufacturing (Northern Province) • Premier Animal Feeds Industry (PAFI) Ltd: new promising animal feed manufacturing plant (Rwamagana, Eastern Province) • Rwanda Poultry Board: associations of poultry producers (eggs and broilers) • Poultry East Africa Ltd: leading exporter of eggs and main supplier of 1-day old chicken to poultry farmers • Rugari Meat Processing Ltd: leading in poultry processing and distribution Pork • Zamura Feeds Ltd: leading in animal feed manufacturing (Northern Province) • Premier Animal Feeds Industry (PAFI) Ltd: new promising animal feed manufacturing plant (Rwamagana, Eastern Province) • Rwanda Pig Board: association of pig producers • Paniel Meat Processing Ltd: leading company in meat export Eggs • Rwanda Poultry Board: associations of poultry producers (eggs and broilers) • Poultry East Africa Ltd: leading exporter of eggs and main supplier of 1-day old chicken to poultry farmers • ABUSOL Ltd Milk and milk • Zamura Feeds Ltd: leading the animal feed manufacturer in Rwanda products • Rwanda Dairy Board: associations of dairy producers • Royal Agrovet LTD Rwanda: prominent agro-vet dealer and store • MINAGRI/Rwanda Youth Agriculture Forum: Manages and operates milk collection/bulking (129- 150 milk collection centers (MCCs) • Inyange Industries Ltd: Main milk processor (two milk processing plants) and distributer with an estimated 75% market share • Mukamira Dairy Ltd: leading cheese production (As current information, cheese is not being produced, however trials have been done) • Nyanza Milk Industries Ltd • Blessed Dairies Ltd • IAKIB (Impuzamashyirahamwe y’Aborozi ba Kijyambere ba Byumba) Fruits and vegetables Mangoes, • Sina Gerard/Ese Urwibutso Enterprise Ltd: leading in processing, distribution, and export Pineapples • Inyange Industries Ltd: a prominent fruit and juice processor and distributor Oranges, Strawberries, Apples Vegetables • Local (district) markets: distribute more than 75% of fresh vegetables across the country • Simba Supermarket Ltd: the main formal distributer of fresh vegetables in the cities. • NAEB: facilitate many small players to export their produce • IZERE Service and Trading Co. Ltd 3.10 Traceability schemes in operation The narrative of food traceability has been associated with its imperative, at the country and regional levels, through a number of laws and policies published in the last 10 years. “Traceability” has been defined by the East African Community (EAC)’s Food and Nutrition Security Strategy for 2018–2022 (E. A. Community, 2018) as the ability to follow, by documented records, the movement of a food through specified stage(s) of production, processing, and distribution. It is worth mentioning that a traceability statement was recognized by the Standardization, Quality Assurance, Metrology and Testing Act of 2006 (T. E. A. Community, 2006). The EAC’s Food and Nutrition Security Action Plan (2018-2023) considers food traceability and safety standards among key expected outcomes across all member states (EAC, 2018) under the IR 2: Improved trade and market access. 47 At the country level, food traceability is included in a number of high-profile government policies and strategies. Most importantly, Phase 4 of Rwanda’s Strategic Plan for Agriculture Transformation outlines priority investment areas in agriculture for the period 2018–2024 (M. of A. and A. R., The Republic of Rwanda, 2018b), which was echoed by other official statements (M. of A. and A. R., The Republic of Rwanda, 2019), policy and strategy alignments (e.g., National ICT4RAg Strategy for 2016–2020) (M. of A. and A. R. Republic of Rwanda, 2016), Rwanda Quality Policy (M. of T. and I. The Republic of Rwanda, 2010b), Strategy and Investment Plan to strengthen the poultry industry in Rwanda (M. of A. and A. R. Republic of Rwanda, 2012a), the revised and updated National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (T. R. of Rwanda, 2014). There are reports that traceability systems are lacking in most of food supply chains (Nyinawumuntu et al., 2019) including FVs studies by Ssemanda, Reij, van Middendorp, et al. (2018) in FVs and Kamana et al. (2016) in ASFs. Without an operational traceability system, it is difficult to identify sources of food contaminants and remove unsafe products from market shelves. Officially, 100% of meat is inspected at slaughter (abattoir) prior to distribution and consumption. Since the publication of Ministerial Order N° 12/11.30 of 18/11/2010 on Animal Slaughtering and Meat Inspection and Ministerial Order N° 13/11.30 of 18/11/2010 on Transport and Trade of Meat, to improve food safety in the meat sector, every stage of meat slaughtering and processing is tightly regulated and inspection regularly occurs to ensure compliance. In Article 8 of Ministerial Order N° 12/11.30 of 18/11/2010 on Animal Slaughtering and Meat Inspection, the following is said on meat subject to inspection: “Meat from animals slaughtered in the district, as well as imported meat, fresh meat, or meat preserved by refrigeration, salting, smoking, or any other method apart from canning are subject to sanitary inspection. Meat prepared locally as provided by Paragraph One of this Article shall be subject to such inspection.” Article 12 specifies categories of meat and states that, “For any meat which has been deemed fit for human consumption, the expert shall rank in first or second quality grade. The expert shall apply on quarters, the number of stamps he/she deems appropriate, using the circular stamp for the first quality grade and the triangular one for the second quality grade. The district authority may also stamp on the meat indicating the date on which the slaughter took place.” Article 16 addresses import permits for meat, and states that, “Any person wishing to import fresh, chilled, frozen, salted, dried or smoked meat, other than that preserved by canning, is required to obtain from the national level veterinary authorities an import permit…. Each quarter shall be marked with the stamp of the meat inspection indicating the slaughterhouse of origin and the date of the animal slaughter, either on the meat itself, or sealed to it.” Meat products that bypass inspection are not allowed to be sold. The law is clear on this, and enforcement is ensured at the local government level (District Veterinary Services). However, there is no indication referring to the inspection of FV at the markets. As indicated in section A.2 (Regulation and control: Inspection), formal markets (>95%) are inspected for food quality by local Sanitary Committees appointed at the district level, where, if appropriate, inspection concerns general hygiene of FVs, premises, and vendors, at random (Rukundo-RAB, Personal Communication). This is also the case for formal shops (including supermarkets). To the best of our knowledge, there is no price premium option for food products. However, with the new National Standards Inspectorate, Competition and Consumer Protection Authority (NICA), this is expected for operators who comply with quality standards and other prescribed laws (O. G. Republic of Rwanda, 2017c). In fact, among NICA responsibilities are “to establish quality management system in accordance with regional or international standards,” “to ensure that imported or exported products falling within the mission of RICA comply with prescribed quality standards and other laws,” “to inspect the operation of markets and provision of products and services to consumers,” “to train and inform a trader and service provider about their rights and obligations under laws related to the mission of RICA,” “to train and inform a consumer about his/her rights under laws related to the mission of RICA,” etc. However, observations on the ground suggest that there is an automatic “price premium” directly applied to products with a safety logo or brand, as they are allowed to be sold in supermarkets and/or are provided with 48 export permits and are sold at higher costs, especially on DRC markets, (e.g., eggs, cheese, meat, avocado, honey, juices, fruit jams, etc.). Available reports concluded that there is no traceability scheme in operation at the country level, which represents a major gap in compliance with hygienic practices and traceability, leading to higher levels of contaminated food products. Detailed information or research findings could not be found to be able to formally quantify or relativize the extent at which low quality products are entering the local food supply chains. However, as it was highlighted in the section B.6, most display in markets, shops, and kiosks are reported officially formal. The facilities are randomly inspected for food quality by local Sanitary Committees appointed at district level, comprising agents from RAB, health professionals, and local security organs. This may represent an indirect control and protection measure, at least at the market-consumption level for an estimated high proportion (>95%). The remaining steps in food supply chains may be differently affected by counterfeit and low-quality food products. At this limited level of investigation, the team could not establish the real facts/data. Big abattoirs (nine in the country) and district formal abattoirs are all equipped with chilling/cooling facilities. Other local abattoirs, some of them without electricity, are used for slaughtering animals and immediately distributing carcasses to designated butcheries. The transit is rather very quick, e.g., for slaughtering occurring at 5 A.M., carcass distribution ends before 10 A.M. The Ministerial Order N° 13/11.30 of 18/11/2010 on Transport and Trade of Meat provides guidelines on meat handling and distribution after the slaughterhouses. The following is from Article 2: Precautions for transport of meat: “The transport of fresh chilled or frozen meat for food purpose shall be carried in such a manner to not be seen from outside. The meat shall be properly covered and protected against the sun, rain mud, dust, and flies.” • Article 3: Requirements regarding vehicles for meat transport: “The motor vehicle transportation of fresh, chilled, or frozen non-packed meat shall use closed vans, separate from the driver, internally covered with galvanized brass or any other stainless. At its upper part, the van shall be provided with rails to facilitate the handling of meat. In addition, its interior layout shall allow daily cleaning using water with detergent.” • Article 5: Butchers: “The provisions of this Order concern the meat sale establishments in cities, urban areas, and localities specified by the Provincial Governor. Provisions concerning the transport of meat also apply to transport enterprises operating in cities, districts, and urban areas and localities specified by the Provincial Governor.” • Article 7: Requirements to be met by the butcher’s shop: “The butcher’s shop must meet following conditions: Section 7. 11° no meat shall be exposed unless in refrigeration installations where temperature is constantly maintained at 4° C". The ministerial order N° 1/11.30 of 10/02/2016 regulating the collection, transportation, and selling of milk provides for guidelines to maintain quality standards by cooling as follows: • Article 4: Requirements for a milk collection centre: “Every milk collection centre must have premises that: 9° have electricity or generator, 11° have a well-equipped milk laboratory; 12° have a milk cooling room; 13° have access to the road.” • Article 5: Milk quality testing equipment: “Every milk collection centre must be equipped with the following milk quality testing equipment: 3° thermometer.” • Article 8: Transportation of milk: “Any person who transports milk must use well closed stainless steel cans covered by their own covers or an appropriate vehicle with a cooling tank that keeps the milk at a temperature that does not exceed four degrees Celsius (4°C).” • Article 15: Requirements of milk for sale: “No person shall sell milk unless the milk is tested at its reception. Milk for sale must: 1° have a density of (1.026 – 1.032) at twenty degrees Celsius (20°C).” • Article 16: Utensils and equipment: “Every owner of milk kiosk must have the following basic utensils: 7° a refrigerator” (O. G. Republic of Rwanda, 2016c). However, as indicated in various sections, there is no indication on whether those conditions are also applied to fruits and vegetables during harvesting and transport. Cooling facilities are only available in the formal shops/supermarkets. Many SMEs refrigerate the vegetables at an NAEB facility or airport before export. Only IZERE Service and Trading Co. Ltd has refrigerated track that allow chilling in the early stages of post-harvest. Further details can be found on NIRDA’s recent fruit and vegetable technology audit 49 (https://www.nirda.gov.rw/uploads/tx_dce/Fruits_and_vegetable_tech_audit_report.pdf). Information on the number of days it takes traders to sell meat, milk, and fruit and vegetables is not available. 3.11 Hazard and foodborne disease occurrence Available information on possible/identifiable foodborne issues is summarized in Table 16. They have been ranked in order of their public health importance (1 = most important; 2 = important; 3 = less important), according to consulted Key Informants (Tukei1 and Nkuranga2, Personal Communication). 50 Table 16. Ranking of foodborne diseases present/reported in Rwanda ASF Fruits and vegetables Present Rank (1, Modalities of testing3 Present Rank Testing 2, 3) (1, 2, 3) Adulteration X 1 Not tested for Pathogenic bacteria of animal X 2 Regular testing x 1 Episodic testing origin Pathogenic bacteria of human X 2 Regular testing x 1 Episodic testing origin Foodborne viruses X 2 Regular testing x 1 Episodic testing Parasites X 1 x 2 Not tested for Mycotoxins X 1 Episodic testing x 2 Not tested for Food additives Pesticide residues X 2 Episodic testing x 2 Not tested for Heavy metals Chemicals X 2 Episodic testing x 2 Not tested for Antibiotic residues X 1 Episodic testing x 2 Not tested for Hormones X 3 Episodic testing X 3 Episodic testing Radioactive contaminants GMO Deliberate poisoning X 3 Episodic testing 1 Dr Michael Tukei is a Professor of Food Microbiology and Veterinary Public Health at the University of Rwanda School of Veterinary Medicine. 2 Dr Charles Nkuranga is the Chairman of Continuous Professional Development (CPD) Committee at Rwanda Council of Veterinary Doctors (Veterinary Statutory Body). 3 Modalities of testing • Regular testing = products are tested regularly for this • Episodic testing = occasional surveys or investigation of problems • Not tested for = this problem is not tested for Food-related illnesses contribute significantly to the global burden of disease and the estimates of these illnesses are important in developing evidence-based food safety policies (Ssemanda, Reij, Bagabe, et al., 2018). However, monitoring the occurrence of foodborne scares at the country level is a complex task, as a certain proportion of suspected cases may not be reported/published, hence no exhaustive recording is expected for a credible compilation. A recent study, “Estimates of the burden of illnesses related to foodborne pathogens as from the syndromic surveillance data of 2013 in Rwanda” by Ssemanda , Reij, Bagabe, et al. (2018), indicated that for the year 2013 alone, watery diarrhea occurred all year round as evidenced by the surveillance system data, resulting in an estimated 672 (95% credible interval [CrI] 42.4-93.2) DALY per 100,000 inhabitants. Bloody diarrhea was seasonal, coinciding with the rainy months, and caused an estimated 213 (95% CrI 5.0-47.5) DALY per million; 100,000 typhoid and cholera cases were sporadic with an estimated 73 (95% CrI 57-91) and 1 (95% CrI 0-2) DALY per million, respectively. Those scholars’ findings may reveal a very important and regular occurrence of serious foodborne issues across the country, most of them going unrecorded and unreported to the general public. With a number of available publications, mainly in the local media and the “Epidemiological Surveillance and Response Weekly Report” published by Rwanda Biomedical Centre (RBC, MOH), a number of foodborne scares have been reported since 2010. Their occurrence and relative impact(s) are summarized here bellow; Observed cases of food poisoning are described below 1. “GISAGARA—At least 165 residents who were admitted at Gakoma Hospital after drinking a suspected poisoned local sorghum beer at a wedding party in Mamba Sector, Gisagara District (Southern Province of Rwanda) have been discharged.” The media (New Times, Rwanda. Published: December 31, 2011; https://www.newtimes.co.rw/section/read/38186), investigated the case and published the eyewitness narrative that “everyone who consumed the sorghum beer which was prepared for the feast fell sick.” The report continued: “On Thursday when The New Times re-visited Gakoma hospital, 192 people had been admitted at the hospital. However, a big number of them returned home after doctors found them stable. By press time, only 27 were still undergoing 51 treatment…. ‘We have not identified the real cause, but based on information we gathered, they could all have been victims of food poisoning,’ Nkikabahizi said, refuting speculations of cholera outbreak in the region.” 2. “AT LEAST 195 Teachers marking the recently concluded national examinations, at Riviera High School (Kigali City), were treated for suspected food poisoning after eating meals served at the school, health officials at the school clinic confirmed yesterday.” The scare was published by the newsletter as “200 teachers in food poisoning scare” (New Times, Rwanda. Published: December 4, 2012; https://www.newtimes.co.rw/section/read/60426). “The health officials said the victims were treated after suffering symptoms like stomach-ache and diarrhoea…. According to the source, the food provided included rice, chips, and meat…. Further investigation of what caused the infection is still underway. The patients eat a variety of meals.” 3. Food poisoning outbreak reported by the Epidemiological Surveillance and Response Weekly Report, Week of April 29 to May 5, 2019: “Two food poisoning outbreaks: six cases from Nyamata District Hospital (DH) and seven cases from Gakoma DH causing one Death at Gakoma DH: in this 18th week a family of seven persons consumed the food at home, all of them started vomiting and having stomachache and the mother died. The remaining members of the family were treated and they are cured. The sample has been taken to be tested at the National Reference Lab…. In the same week, six people consumed Mushrooms and got ill, they have been treated in Nyamata District, and they got cured” (Rwanda Biomedical Centre, 2019). 4. Food poisoning outbreak reported by the Epidemiological Surveillance and Response Weekly Report, Week of July 31 to August 6, 2017: “Food poisoning in Ngoma district: 102 Cases of food poisoning, related to having attended religious ceremony popularly known as ‘Ubushyashya’ and consumed local brews, were notified from Karwema HC of Kibungo DH” (Rwanda Biomedical Centre, 2017). The public newsletter continues: “On the 31st July 2017, cases of acute diarrhea, vomiting, fever associated with serious abdominal pain were reported at Mutenderi Health Centre (HC) in Karwema cell of Ngoma District (Eastern Province of Rwanda)…. On the 1st August 2017 notification was done to the hospital as the number of cases were rising insidiously early in the morning…. A District hospital rapid response team was summoned. Urgently staff and ambulance service were organized for rapid intervention. These included: 1 medical doctor, IDSR Focal Person and other 3 staff…. Epidemiological and clinical findings revealed that: ‘All reported cases had signs of moderate to severe dehydration and the total number received were 102 among those received at the hospital was 39’…. Stool samples were collected and some were sent to National Reference Laboratory, and specimens revealed the offending microorganism above as: Salmonella Arizonae and culture sensitivity were carried out. All the received patients were declared cured except the one who was transferred to Kigali that died of suspected peritonitis.” In a study conducted in 2013 (Etale & Drake, 2013) to determine the concentrations of lead and cadmium in edible parts of Colocasia esculenta, Amaranthus spp., and Ipomoea batata cultivated on farms in industrially polluted sections of Nyabugogo marsh (Kigali, Rwanda), reported that metal concentrations in crops were within EU limits. The highest metal concentrations were found in Amaranthus spp. leaves (lead = 0.31 mg/kg and cadmium = 0.03 mg/kg) and the lowest in I. batata (lead = 0.02 mg/kg and cadmium = 0.01 mg/kg). Conversely, metal intake (based on consumption quantities) through these crops by adults in a surveyed community exceeded threshold prescribed by the World Health Organization (WHO). Based on crop consumption quantities, dietary lead intake by adults exceeded the recommended maximum by as much as seven and four orders of magnitude through Amaranthus spp. and C. esculenta, respectively. Cadmium intake exceeded the WHO recommended maximum by two (Amaranthus spp. and C. esculenta) and three (I. batata) orders of magnitude. 3.12 Food laboratories and disease reporting According to a recent report by WHO/ Joint External Evaluation of International Health Regulations (IHR) core capacities for the Republic of Rwanda (World Health Organization, 2018), the Rwandan National Laboratory Services Strategic Plan (NLSSP) 2015–19 plays a key role in guiding the provision of accessible quality laboratory services by strengthening the national diagnostic network. Currently, Rwanda operates a five-tier national medical laboratory system that comprises 664 public and private laboratories. This includes the National Reference Laboratory (NRL); seven referral hospital laboratories; four provincial hospital laboratories; 39 district hospital laboratories; and 478 public health care laboratories. There are also 136 private clinics. The 52 laboratories are an integral part of health care provision and are usually attached to health facilities. The veterinary system has a National Reference Laboratory, four satellite laboratories, and 80 local laboratories. Rwanda has a laboratory-based disease surveillance system and is capable of conducting nine of the core tests on the IHR immediately notifiable list, but lacks laboratory capacity for toxicology. The NRL monitors stock and the supply chain, ensuring timely supply delivery to the district level. It is worth mentioning that Rwanda is proficient in classical diagnostic techniques including bacteriology, serology, and PCR in selected laboratories. In the meantime, the laboratories are following International Organization for Standardization (ISO) standard 15189 for clinical laboratories (World health Organization, 2018). On the other hand, however, a study conducted by a team of scholars (Rusanganwa et al., 2018) reveals having conducted audits across five referral laboratories in 2017, using the Stepwise Laboratory Quality Improvement Process Towards Accreditation checklist. Laboratories were scored based on the World Health Organization grading scale (0-5 stars scale) and compared against earlier audits. Results pointed out that between 2012 and 2017, only one laboratory progressed (from four to five stars). Four of the five laboratories decreased to one (three laboratories) and zero (one laboratory) stars from four and three stars. Management reviews, evaluation, audits, documents, records, and identification of nonconformities showed a low performance. There seems to be a need to review this sector, with a necessary policy awareness approach, to match the laboratory inventory process with existing health policy that enables sustainable quality health care in Rwanda. To the best of our knowledge, the country counts at least eight public laboratories capable of handling food safety analyses, including one academic/research laboratory (Department of Food Science and Technology, University of Rwanda). To this can be added five clinical laboratories managed by the five Referral Hospitals (MOH), one National Reference Laboratory (NRL; RBC), and the Rwanda Forensic Laboratory. There are additional reports citing the existence of elementary laboratories managed by milk collection centers (MCC; N=129) distributed in 30 districts of the country, 1 modern Food Science Laboratory established at the Institute of Applied Sciences (INES)-Ruhengeri (a private university located in Musanze Town [Northern Province]). In addition, a relatively big number of small quality laboratories are operated by local food processors across the country. Such small laboratories may be expected to only handle a limited number of food quality requirements in relation to their operational licenses (RSB requirements). A list of existing laboratories is given below (including the tests performed at each). Rwanda Food and Drugs Authority (RW-FDA) Quality Control Laboratory Division • Veterinary Medicine Lab • Food Products Analysis Lab (https://www.rwandafda.gov.rw/web/fileadmin/user_upload/Rwanda-FDA- Organization_Structure.pdf) (O. G. Republic of Rwanda (2018b). Rwanda Biomedical Centre (RBC) National Reference Laboratory (NRL) • Immunovirology Lab • Nucleic Acid Testing Lab (NAT) • Medical Entomology Unit (MEU) • Microbiology Unit • Clinical Pathology Unit • Micronutrients Testing (e.g., therapeutic drug monitoring, protein electrophoresis, lipid profile, hormones), etc. (https://rbc.gov.rw/index.php?id=675) (O. G. Republic of Rwanda (2013b)) Rwanda Forensic Laboratory (RFL), a branch of the Rwanda National Police • Biology/DNA service • Drug chemistry service • Toxicology service (allows testing cases of deliberate poisoning) • Microbiology service, etc. 53 (https://www.rfl.gov.rw/index.php?id=1710) Rwanda Standards Board (RSB) National Certification Division • Biotechnology Laboratories Unit • Food Microbiology • Environmental Microbiology • Virology • Molecular Biology • Anti-Bioactivity Laboratory • Chemical Laboratory (http://www.rsb.gov.rw/fileadmin/user_upload/files/RSB_Organizational_Chart.pdf), (O. G. Republic of Rwanda, 2013a) Rwanda Agriculture and Animal Resources Development Board (RAB) • Seed Quality Laboratory • National Veterinary Laboratory (vet microbiology, entomology, virology, molecular biology, epidemiology) (O. G. Republic of Rwanda, 2017a) National Agricultural Export Development Board (NAEB) • Food Quality Management Laboratory (for FV exports) (O. G. Republic of Rwanda, 2017b) University of Rwanda Department of Food Science and Technology • Food Microbiology Lab National Referral Hospitals with well-equipped clinical laboratories • Kibungo Referral Hospital, Eastern Province (MOH, RBC) • Kibuye Referral Hospital, Western Province (MOH, RBC) • Rwanda Military Hospital, Kanombe, Kigali City (RMH) • Ruhengeri Referral Hospital, Northern Province (MOH, RBC) • University of Rwanda Teaching Hospital, Huye District, Southern Province (CHUB) • University of Rwanda Teaching Hospital, Kigali City (CHUK) Institute of Applied Sciences (INES) Ruhengeri • Food Science Laboratory Available information did not establish whether at least each of the major laboratories would detect all mentioned foodborne hazards (adulteration, pathogenic bacteria of animal origin, pathogenic bacteria of human origin, foodborne viruses, parasites, mycotoxins, food additives, pesticide residues, heavy metals, chemicals, antibiotic residues, hormones, radioactive contaminants, GMOs, deliberate poisoning). Nevertheless, one reference laboratory (National Reference Laboratory, RBC) has the capacity to detect most of the indicated hazards alone, except radioactive contaminants and GMOs. The list of laboratory units operated by the NRL includes: • Immunovirology Unit: has the testing capacity for pathogens and other outbreaks of infectious diseases caused by viruses, including ones that are prone to causing cross-border epidemics. • Nucleic Acid Testing Lab (NAT): responsible for genetic testing and molecular diagnosis of infectious and non-infectious diseases and operational research using advanced molecular techniques. It handles genome level-based surveillance, genomics-based biothreat monitoring, and disease diagnosis, prevention, and management for quality health care. • Medical Entomology Unit (MEU): collaborates with the Epidemic Surveillance and Response (ESR) division to detect outbreaks of diseases caused by common vectors in Rwanda, such as typhus fever, yellow fever, dengue, chikungunya, leptospira, Rift Valley, Brucella, and Coxiells burnetiid. • Microbiology Unit: plays a central role in detection, surveillance, outbreak response and the provision of scientific evidence to prevent and control infectious diseases. The unit has three main sections: Mycobacterium, Parasitology, and Bacteriology. • Clinical Pathology Unit: conducts external quality control (proficiency testing) of public hospitals and private laboratories performing clinical chemistry and hematology diagnosis on a quarterly basis. The 54 unit also organizes and conducts on-site corrective action of health facilities that failed proficiency. The unit supports basic research and client management involving: a. Micronutrients Testing b. Therapeutic Drug Monitoring c. Protein Electrophoresis d. Lipid profile e. Hormones, etc. As per the description of available laboratory’s profiles, the missing tests may pertain to radioactive contaminants and GMOs. Per a recent report released by the Joint External Evaluation of International Health Regulations (IHR) core capacities for the Republic of Rwanda (World Health Organization, 2018), there have been at least 65 confirmed outbreaks of food and waterborne disease; 48% were food poisoning and 37% were cholera. The WHO report (World Health Organization, 2018), disclosed that in the last five years, 83% of diarrheal diseases was related to food and waterborne diseases (typhoid fever, shigellosis, non-bloody diarrhoea, cholera and food poisoning, and other emerging food and waterborne diseases). The source cited an “Epidemic Surveillance and Response/ESR annual report 2015-2016,” which could not be found by our team and hence no details are filtered in this report. The Rwanda Health System and Administrative Structure are linked. The system has three levels: • The Central level, with the responsibility of policy making, overall monitoring and evaluation, capacity building, and resource mobilization • The Peripheral Level, comprising district hospitals (DH) and health centers (HC), having the mission of delivering health services • The Community Level, mainly made by trained and committed community health workers (CHW). Their purpose is to promote, rehabilitate, and to a certain extent deliver some curative health services. Since 2000, the country has been implementing an Integrated Disease Surveillance and Response (IDSR) system in response to occurring epidemics, including emerging and re-emerging infectious diseases such as Influenza A (H1N1), cholera, epidemic typhus and meningitis, etc. To this effect, the MOH has developed guidelines and mechanisms to address health emergencies and epidemic preparedness in line with international health regulations. As highlighted in the recently published Health Sector Policy (M. of H. Republic of Rwanda, 2015), there are still challenges regarding timeliness and incompleteness of reporting toward the necessary linkage of IDRS to the Health Management Information System (HMIS) and other e- Health systems in the country. Since 2005, Rwanda has made many gains in the area of information management. These have included achievements in the automation of systems that are operational at different levels of the health system (HMIS, SISCom, RapidSMS, LMIS, IHRIS, etc.) and incorporate an innovative mix of paper-based and technological solutions. The sector has improved reporting compliance for the HMIS and addressed issues of data quality by introducing a standardized data quality assessment methodology at the national and district levels. The Performance Based Financing (PBF) system, established in 2006, has facilitated the environment for better reporting by introducing not only incentives for performance and its reporting, but also putting penalties for late or incorrect reporting. Recent efforts to harmonize quality improvement initiatives by combining health facility accreditation assessments with the routine PBF quality assessments is another important development that enables the Ministry and its partners to assess and improve quality of care at the service delivery level (M. of H. The Republic of Rwanda, 2018), (http://moh.gov.rw/fileadmin/user_upload/Publication/PBF_Procedures_Manual_for-Health_Facilities.pdf). Rwanda is a Member State of both WHO and OIE, and has appointed a National Focal Person for the IHR (2005), OIE, and INFOSAN (World Health Organization, 2018). The new guidelines for investigation and control of foodborne diseases, published by the RW-FDA and effective from May 13, 2019 (Rwanda FDA, 2019), 55 recognizes the need to establish a system that will assist in the surveillance, investigation, control, and reporting of foodborne diseases. According to the guidelines, the system is expected to streamline the collection of data and other information related to FBDs in order to institute timely interventions that will control present and prevent future disease outbreaks, through adequate food safety management. (http://www.rwandafda.gov.rw/web/fileadmin/guidelines_for_investigation_andcontrol__food_born_disease .pdf). The RW-FDA guidelines provide details for foodborne disease reporting as well as responsibilities at each level. On the side of the MOH, there was noticed a significant strengthening of laboratory information system across the country in the last decade (World Health Organization, 2018; M. of H., The Republic of Rwanda, 2017). Most importantly, the following developments were reported in the course of 2016–2017: • Laboratory Information System was made Web-based to allow for a virtual lab results delivery system within NRL and the lab network using email and SMS • District Hospital Laboratories were mentored and supervised to enhance the diagnostic skills of laboratory staff for best practices • Standard operating procedures (SOPs), policies, and manuals for strengthening the laboratory quality management system (QMS) have been developed • Six laboratories enrolled under an accreditation process were trained on Strengthening Laboratory Management Toward Accreditation (SLMTA), with baseline and exit assessment of laboratory sites • All District Hospital Laboratories were given Proficiency Testing (PT) panels for best practice diagnostic enhancement in the lab network. FBD functions will be done at the following levels, namely, National, Province, District and Sector. Details on functions undertaken at each level are highlighted in the following RW-FDA document (Rwanda FDA, 2019) (http://www.rwandafda.gov.rw/web/fileadmin/guidelines_for_investigation_andcontrol__food_born_disease .pdf). In Table 17, highlighted are the most important foodborne hazards in ASF and FV occurring in Rwanda, in reference to the provided description key at the bottom of the table. Table 17. The status of important foodborne hazards in ASF and FV in Rwanda Importance Due to ASF or Evidence FV (or both) Campylobacter High Both (Clerinx et al., 1995), (Gahamanyi et al., 2020), (Ssemanda, Reij, van Middendorp, et al., 2018); (Kabayiza et al., 2014) Enteropatho/toxigenic E. coli High FV (Ssemanda, Reij, van Middendorp, et al., 2018), (Kabayiza et al., 2014) Cryptosporidium parvum High Both (Squire & Ryan, 2017) Shigella High (Clerinx et al., 1995) Listeria Low FV (Ssemanda, Reij, van Middendorp, et al., 2018), (Kamana et al., 2014) Brucella High ASF (M. of H. The Republic of Rwanda, 2017), (World Health Organization, 2018), (Ndahetuye, 2019) Non typhoidal Salmonella High Both (Clerinx et al., 1995), (Ssemanda, Reij, van spp. Middendorp, et al., 2018), (Ndahetuye, 2019) Vibrio High FV (Ssemanda, Reij, van Middendorp, et al., 2018) Toxoplasma gondii High ASF (Gascon et al., 1989); (Murebwayire et al., 2017) Yersinia enterocolitica* High ASF (Ssemanda, Reij, van Middendorp, et al., 2018) Norovirus Low Both (Mans, 2019) Hepatitis A Low Both (https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/travel/destinations/trav eler/none/rwanda); (Twagirumugabe et al., 2019) Mycobacteria Medium ASF (Habarugira et al., 2014); bovis/tuberculosis (https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-18690-6_18) Giardia High Both (Squire & Ryan, 2017), (Ignatius et al., 2012), (Heimer et al., 2015) 56 Ascaris spp. High Both (M. of H. The Republic of Rwanda, 2017); https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/ tmi.13206; https://idpjournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10 .1186/s40249-016-0212-z Taenia solium Low ASF http://hdl.handle.net/11070/2089; (Simms et al., 2008), (Simms et al., 2008), (Mushonga et al., 2018), (Rottbeck et al., 2013) Trichinella spiralis Low FV (Ssemanda, n.d., DOI https://doi.org/10.18174/452828) Entamoeba histolytica Low Both (Clerinx et al., 1995), (Squire & Ryan, 2017), (Ignatius et al., 2012) Pesticide residues Medium FV (Grosshagauer et al., 2020), (Ndayambaje et al., 2019) Antimicrobial residues Low ASF (Ndahetuye, 2019) Aflatoxin High ASF (Nishimwe et al., 2019), (Umereweneza et al., 2018) Importance: High = one of the top 20 causes of disease Medium = one of the top 100 causes of foodborne disease Low = more than 100 Don’t Know = no evidence on this Evidence: Indicate the basis for the estimate of importance e.g. surveys, one-off studies, expert opinion, guess The national food safety system in Rwanda is managed by various agencies under different ministries and laws (Rwanda Food and Drugs Authority N° 61/2013 of 23/08/2013; Law Establishing the National Standards Inspectorate Competition and Consumer Protection Authority [NICA]; the National Quality Policy; the draft Food Safety Bill, 2016, etc.). This fact has been highlighted in this report and was found confirmed by other independent studies (World Health Organization, 2018). The primary objective of these various institutions and legislations is to promote public health, protect consumers against foodborne health hazards, and enhance economic development. Most of these institutions operate independently in fulfilling the functions for which they are established. This may create overlaps and duplication of mandates, inefficiencies in national food safety control, and inadequate use of resources. At the operational level, some presumptions of conflicts of interest have been indicated in the report. Although there have been prior efforts to identify the required improvements in food safety, occasional reported outbreaks of foodborne illness have highlighted a food safety system that is not always effective in protecting the public health (World Health Organization, 2018). In a recent scholarly study (Korukire et al., 2018) highlighting some weakness and strengths of sanitary inspections in improving food safety and hygiene in commercial restaurants in Rwanda, the authors reviewed literature to support their assumptions. The results revealed that food safety inspections have some weaknesses, such as unclear guidelines or unclear standards, and in some cases these inspections have been accused of imposing penalties instead of improving food safety and hygiene. The findings suggested that though there are some strengths, these sanitary inspections might have little contribution to the improvement of food safety and hygiene. The following are the priority food safety issues: • Policy and regulations: Food safety should be organized in a more coordinated and integrated way in order to deliver a high level of public health and consumer protection, in accordance with both local and international requirements. There is a need to establish and maintain a rational, integrated, farm-to-fork food safety system that harmonizes inter-agency efforts and minimizes inter-agency conflict and overlaps. • Inspection: The authors show their outlook for improvement, such as setting up clear standards as well as establishment of policies, laws, and guidelines pertaining to the operation of commercial restaurants (Korukire et al., 2018). • Surveillance, reporting, and testing: The current system is responding only reactively to food safety problems, and gives insufficient attention to its preventive functions (World Health Organization, 2018; Korukire et al., 2018). It is recommended that the country establish a surveillance system to aid in understanding the epidemiology and the risks of foodborne diseases, and to strengthen laboratory and field capacity for detection, diagnosis, and confirmation of suspected foodborne outbreaks. Specifically, 57 there is a need to have a designation and accreditation of at least one national laboratory to handle foodborne diseases. • Food traceability system: The narrative of food traceability has been associated with its imperative, at the country and regional levels, by a number of passed laws and policies published in the last 10 years. At the country level, food traceability has maintained considerable attention in a number of high-profile government policies and strategies. However, various scholars’ findings indicate a lack of traceability system in most of food supply chains (Nyinawumuntu et al., 2019), including FVs (Ssemanda, Reij, van Middendorp, et al., 2018), ASFs (Kamana et al., 2016), etc. Overall, credible reports have converged on a recommendation to establish an operational national traceability scheme to enhance compliance with hygienic practices and food safety standards for a healthy and trade-friendly food supply chain. 4.0 CONCLUSION The inventory of various food safety stakeholders and food management systems in Rwanda has revealed a tremendous improvement in the last 10 years (2010–2020), with encouraging highlights on food safety roles within various food value chains and supply, regulation, inspection and licensing, sanction, surveillance, etc. The retrospective review has also indicated tangible progress and trends in food traceability and trade at the regional and international levels. Overall, significant legislative developments have been registered within the Ministry of Agriculture and Animal Resources (MINAGRI), the Ministry of Trade and Industry (MINICOM), and the Ministry of Health (MOH) to improve regulation of food safety in the last 10 years. Amid key changes, the establishment of the Law N° 30/2012 of 1/08/23012 governing agrochemicals came into force and later was complemented by the Law N° 16/2016 of 10/05/2016 on plant health protection and procedure for importing seed/planting materials into Rwanda (MINAGRI, 2016). Regulations related to the quality and safety of animal source foods have also improved. Key changes in laws pertaining food and chemicals trade (MINICOM) have been voted on, following the publication of Rwanda Competition and Consumer Protection Policy (MINICOM, 2010) and Rwanda Trade Policy (MINICOM, 2010b). Other major changes have been done in the last 10 years, with the establishment of key government policy implementing agencies/wings; RAB, NAEB (MINAGRI), RICA and RSB (MINICOM), RBC and RW-FDA (MOH). Another achievement was registered with more involvement of the private sector in food value chain management and regulation, even though little was found on its real role in setting standards, as the main standards body remains the Rwanda Standards Board (RSB, Government), which has also been designated as the World Trade Organization Technical Barriers to Trade (WTO/TBT) National Enquiry Point (NEP). Nevertheless, it was noted that the agency has been closely working with the private sector to support the process of compliance with standards, with the introduction of the Food Safety Maturity Model referred to as the Zamukana Ubuziranenge Program. The program systematically prepares and supports the private sector, especially SMEs, toward the desired quality and safety performance while building a standardization culture in the industries. In 2010, the government adopted the competition and consumer protection policy, with the associative law officially gazetted in November 2012. Subsequently, the Ministry of Trade and Industry (MINICOM) has supported the creation of two viable consumer associations: 1) Association pour la défense des droits des consommateurs au Rwanda (ADECOR) based in Kigali, and 2) the Consumer’s Human Right Organization in Rwanda (CHROR) based in Rubavu (Western Province). On a different note, however, a number of shortcomings are still reported and constitute the priority areas to be focused on as food safety problems suitable for risk assessment and prioritization: • The national food safety system in Rwanda is still managed by various agencies under different ministries and laws, with most of these institutions operating independently in fulfilling the functions for which they are established. This may create overlaps and duplication of mandates, inefficiencies in national food safety control, and inadequate use of resources. Henceforth, it was recommended to have a more coordinated and integrated way to deliver a high level of public health and consumer protection, in accordance with both local and international requirements. There is a need to establish 58 and maintain a rational, integrated, farm-to-fork food safety system that harmonizes inter-agency efforts and minimizes inter-agency conflict and overlaps. • Although there have been prior efforts to identify the required improvements in food safety, occasional reported outbreaks of foodborne illness have highlighted a food safety system that is not always effective in protecting the public health. It would be recommended to have sound and coherent food safety inspections standards and be able to work toward improving food safety and hygiene. • The current food safety surveillance and control system is responding only reactively to food safety problems and gives insufficient attention to its preventive functions. It is recommended that the country establishes a surveillance system to aid in understanding the epidemiology and the risks of foodborne diseases, and to strengthen laboratory and field capacity for detection, diagnosis, and confirmation of suspected foodborne outbreaks. Specifically, there is a need to have a designation and accreditation of at least one national laboratory to handle foodborne diseases.t • The narrative of food traceability has been associated with its imperative, at the country and regional levels, by a number of passed laws and policies published in the last 10 years. At the country level, food traceability has kept considerable attention on a number of high-profile government policies and strategies. However, credible reports have converged on a recommendation to establish an operational national traceability scheme to enhance compliance. 59 5.0 REFERENCES A.H., H., MD, K., PR, T., HJ, G., T, H., & Lake RJ, et al. (2015). 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Rwanda Biomedical Centre (RBC): In addition to the food safety mandate (through surveillance and information dissemination on foodborne diseases) RBC has a main mission to 1) promote high-quality, affordable, and sustainable health care services to the population, and 2) contribute to the financial sustainability of the health sector through income-generating biomedical related activities (O. G. Republic of Rwanda, 2013b), etc. 1.1.3. Rwanda Standards Board (RSB) has other missions besides the food safety mandate: 1) to establish and publish national standards; 2) to disseminate information on standards, technical regulations relating to standards, and conformity assessment; 3) to raise awareness and promote the importance of standards and quality service as tools to improve market access, technology transfer, and sustainable development; 4) to participate in putting in place technical regulations relating to standards; 5) to provide products and quality service certifications and monitor conformity for issued certifications; 6) to provide legal, scientific, and industrial metrology services; 7) to act as a reference laboratory in the quality domain (O. G. Republic of Rwanda, 2013a), etc. 1.1.4. Rwanda Development Board (RAB): 1) to contribute to the development of/implement the national policy and strategies in agriculture and animal resources; 2) to coordinate activities aimed at promoting agriculture and animal resources infrastructure; 3) to conduct research on climate change, its impact on agriculture, animal resources, and forestry and put in place strategies aiming at fighting that impact; 4) to establish and manage a gene bank for storing and conserving plant and animal genetic resources as well as any other living organisms related to agriculture and animal resources; 5) to establish a communication system to provide customers with information about agricultural and animal resources produce on the market (O. G. Republic of Rwanda, 2017a), etc. 1.1.5. The National Agricultural Export Development Board (NAEB) has additional powers and responsibilities: 1) to engage in commercial activities relevant to its mission, 2) to hold or acquire shares in other corporations or companies as well as selling such shares, 3) to bid for tenders and perform consultancy services inside or outside the country, 4) to apply for loans upon authorization by the Ministry in charge of finance, 5) to collect and analyze information on national, regional, and international markets and disseminate that information to the concerned stakeholders for use (O. G. Republic of Rwanda, 2017b), etc. 1.1.6. The Rwanda Clearing House Mechanism (RW-CHM) is a sub-unit of Rwanda Environment Management Agency (REMA) of the Ministry of Environment and Biodiversity. The main mission is to advance environmental protection and biodiversity management. 64 Annex 2: 1.2. Description of potential conflicts of interest for each FS regulation agency in Rwanda 1.2.1. Rwanda Food and Drugs Authority (RW-FDA): Although the agency falls within the category of non- commercial public institutions, RW-FDA is vested with the superpower to 1) regulate (products, processes, compliance with quality standards, laboratory and cleaning chemicals and pesticides as well as premises), 2) establish, approve, and publish the list of human and veterinary food regulated, 3) establish the quality assurance and quality control, etc., on one side. On the other side, the agency has the power to: 1) impose sanctions against noncompliance (e.g., withdrawing authorizations, seizing and confiscating any product regulated under this Law not conforming to the provisions of this Law), 2) to establish tariff for its services rendered to “Clients,” while 3) operating its own quality control laboratory (human and veterinary medicine, medical and diagnostic devices, food products). The law establishing RW-FDA automatically repealed all prior legal provisions, while little is indicated on its status of wearing two hats of being both a regulator and implementing body, which potentially may represent a conflict of interest. 1.2.2. Rwanda Standards Board (RSB) has a core mission of regulating and publishing standards, as well as regulating the conformity assessment. The agency has the additional power to provide products and quality service certifications and monitor conformity for issued certifications and provide legal, scientific, and industrial metrology services. Law N° 61/2013 of 23/08/2013 establishing the National Inspectorate and Competition Authority (NICA; Republic of Rwanda, 2013b) was meant to complement the Law N° 50/2013 of 28/06/2013 (RSB Law), with NICA being the implementation arm of the RSB. This new law (NICA) was later reviewed, resulting in the vote of the Law N° 31/2017 of 25/07/2017 establishing the Rwanda Inspectorate, Competition and Consumer Protection Authority (RICA), which seems inoperational to date (Need to be verified by office visits/interviews). This situation puts RSB in a powerful position of monopoly in the management of food standards. It has to be noted that RSB operates a standard and quality assessment laboratory (products, processes). 1.2.3. National Agricultural Export Development Board (NAEB): The agency was established by the law N° 13/2017 of 14/04/2017 as a commercial public institution (Republic of Rwanda, 2012). This virtue at a glance would make the institution open to competition and other lucrative engagements, e.g., holding or acquiring shares in other corporations or companies as well as selling such shares, bidding for tenders, and performing consultancy services inside or outside the country. Those powers seem to constitute potential conflicts of interest, as long as its “Regulatory” and “Certification” roles stand. 65 Annex 3: FBD register at each hospital or health facility/Rwanda FDA (http://www.rwandafda.gov.rw/web/fileadmin/guidelines_for_investigation_andcontrol__food_born_dise ase.pdf) 66 Annex 4: FBD report form/Rwanda FDA (http://www.rwandafda.gov.rw/web/fileadmin/guidelines_for_investigation_andcontrol__food_born_dise ase.pdf) 67