ORIGINAL RESEARCH
published: 29 April 2021
doi: 10.3389/fsufs.2021.630400
Community Seed Banks in China:
Achievements, Challenges and
Prospects
Xin Song 1, Guanqi Li 1, Ronnie Vernooy 2* and Yiching Song 3
1 Farmers’ Seed Network in China, Nanning, China, 2 The Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT, Wageningen,
Netherlands, 3Center for Chinese Agricultural Policy, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
The rich agrobiodiversity of China is under unprecedented threat, experiencing a dramatic
loss of many valuable local varieties and wild relatives of main crops. The country’s formal
conservation system of ex situ genebanks faces serious challenges to address this loss.
Community seed banks can play a key role to complement the conservation activities
of these genebanks and provide other important collective goods, such as evolutionary
services, but although they have been around for some 35 years in various parts of the
world, in China they have a much shorter history. In recent years though the number has
Edited by: increased to almost 30 in 2020, in particular due to the efforts of the China Farmers’
Mariana Benítez,
Seed Network. The community seed banks in the country are very diverse in terms of
National Autonomous University of
Mexico, Mexico functions and services, forms of management and institutional linkages. Compared to the
Reviewed by: most common functions of community seed banks in other countries, China is bringing
Suprasanna Penna, an important design innovation through two new functions: adding value to seed and
Bhabha Atomic Research Centre
(BARC), India produce through innovative marketing strategies, and building regional and national seed
Luis F. Goulao, system linkages and fostering collaboration. The review of community seed banking not
University of Lisbon, Portugal
only provides rich empirical evidence, but also makes an important contribution to theory.
Francisca Acevedo,
National Commission for the Building on the achievements of community seed banking in the last decade, there is
Knowledge and Use of Biodiversity scope to scale this kind of very valuable agrobiodiversity conservation approach through
(CONABIO), Mexico
more effective uptake and support by relevant national policies.
*Correspondence:
Ronnie Vernooy Keywords: China, genebank, community seed bank, conservation, crop diversity, resilient seed system
r.vernooy@cgiar.org
Specialty section: INTRODUCTION
This article was submitted to
Agroecology and Ecosystem Services, Although China is experiencing a rapid and massive urbanization process, it is still a country with
a section of the journal 260 million smallholder farmers (97% of all farming households), with an average landholding
Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems
of 0.6 ha (National Bureau of Statistics [NBS], 2017). Livelihood conditions differ considerably
Received: 17 November 2020 across the country. The rural areas and smallholder farmers in the west and southwest are the
Accepted: 16 March 2021 most important targets of the policies concerning national poverty alleviation. These rural areas
Published: 29 April 2021
share common characteristics, such as fragile (mountain) ecologies, highly climate sensitive and
Citation: weak adaptive capacities. In recent decades, farming systems here have suffered from the loss
Song X, Li G, Vernooy R and Song Y of agrobiodiversity as local crops and varieties are replaced by modern cultivars (Li et al., 2012;
(2021) Community Seed Banks in
Vernooy et al., 2013; Song et al., 2019). A recent study of the impact assessment of China’s
China: Achievements, Challenges and
Prospects. Seed Policy by the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) concluded that the rapid socioeconomic
Front. Sustain. Food Syst. 5:630400. changes and transition to modern agriculture have had major negative impacts on farmers’
doi: 10.3389/fsufs.2021.630400 seed systems and livelihood resilience (Center for Chinese Agricultrual Policy [CCAP]., 2018,
Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems | www.frontiersin.org 1 April 2021 | Volume 5 | Article 630400
Song et al. Community Seed Banks in China
Farmers’ Seed Network 2019). As agrobiodiversity can play an 2020). The reality is that, apart from the formal genebank system,
important function in climate change adaptation, smallholder there already exists a country-wide “seed system” for the in situ
farming is under stress, particular affecting women, who play conservation and sustainable use of agrobiodiversity: it is made
key roles in agriculture due to high levels of male migration up by the 260 million smallholder farmers living in 691,510
to urban areas. The erosion of farmer seed systems and lack of villages (National Bureau of Statistics [NBS], 2017). These
safe and good quality seeds are causing fundamental constraints smallholder farmers are not only seed savers, but also provide
and hindering the viable development of local initiatives very important evolutionary services, which are a public good
toward food and nutrition security (Subedi and Vernooy, 2019) and upon which plant breeding depends (Bellon et al., 2018). On-
and sustainable development more broadly (Intergovernmental farm and in-situ conservation and utilization are closely linked
Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity Ecosystem Services to local farmers’ everyday life and embedded in their traditional
[IPBES]., 2019). Such development includes the production and farming and knowledge systems in an evolutionary process,
consumption of safe, healthy and diversified foods, for which which has been going on for thousands of year of farming in
the national demand is increasing due to a series of food safety China (Zhu, 2010). However, this community-based, farmer seed
problems and growing environmental concerns. system has largely remained unrecognized and unsupported by
China’s rich agrobiodiversity is under unprecedented threat, the formal system.
with dramatic loss of many valuable local varieties selected In farmers’ seed systems globally, including China, 60–90%
and nurtured for centuries and wild relatives of main crops of the seeds on which smallholder farmers depend on is saved
facing the threat of extinction (Food Agricultural Organization on-farm or obtained through local distribution channels, such
of the United Nations [FAO]., 2008; Li et al., 2009; He et al., as exchanges between farmers, intra- and inter-community
2010; Gao et al., 2011; Xinhua News, 2018). In 2015, the sharing systems, agro-dealers and local markets. Increasingly,
Seeds Administration Bureau of the Ministry of Agriculture the community seed bank is an important form of organization
launched the third national crop germplasm resource survey for on-farm conservation, access and utilization of agricultural
and collection. The 2018 preliminary statistics indicated that germplasm resources (Vernooy et al., 2018, 2019a). A community
there were 11,590 grain crops varieties planted in China in seed bank is defined as a locally governed and managed
1956, but only 3,271 varieties remained in 2014, representing institution whose core function is to maintain seeds for local use
a loss rate of 71.8% (Xinhua News, 2018). In order to control (Development Fund, 2011). For more than 35 years, community
the sharp decrease in crop variety diversity and quantity of seed banks have conserved, restored, revitalized, strengthened
agricultural germplasm resources, the Ministry of Agriculture and improved the management of plant genetic resources, in
has invested in a “Seed Project” for enlarging the national particular, but not solely, of local varieties of crops (Vernooy
genebank conservation facilities. By December 2018, the total et al., 2015). Seeds are stored in a shared facility for short
number of basic collections at the national long-term genebank duration (usually 1–3 years) and then regenerated by members
had reached 502,173 accessions (Xinhua News, 2019). The of the community seed bank collectively (e.g., on a parcel of land
national conservation system for plant genetic resources includes belonging to the community seed bank) or individually. Beyond
one national long-term genebank, one national duplication this core conservation function, community seed banks have
genebank, 10 national medium-term genebanks and 43 national a broad range of additional purposes and vary significantly in
germplasm nurseries and a few in situ protected sites for wild scope, size, governance and management models, infrastructure
crop relatives managed by the formal system. and technical aspects.
The General Office of the State Council of China released a Although community seed banks have been around for some
circular on 11 February 2020, outlining requirements to improve 35 years in various parts of the world (Andersen et al., 2018; Joshi
the conservation and utilization of agricultural germplasm et al., 2018; Vernooy et al., 2019b; Porcuna-Ferrer et al., 2020;
resources (The State Council of The People’s Republic of China, Shrestha et al., 2020), in China they have a shorter history, but
2020). This is the first policy in China that focuses on the in recent years the number has increased to almost 30 in 2020.
conservation and utilization of agricultural germplasm resources The roles and functions of community seed banks are crucial for
and therefore of great significance. In response to the circular, the the sustainability of farming communities’ livelihoods and the
Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs pointed out that, “many State’s food security and the building of long term resilient food
ancient local varieties and endemic resources are sustained systems, yet the formal system has followed a heavily top-down
and adapted in people’s home gardens, fields and remote modernization approach (including for research and extension),
mountains and forests.” Therefore, according to the ministry, which has neglected the roles of smallholder farmers and their
the protection of agricultural germplasm resources “requires traditional practices. The national genebank system has not yet
the broad participation and support of the whole society... It actively collaborated with community seed banks and accessions
is necessary to involve more farmers, social organizations in from community seed banks have yet to be incorporated in the
resource conservation.” (Ministry of Agriculture Rural Affairs, national genebank system. However, the growing realization of
the key roles of indigenous communities in conserving their local
species and traditional culture and related knowledge, and civil
Abbreviations: China-NIAHS, China-National Important Agricultural Heritage
society’s and consumers’ needs for healthy, diversified and local
System; FFS, farmer field school; FSN, Farmers’ Seed Network; GIAHS, Globally
Important Agricultural Heritage System; PPB, participatory plant breeding; PVS, specific foods, have created spaces for local crops and seeds.
participatory variety selection. These are the major reasons and drivers for the rapid growth
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Song et al. Community Seed Banks in China
of community seed banks in China. However, they have not yet TABLE 1 | Multiple functions and services of community seed banks.
received much scientific and policy attention. This article, as far
Function Services
as we know the first about community seed banks in China, aims
to fill this gap. Conservation • Short-term conservation of mostly local varieties
Based on original participatory action research in various • Longer-term conservation of heirloom and rare varieties
communities in different agroecologies of the country, we briefly • Restoration of “lost” varieties
review the development and current state of 27 community seed • Development of protocols for conservation of healthy
seed and training of local communities
banks in China. This empirical review serves to critically assess
Access and • Platform offering multiple channels of access and
and revise the most recent analytical framework for the study of
availability availability of seeds at the community level
community seed banks developed by Vernooy et al. (2014, 2015). • Maintenance of locally adapted seed at a low cost
Themethodology used for the field research included focus group • Fostering of seed exchanges at local and supra-local
discussions (N = 22) with female and male farmer members levels
of the community seed banks, interviews with female and male • Access to novel diversity not conserved locally
• Provision of adapted seed to marginal communities not
key informants (lead seed custodian members of community
served by commercial seed dissemination efforts
seed banks) (N = 14), a seed questionnaire for members of the • When quantities suffice, capacity to respond to local
community seed banks (N = 470, 306 women and 164 men), crises/disasters/ acute shortages of seeds
participant observation and collaborative analysis and action • Seed multiplication including varieties bred through
planning with farmers and their communities, and case studies participatory activities
(based on the information obtained through the other methods). Seed and food • Maintenance of local control over seed conservation,
sovereignty exchange and production activities (community-based
More details about the methods, including the guide used for
biodiversity management)
the seed questionnaire and the case studies, are provided as • Income generation through the sales of seeds
Supplementary Material. We then present a revised analytical • Sharing of agricultural biodiversity knowledge and
framework adapted to the Chinese context by expanding the expertise
three core functions of community seed banks to five and • Links between in situ and ex situ conservation
• Support of traditional and ethnic food culture and
adding additional services to the three original functions. The cultural use
validity of the revised framework is illustrated by three cases • Contribution to ecological agriculture and food
of community seed banks from three different agroecological sovereignty movements
regions in Southwest, North, and East China. The three cases
Source: Vernooy et al. (2014).
selected represent the three major farming types/models that can
be identified in three major agro-ecological regions in China:
the traditional/indigenous system in the South-west (represented
by the Guzhai case), the community-supported agroecological enhancing access to and availability of local crop diversity; (3) and
farming system in the East (represented by the Kunshan Organic ensuring seed and food sovereignty. For each function, a number
Farm case) and the conventional agricultural system in the North of services are identified; not all of which are necessarily present
(represented by the Wang Jinchuang case). The articles conclude at the same time in every community seed bank. Conceptually,
by outlining constraints and opportunities of community seed the three core functions are connected, complementary and not
bank development in China. mutually exclusive.
Community seed banks can also contribute to the adaptive
capacity of farmers and communities (in particular with regard
THE COMMUNITY SEED BANK to climate change) (McGuire and Sperling, 2013; Mijatović et al.,
FUNCTIONS AND SERVICES 2013), through a number of strategies: conservation of a portfolio
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK of diverse seeds of crops and crop varieties; conservation of
seeds from plants that have high capacity to survive under
For our theoretical review, we used the conceptual community extreme weather conditions; restoration of “lost” varieties with
seed bank framework developed by Vernooy et al. (2014, 2015), particular good adaptation potential; accessing novel diversity
which was based on a review of the literature up to then and not conserved locally, and accessing seeds from areas where
on own experiences of book contributors and insights gained plants have adapted to extreme weather conditions (Vernooy
from direct involvement with community seed banks in a et al., 2017).
number of countries around the world. The framework describes It is to note that, although usually local in nature, a community
community seed banks from the point of view of their functions seed bank can have a multiplier effect if its members cultivate
and services. This framework is not only useful for carrying out partnerships and engage in networking with multiple actors and
systematic and comprehensive analyses of existing initiatives, share information and seeds with others in the seed sector.
but it can also guide the establishment of new community Small community seed banks can, thus, sometimes become
seed banks and inform the development or revision of national larger ones; or a network of small community seed banks
policies or strategies to support community seed banks. The with considerable scope and depth can emerge, with each one
framework identifies three core functions of community seed responding to particular needs and interests. Community seed
banks (Table 1): (1) conserving plant genetic resources; (2) banks can also join forces by establishing a secondary level type
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Song et al. Community Seed Banks in China
of organization, such as the national association of community Agricultural Sciences in the Southwest of China. The FSN
seed banks in Nepal. Community seed banks have flourished and brings together over 30 communities as action pilots and
grown around the world for more than three decades with China living labs from 10 provinces across China and works
“joining” in the past decade. closely with CCAP and the United Nations Environment
We tested the utility of the original conceptual framework Programme—International Ecosystem Management Partnership
in the context of China through an in-depth review of the (UNEP-IEMP) of CAS, GMRI, Institute of Crop Science of
operations of 12 of the 27 community seed banks in the country the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences (ICS-CAAS),
(those directly supported by the Farmers’ Seed Network). Before China Agricultural University, Yunnan Agricultural University,
presenting the results of this review, we briefly describe the Kumming Institute of Botany (KIB) and some civil society
history of community seed banks in China. organizations, such as the Beijing Farmer Market and the China
Community-Supported Agriculture coalition. The FSN aims
to enhance the farmer seed system through community-based
EVOLUTION OF COMMUNITY SEED participatory action and capacity building and by linking the
BANKING IN CHINA formal system and civil society for collaboration and support.
In November 2015, the Farmers’ Seed Network participated in
Seed saving by smallholder households has been an important an international workshop on community seed banks organized
part of Chinese traditional farming culture for thousands of by Bioversity International in New Delhi, India, and thereafter,
years (Song, 1998). The long history of collecting, conserving, integrated community seed banks into FSN’s action agenda.
exchanging, and managing local varieties on an individual and In May 2016, the first community seed bank supported by
family basis has made a significant contribution to safeguarding the Farmers’ Seed Network was established in Stone village, a
and perpetuating seed diversity and security (Song and Vernooy, Naxi village in Lijiang City, Yunnan Province. The seed bank
2010). This long and rich agro-cultural trajectory has inspired has its roots in the participatory plant breeding trials initiated
the formal establishment of community seed banks, which was in the village in 2013 by CCAP and partners. There are 109
initiated by research institutions and social organizations a varieties collected and documented in the community seed
decade ago. According to our field research, there are now 27 registry, managed by a women group. In 2017, two more FSN-
community seed banks in China. Nineteen community seed supported community seed banks were established in Yuefeng
banks are distributed in the Southwest provinces of Yunnan, Island Organic Farm in Kunshan, Jiangsu province, and Sancha
Guizhou, and Guangxi, with Guangxi having the highest number village in Heng County, Guangxi province. Both seed banks are
of 10 (Figure 1). located in communities that have more than a decade of organic
The first formally established community seed bank was rice farming history. The two community seed banks provide
the Xiding Crop Germplasm Resource Bank, established in high quality seed for local organic agriculture. Figure 2 presents
Xiding township, Menghai county, Xishuangbanna prefecture of the growth of community seed banks over time. In 2020, there
Yunnan province, in 2010. This local genebank was established were 27 community seed banks across the country.
with the main goals of conserving local crop varieties, organizing In 2018, with the support of Oxfam Hong Kong, the
local farmers, mainly Blang people, to exchange them (mainly of Farmers’ Seed Network launched a Community Seed Bank
rice and maize) and to showcase the crop diversity in Xiding. Knowledge Dissemination and Action Research Project. In this
The Xiding genebank was supported by the Xiding Township project, FSN translated to Chinese and published the books
Government, Xishuangbanna Academy of Agricultural Sciences Community Seed banks: origins, evolution and prospects (Vernooy
and Bioversity International. Agencies and farmers participated et al., 2015) and How to Develop and Manage Your Own
in formulating rules and regulations of the genebank (Yang et al., Community Seed Bank: Farmers’ Handbook (Vernooy et al.,
2015). In the same period as the establishment of the Xiding 2020a,b,c). These two books provide facilitators and farmers
genebank, Professor Yunyue Wang at the Yunnan Agricultural a practical resource about community seed banks at both
University started to work on the conservation and utilization research and action levels. The project also supported three new
of traditional rice varieties in the Hani terraces in Yuanyang, community seed banks in Guzhai, Qunan, and Gengdan villages
Yunnan Province. She supported local Hani villagers to collect in Guangxi province. A regional network of four community
local traditional rice varieties and build seed banks based on seed banks, encircling Nanning city, was formed to facilitate seed,
scientific research (Li et al., 2009). technology and knowledge exchange with the Guangxi Academy
Significant changes started in August 2015, when staff of of Agricultural Sciences.
the Farmers’ Seed Network (FSN) visited the Xiding gene In 2019, the participatory action research in the Stone village
bank to meet with local farmers and agro-extensionists to extended to Wumu, Youmi, and Labo villages in the same
learn from their operational experiences. They returned home Jinshan river valley, forming a seed network of four Naxi-Moso
inspired by functioning and community-based management villages. Inspired by the Stone village seed bank, Wumu, and
of the local genebank. The Farmers’ Seed Network was Labo villages set up their own seed banks. The Stone village
founded in 2013, established on the basis of the participatory seed bank also incubated a branch in Muniuke, a nearby natural
action research of the Center for Chinese Agricultural Policy village. Managed by a women farmer breeder and her sister
(CCAP) of the Chinese Academy of Sciences and the Maize group, this seed branch focuses on the conservation, access and
Research Institute of the Guangxi (GMRI) Academy of dissemination of participatory variety selection trial results.
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Song et al. Community Seed Banks in China
FIGURE 1 | Geographic distribution of community seed banks in China (2020).
In addition, Partnerships for Community Development Experience has shown that community seed banks have
(PCD) in Hong Kong has supported smallholder farmers the potential for both vertical and horizontal extension. In
in Yunnan, Guizhou, Guangxi and Sichuan provinces recent years, Globally Important Agricultural Heritage Systems
to carry out seed conservation activities and supported (GIAHS), Nationally Important Agricultural Heritage Systems
scholars to conduct research on the conservation, (NIAHS) and ecological agriculture are the important strategies
access and benefit-sharing of agrobiodiversity. With the for rural development in China. Community seed banks
support of PCD, Guangxi Green Ground Rural Poverty emphasize farmer-led, active conservation and utilization, and
Alleviation and Development Center established the local adaptation, which are all central to these strategies. In
Guangxi Local Variety Conservation Network, aiming 2019, the Farmers’ Seed Network supported two new seed
to support the establishment of six community seed banks at a GIHAS site, the Aohan dryland farming system in
banks and organize farmers to exchange seeds and Inner Mongolia, and one in a NIAHS site, Wangjinzhuang of
associated knowledge. Hebei province.
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Song et al. Community Seed Banks in China
framework are summarized in Table 4. These two new functions
and related services represent important new dimensions of
community seed banking, connecting to and situating seed banks
in the larger agro-economy and China’s formal institutional
system of conservation and sustainable use of agrobiodiversity.
This is an empirical novelty that has not yet been observed
in other countries or at least, not so clearly. To illustrate the
new conceptual framework of community seed banks in more
detail, in particular highlighting the new functions and services,
we present three cases, one from each of the three major agro-
ecological regions of the country. The case studies resulted from
the field research carried out during 2019–2020.
FIGURE 2 | Establishment of community seed banks in China over time
(2010–2020). Case 1. Guzhai: the Multi-Functionality of a
Women-Led Cooperative and Community
Seed Bank in South-West China
RESULTS: COMMUNITY SEED BANKS THE The first case study, Guzhai village in Guangxi (Southwest
CHINESE WAY region), encompasses all five functions and almost all the
related services. The work in Guzhai initiated with conservation
Table 2 presents the main functions and services of the 12 through participatory plant breeding. Guzhai farmers were
community seed banks in China supported by the Farmers’ encouraged and supported to conserve and utilize their genetic
Seed Network. As can be deducted from Table 2, we found and cultural heritage, such as crop landraces, wild medicinal
that the original conceptual community seed bank framework plants and local livestock varieties. Value adding with partnership
(Vernooy et al., 2014, 2015) is certainly useful for an analysis of building and setting up local market-based channels have been
Chinese community seed banks, but has several limitations in the an important function throughout the community seed bank
Chinese context. The first limitation: the three major functions development process. The long-standing partnership with CCAP
and related services are certainly relevant, but not sufficient: andGMRI facilitated the farmer and formal seed systems linkages
we identified two additional functions. The second limitation: and collaboration.
the descriptions of the functions could be slightly modified by Guzhai is located in the Karst mountains with rocky terrain
adding utilization to access and availability; and by renaming and limited arable land. In September 2001, a group of women
seed and food sovereignty to sharing and networking, which farmers from the village joined the Participatory Action Research
broadens the scope of the function while deemphasizing the program initiated by the Center for Chinese Agricultural
policy dimension, which in China (but also in other countries) Policy (CCAP). From 2000 to 2004, the program focused on
has very limited applicability. participatory plant breeding, community-based natural resource
The two new functions are: adding value to seed and produce, management and biodiversity enhancement. Initially, the women
and building seed systems linkages and fostering collaboration. group leader gathered women around folk music and dance.
Under adding value are services such as contributing to Since 2004, the program started working on farmers’ livelihood
ecological agriculture (9 of 12 community seed banks surveyed) security and policy changes through value adding and marketing
and participating in community-supported agriculture (8 of 12). of local resources and related knowledge.
Under linkages and collaboration, services include linking in situ In 2008, the Guzhai community started to collaborate
and ex situ conservation (4 of 12), repatriation via participatory with a local NGO, Farmers’ Friend, which works toward
crop improvement (6 of 12) and linking with national and connecting food producers and consumers on a friendship
regional genebanks for exchange of seed and knowledge (5 of 12). basis and with respect for sustainability. Based on this
The second shortcoming is that we identified additional services collaboration emerged the home-based pig-biogas-vegetable-
that relate to the three functions of the original conceptual maize-pig circular farming model. In addition, formerly
framework. Under conservation, farmers’ field schools and abandoned maize-soybean-pumpkin-sweet potato intercropping
diversity blocks (8 of 12), work on (semi) wild local food and practices were re-introduced. The wide adoption of eco-circular
medicinal plants (7 of 12) and traditional and ethnic food culture methods improved the local environment and led to the direct
(10 of 12) are important services. Under access and availability, supply of vegetables to an organic restaurant in Nanning City.
utilization of local food plants for improving nutrition through Between 2001 and 2011, the CCAP team invited more than
participatory ecological plant breeding is important (5 of 12). 30 national and international agro-ecological experts to visit
Under sharing and networking important services are fostering Guzhai and coordinated knowledge exchanges and seed fairs
of seed exchanges at local and supra-local levels (11 of 12) and to promote the recognition of the genetic and cultural values
networking among communities and with other seed system of farmer varieties and their utilization through participatory
actors (11 of 12). Table 3 presents links of community seed banks plant breeding (PPB) and participatory variety selection (PVS)
with scientific institutions. All the new elements of the revised (Vernooy, 2003) and agro-ecological farming practices.
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TABLE 2 | Main functions and services of community seed banks in China supported by the Farmers’ Seed Network (n = 12).
Functions and services Yunnan Guangxi Jiangsu Inner Mongolia Hebei
Stone village Muniuke Labo Wumu Guzhai Sancha Gengdan Qunan Yuefengdao Henggouzi Yidunqing Wangjinzhuang
Conservation
Community registry of local varieties X X X X X X X X X X X X
Short-term conservation of mostly local X X X X X X X X X X X X
varieties
Longer-term conservation of local heirloom/rare X X X X X X X X X X X X
varieties
Restoration of “lost” varieties X X X X X X X X X X X X
Farmers’ field school and diversity block X X X X X X X X
Conservation/domestication of wild/semi-wild X X X X X X X
local food and medicinal plants
Support of traditional and ethnic food culture X X X X X X X X X X
Access and availability
Maintenance of locally adapted seed at low X X X X X X X
cost
Access to novel diversity not conserved locally X X X X X X X X X X X X
PPB/PVS seed multiplication X X X X X X X
Eco-PB of local food plants for nutrition X X X X X
Sharing and networking
Fostering of seed exchanges at local and X X X X X X X X X X
supra-local levels
Organization of seed fairs and food culture fairs X X X X X X X
Sharing of conservation, PPB/PVS methods X X X X X X X
and related TK and culture
Networking of communities and with other X X X X X X X X X X X
seed actors
Adding value to seeds and produce
Contribution to ecological agriculture X X X X X X X X X
Contribution to CSA model for rural-urban X X X X X X X X
interaction
Farmer seed enterprise X
Geographical indication products and X X
eco-tourism
Seed system linkages and collaboration
Enhancement of in-situ and ex-situ linkages X X X X
Repatriation via PPB/PVS & EPB for local food X X X X X X
system
Interaction with provincial or national X X X X X
genebanks
Integration with GIHAS for biodiversity X X
enhancement
Development of protocols of benefit-sharing X
mechanism
TK, traditional knowledge; CSA, community-supported agriculture; Eco-PB (EPB), ecological plant breeding; PPB, participatory plant breeding; PVS, participatory variety selection.
Song et al. Community Seed Banks in China
TABLE 3 | Organizational links of community seedbanks.
Region Institute Crop Activity
Southwest Kunming Institute of Botany, CAS Mountainous wild plants, herbs, turnip Participatory variety selection, Farmers’ Field
Lijiang Alpine Botanic Garden, CAS School
Yunnan Agricultural University Rice
Maize Research Institute, Guangxi Academy of Maize Participatory plant breeding, Small-scale seed
Agricultural Sciences production, Ecological Farming
Rice Research Institute, Guangxi Academy of Rice, Soybean
Agricultural Sciences
East Rice Research Institute, Jiangsu Academy of Rice Ecological Farming, Ecological Plant Breeding
Agricultural Sciences
Wujin Rice Research Institute
North Aohan Dryland Crop Genebank Millet Geographical Identification product
development, Commercial plant breeding,
Ecological farming
TABLE 4 | New functions and services of community seed banks in China.
Function Services
Conservation • Farmers’ field school and diversity block
• Conservation and domestication of wild/semi-wild local food and medicine plants
• Support of traditional and ethnic food culture
Access, availability and utilization • Utilization of local food plants for improving nutrition through participatory ecological plant
breeding
Sharing and networking • Fostering of seed exchanges at local and supra-local levels
• Organization of seed fairs and food culture fairs
• Sharing of conservation, participatory crop improvement methods and related traditional
knowledge and culture
• Networking among communities and with other seed system actors
Value adding • Contribution to ecological agriculture
• Contribution to Community-Supported Agriculture for rural-urban interaction and the solidarity
economy
• Farmer seed enterprise development
• Promotion and development of Geographical Indication products and eco-tourism
Seed systems linkages and collaboration • Enhancing in situ and ex situ linkages
• Repatriation via participatory crop improvement for improving local food systems
• Interaction with provincial or national gene banks
• Integration with NIAHS/GIAHS for biodiversity enhancement
• Development of protocols for fair and equitable benefit-sharing
A series of training activities increased the women group’s Network organized its first annual meeting in Nanning. The
participants from nine elderly women to more than 60 young meeting offered a training session on how to use a community
and aged women plus a few men. In 2012, Guzhai formed the seed registry (including photos) to document local varieties to
first women-led farmers’ professional co-operative, the Rongyan 10 community participants, including from Guzhai village. At
Farmer Cooperative (named after its leader), to start their the end of 2019, Guzhai community had registered 124 local
official business development. Since then, Rongyan Farmer varieties, including maize (9), bean and pea (11), squash and
Cooperative has focused on farmer hybrid maize development melon (8), vegetables (24), and wild medicinal plants (53).
(a PPB variety, Guinuo 2006, was produced), production of The cooperative has utilized several local vegetable, maize and
high quality local maize, soybean and chayote shoots. Efforts Arrowroot (Canna edulis) varieties as its core products. In 2015,
include the strengthening of technology and marketing aspects the farmers of the cooperative decided to establish a community
and exploring seed registration mechanisms for farmer varieties seed bank, building on the cumulative efforts of PPB, eco-circular
and PPB seed. Besides maize and soybean experiments, the farming, Community Supported Agriculture (CSA), community
Rongyan Farmer Cooperative has carried out vegetable variety registration of local varieties and participatory variety selection.
selection and wild vegetable variety domestication for marketing. Since its inception, the Guzhai community seed bank has been
In late 2014, the cooperative started to build local market- working with community seed plots to conduct trials of wild
based channels, and chayote shoots emerged as a preferred vegetable domestication and Guinuo 2006 hybridization. Plant
choice to cooperative members. In 2014, the Farmers’ Seed and wild relative species conserved by the seed bank are: maize
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Song et al. Community Seed Banks in China
(seven varieties), bean (9), melon (10), vegetables (25), and dwindling and everyone needs to work together to pass
medicinal herbs (12). Of the total collection, 37 are traditional down the local survival wisdom, strengthen the farmers’ seed
varieties including 3 varieties of maize, 5 bean, 7 melon, 17 system and guard the future. The Farmers’ Seed Bank of
vegetables and 5 Chinese herbs. News of the seed bank spread by Wangjinzhuang Village was established in November 2019.
word of mouth as the cooperative members collected vegetables. Its logo reads: “Conserve by fulfilling potentials, Utilize
The varieties in the seed bank are provided to villagers free through biocultural inheritance, Multi-stakeholder participation,
of charge, registered at the time of use, and doubled back Dynamic conservation.”
at harvest time. Today there are 89 villagers using the seed Seeds were brought from the granary of households to
bank, 21 of whom are young men and women, and the rest the community seed bank for display. There are 106 varieties
are women over 50 years old. The Farmers’ Seed Network of 10 types of commonly grown crops conserved, all of
regularly visits and monitors the activities of the community which are local varieties, of which 82 are traditional varieties.
seed bank, but day-to-day operations are in the hands of the Some traditional varieties have been grown for hundreds
member farmers. of years continuously adapting to changing conditions.
The Guzhai seed bank is linked to the government germplasm All seeds saved in the community seed bank have been
bank. In 2019, GMRI breeders collected three local germplasm registered as collectively owned community resources. The
resources, namely Mexican white maize, local yellow maize and commonly grown crop varieties and traditional varieties
local glutinous maize, from the Guzhai seed bank and put them are listed in Table 5. Traditional food crops are bolded.
into the National Germplasm Bank and the Guangxi Academy of Hundred-year-old varieties that are well documented
Agricultural Sciences Germplasm Bank for conservation. are in bolded italics; and in italics for those that are
“characterized” in people’s minds. The activities of the
community seed bank are guided by the Farmers’ Field
Case 2. Valuing Cultural Heritage: the School (FFS) approach, which is implemented with the
Centenary Granaries of Wangjinzhuang guidance of plant breeders. Farmers participate in evaluation
Village, North China and tasting events organized by the FFS, which not only
The second case study focuses on agrobiodiversity enhancement enhances farmers’ seed knowledge, but also strengthens
for the dynamic conservation of agricultural heritage. Some community organization to establish close seed exchange
seed banks, such as the Wangjinzhuang Farmer Seed Bank, and learning relationships with the Community-Supported
have established systematic conservation mechanism including Agriculture platform and farmers’ market and other dryland
seed registration, a management charter and a diversity block, farming communities.
contributing to the dynamic conservation of agrobiodiversity The number of members for managing the community seed
and related cultural heritage in remote areas. Compared to bank has grown from 5 to 43, with the number of women
the alarming loss of local seed diversity in North China, increasing from 1 to 26. The community seed bank is open
Wangjinzhuang village still retains many varieties of vegetable, to all villagers and non-member villagers who can use the
bean, legume and especially millet, the main staple food. seeds from the community seed bank with the consent of
Wangjinzhuang village belongs to Jingdian Town, She the Terrace Association. When this community seed bank was
County, Handan City, Hebei Province, and is located on first established, the members of Terrace Association discussed
the eastern foot of the South Taihang Mountains with steep management options regarding the community seed bank under
slopes stretching from 203 to 1,563m. Relying on the natural the guidance of the Agricultural Bureau of She County, Hebei
climate for planting, villagers have worked out a survival Province. They drafted “The Management Methods of Farmers’
strategy, which they describe as “using the land to plant a Seed Bank of Wangjinzhuang Village about She County Dryland
hundred kinds of crops and not rely on the sky.” Agricultural Terrace System (trial).” Article 4 of these management methods
biodiversity is a living source and key source of support of specifies the rules for villagers to use the community seed bank:
their agricultural heritage. They sum up the sustainable way If the local villagers really need to use seeds from the community
of living as follows: “saving seeds by the people, conserving seed bank for field planting, they can do so with the approval of the
crops in farmers’ fields, stocking harvest in farmers’ granaries, president of the Terrace Association and the full-time custodian. If
economizing grain with a gentle appetite.” The Shexian Dryland you take 1.0kg seeds from the community seed bank for planting,
Terrace System of Wangjinzhuang Village was identified as you need to return 1.5 kg seeds after harvest. The seeds that are
a China-National Important Agricultural Heritage System taken away must have a backup in the community seed bank. The
(China-NIAHS) in 2014 and nominated to become a Globally farmers contend that it is not difficult to repay what you borrow
Important Agricultural Heritage System (GIAHS) in 2019 and thus the seeds of the community seed bank will be constantly
as well. flowing, like water.
With the abundance of traditional varieties, three She County The villagers expect the seeds in the community seed
Dryland Terrace Conservation and Utilization Association (the bank to remain viable so that they can access them when
Terrace Association) members decided to set up a community needed. On 1 March 2020, the key members of the Terrace
seed bank. They want to use it as a public space to showcase Association discussed and started setting up seed multiplication
the achievements of Wangjinzhuang villagers in conserving fields and invited interested villagers to do the same. This
seeds and to remind everyone that “old” seeds are quietly will allow selecting plants (seeds) that are well adapted to the
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Song et al. Community Seed Banks in China
TABLE 5 | Commonly grown crop varieties and traditional varieties of Wangjinzhuang village.
Crop Number of Variety type/name
varieties
Maize 5 Golden queen, White horsetooth, Purple maize, Three rough yellow maize, Three rough
white maize
Millet 22 Lai wuxian, Lou miqing, Pi maqing, Qing gu, Hong miao lao laibai, Little huangcao, Luo
huahuang, Shanxi yichihuang, White seedling mao millet, White seedling red millet, Old millet,
White millet, White seedling millet, Red millet, Yellow millet, Broomcorn millet, Soft millet, Lao
laibai, Maogu, San bianchou, Ya talou, Ma jizui
Sorghum 6 Red sorghum, Broom sorghum, Tall red sorghum, Qitou sorghum, white sorghum, Shaozhou
sorghum
Legumes 25 Civet cat small beans, Red small beans, Small white beans, Two black lentils, Small
black-faced green lentils, Little green lentils, Large green lentils, Small soybean, Two soybean,
Red and small soybean, Two little red bean, Little red bean, Little green lentils, Little white bean,
Little red bean, Brown lentil, Small southern beans, Mung bean, Pea, Lima bean, Broad bean,
Cowpea (purple long and green long), Large black lentils, Small black lentils, Small green lentils
Common bean 12 Black mosi bean, Yellow mosi bean, Bean, Purple bean, Flower skin bean, Green bean, Little
Cai bean, Purple eyebrow bean, Green eyebrow bean, Broad eyebrow bean, Small white
eyebrow bean, Purple wattle eyebrow
Cucurbits 12 Green pumpkin, Old pumpkin, Local pumpkin, Red pumpkin, Yellow pumpkin, Red and long
Chinese cucumber, Long sponge gourd, Little sponge gourd, Vegetable marrow, Cucumber,
Bottle gourd, Balsam pear
Fruits and vegetables 6 Chao Tian Jiao (Capsicum annuum var. conoides), Large hot pepper, Large tomato, Little
tomato, Little hot pepper, Long eggplant, Round eggplant, Vegetable pepper
Tubers 6 Red mustard root, Mustard, Stem mustard, Red/White mustard root, Turnip, Small mustard
root
Radish 6 Green head old white radish, Purple white radish, Red radish, Whipstick yellow radish, White
radish, Yellow radish
Oilseeds 6 Hemp, Sesame, Peanut, Sunflower, Canola, Perilla
current local climate. With continuous selection each year, this small-scale, market-driven crop variety improvement practices
living conservation of germplasm resources can also enrich the have revived some varieties that were previously abandoned by
collective wealth of Wangjinzhuang village. The seed production farmers, allowing them to be reintroduced and regenerated under
will be organic-ecological to meet the small-scale seed needs of new conditions. The same varieties are often neglected by public
the village. institutes and commercial seed companies, which can be seen as
a shortcoming or a missed opportunity or both.
Case 3. Yuefengdao: Banking Seeds for Yuefengdao Organic Farm is located west of Kunshan City
Organic Agriculture and a Healthy Diet in and close to the Yangcheng Lake, Jiangsu province, covering
an area of 13 hectares. The farm is situated in a wetland
the East of China
reserve and has been operating organic farming since 2010.
The third case study focuses on the access and utilization of
Kunshan used to be an important rice cultural region with a
local seeds for adding value to seeds and produce. The research long history of paddy culture. 6,000-year-old carbonized rice seed
reveals that community seed banks can contribute to organic was unearthed in Chuodunshan village, which is located only
farming by providing diverse seeds. Some seed banks in China 1 km away from the farm. After 40 years of rapid economic
have the function of access and utilization, which is often linked development, Kunshan has become one of the most developed
to a niche market, providing seeds for agroecological farming or counties in China, but the current agriculture model of large-
new varieties with specific flavors for consumers. In the context scale activities and high use of chemical inputs has led to
of ecological agriculture, rural communities and smallholder depletion of natural resources and environmental pollution.
farmers have difficulty in accessing seeds that are organic certified Traditional farming practices were on the verge of disappearing.
or ecological, and the cost of saving and improving seeds remains Around 2010, remarkable changes started to take place due to a
high. If a community or eco-farm establishes its own seed bank policy shift and market transformation. In the city, the growing
to save local seeds at low cost, these seeds not only provide middle-income class emerged as critical consumers demanding
an adequate genetic resource for agroecology, but also supply healthy food. At the same time, the local government put great
new varieties in an emerging market. Some seed banks have effort in conserving the wetlands around the Yangcheng Lake and
been integrated in community-level initiatives of PPB, PVS, and adopted environment-friendly agriculture as solution to mitigate
ecological seed production, further enhancing their vitality. The the deteriorating environment.
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Song et al. Community Seed Banks in China
Since 2014, Yuefengdao Organic Farm cooperated with TABLE 6 | Crops/varieties conserved in the Kunshan seed bank (2020).
local communities to produce organic rice to demonstrate its
Crop/variety Amount of seed (kg)
commitment to support local farmers to practice agroecology
together with their traditional practices and a revitalized seed Suyunuo sticky rice 50
system. One of the problems farmers faced was that many rice Yaxuenuo sticky rice 35
and most vegetable seeds were only available on the market, Black rice 25
but with unknown quality and traceability, while they had
Potato 150
lost traditional varieties and seed saving practices. In 2015,
Sesame 2
Yuefengdao and Farmers’ Seed Network organized a baseline
Garlic 30
survey of the local seed system. This survey revealed that the rice
Black bean 2
landraces had almost disappeared while the dominant cultivars,
Mung bean 1
in particular Nanjing 46, were promoted by local agricultural
Red bean 1
research institutes, extension agents and seed companies. The
Broad bean 15
survey also revealed that the eight famous aquatic vegetables,
Soybean 5
including Manchurian wild rice, arrowhead, water caltrop,
Taro 150
watershield, gorgon fruit, water chestnut, lotus root, and water
fennel, are important in local food culture, but at risk of
extinction due to the habitat loss. On the positive side, the survey TABLE 7 | The area and production of Suyunuo.
indicated that farmers still conserve a few soybean landraces as
part of the seasonal diets. Year Area (mu)* Production (kg) Note
To address the troubling local seed supply situation, in 2017,
Yuefengdao Organic Farm set up a seed bank to save the most 2017 15 4,500
important varieties and landraces collected in the communities. 2018 1 200
Three types of crops are saved in the seed bank, including rice, 2019 0 0 Not grown this year
vegetables and endangered local crops. The seed bank has the 2020 3 Not yet known
function of access and utilization of seed providing for organic *1 mu,0.067 ha.
farming to meet market demand and consumer preferences.
Another function of the seed bank is to save crops with local
characteristics, such as aquatic vegetables and taro, for future
in the regeneration of Suyunuo and willing to work with the
utilization. The seed bank is currently managed by three highly
farm to improve it. The case of Suyunuo demonstrates that
qualified farm staff who are familiar with local varieties and
organic farms can benefit greatly from support by public research
have rich farming experiences. Regeneration of the varieties in
institutes, in particular when repatriating seed from the genebank
turn contributes to the transmission of local farming knowledge.
to farmers’ fields.
Other activities include participatory soybean varieties selection,
community agrobiodiversity registration and a diversity block.
With regard to the vegetables and rice with market value, the DISCUSSION AND PROSPECTS
farm grows 13 types and 105 crop varieties each year, of which
vegetables account for 80%. The farm saves seed of 13 vegetables This succinct review of community seed banks in China and
(including four specialty crops) in the community seed bank the detailed description of three cases, points to the utility and
based on the criteria of technical feasible, good taste and high viability of this form of farmer organization in the country,
quality (Table 6). In 2016, the farm set up a diversity block in particular when supported by research and extension. In a
of 25 rice varieties to test their adaptability; six were selected relatively short period of time, community seed banks with varied
for production, including three of which seed are stored in the functions have been established in different parts of the country,
seed bank. responding to particular local histories, needs and interests,
Among the rice varieties, Suyunuo stands out. It is a local and research and development trajectories. Community seed
sticky rice variety with special color, aroma and taste. In 2015, banks are good examples of how Chinese farmers’ and their
the farm obtained a small amount of rice seed from the genebank communities continue to contribute to the maintenance and
of the Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences to examine the improvement of genetic resources. They are also a practical
local adaptability and market response of this “lost” variety. It mechanism to recognize and gain respect and support for
proved quite difficult to plant, breed and promote Suyunuo after farmers’ rights in terms of research, policy and law. The
it had been abandoned for more than two decades (Table 7). multiple functions and services of community seed banks, and
The changing ecology and climate in the area require technical the efforts made by smallholder farmers who manage them,
knowhow to re-adapt the variety. After 5 years of planting, should be at the heart of China’s conservation of agricultural
Suyunuo still has a short growing period, poor pest resistance biodiversity policymaking.
and high incidence of lodging, resulting in yield loss. On the The three cases demonstrate the diversity and versatility
consumer end, this “lost” variety needs time to reappear on the of community seed banking “the Chinese way.” The Guzhai
table. Currently, the local agricultural extensionists are interested case shows the multiple functions of a community seed
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Song et al. Community Seed Banks in China
bank, including as a platform for rural development. The and farmers’ seed systems to effectively protect and
Wangjinzhuang Farmer Seed Bank is an example of a specialized utilize the resources of our traditional crop varieties
community seed bank, building on a long history of seed and farmers’ varieties.
saving, but responsive to the demands of modern time. The
a After the community systematically identifies and collects
Yuefengdao Organic Farm demonstrates how diversified organic
traditional crop varieties, establish community seed
conservation and seed production can successfully be combined
banks (short-term) to standardize the seed storage and
to create an enterprise that caters to the growing market of
management system.
healthy and nutritious food. Community seed banks can benefit
b Conserve community germplasm resources in national
greatly from technical support, in particular during the start-
and local medium- and long-term genebanks, with mutual
up period, such as provided by the Farmers’ Seed Network.
backup and access and benefit-sharing mechanisms with
The organization of collaborative activities, such as training,
the national conservation system.
participatory crop experimentation and seed/food fairs, can
c Make full use of the resources of national and local
contribute to sustainability.
community seed banks to carry out participatory field
Perhaps surprisingly, the review also reveals that the China
evaluation, improvement and variety selection.
experience does not only offer rich empirical evidence, but does
make an important contribution to theory as well. The two 2. Use the internationally accepted system of access and benefit-
newly identified functions, adding value to seed and produce sharing of genetic resources, as regulated by the International
and seed systems linkages and collaboration, and several new Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture
services, make the conceptual framework more robust. The (ITPGRFA) and the Nagoya Protocol on Access to Genetic
revised framework will be useful for initiatives to establish new Resources and the Fair and Equitable Sharing of Benefits
community seed banks, offering a pathway that can lead to more Arising from their Utilization to the Convention on Biological
sustainable community seed banks by embedding them (more) Diversity, and national regulations on the protection of
firmly in the larger agro-economic and institutional systems. It geographical indications to explore new community seed
is important step forward given that (lack of) sustainability has banks benefit-sharing mechanisms, protect and motivate
been one of the major challenges (Vernooy et al., 2015). farmers to participate in seed selection and conservation.
It is evident that community seed banks can not only conserve
seed (including of “lost” varieties), but also provide smallholder The Farmers’ Seed Network has an important role to play to
farmers and organic farms with low-cost and high-quality seed advance the community seed bank agenda in China. This will be
of various crop types. However, currently, in China they face done through active participation in international collaborative
two challenges: (1) keeping seeds healthy and qualified for networks, increased knowledge exchanges and promotion of
inspection and quarantine; (2) having effective participation and the common development of plant genetic resources through
management mechanisms. Both challenges can be addressed by the South-South cooperation framework. The Farmers’ Seed
offering targeted technical and managerial training. The Farmers’ Network is also promoting the “From Seed to Table” initiative,
Seed Network will utilize the translated Farmers Handbook to which started in 2018, to link community seed banks to other
provide training for seed bank members across the country to stakeholders, thus linking producers to consumers directly,
improve these skills. encouraging interaction and exchanges, thus building up a living
The main findings of the China Seed Policy assessment seed system and resilient food system.
jointly conducted by the Chinese Academy of Sciences, the
Farmers’ Seed Network and other institutions, present three DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT
major farming models in China: the smallholder farming model
in the Southwest, the emerging organic farmingmodel in the east, The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be
made available by the authors, without undue reservation.
and the industrial farming model in the north (Farmers’ Seed
Network China [FSN]., 2019). Under different agroecological
conditions, the five community seed bank functions should ETHICS STATEMENT
be tailored to local farming models and development paths
Ethical review and approval was not required for the study
and supported by appropriate policies. Scientists from IEMP-
on human participants in accordance with the local legislation
UNEP and KIB of the Chinese Academy of Sciences working
and institutional requirements. Written informed consent for
with the Farmers’ Seed Network have drafted a policy brief
participation was not required for this study in accordance with
submitted to the Academy on “Building Government-led, Multi-
the national legislation and the institutional requirements.
stakeholder Participation and Benefit Sharing Mechanisms in
Crop Genetic Resource Conservation and Healthy Development
of the Farmers’ Seed Systems.” In this policy recommendation, AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS
two of five suggestions are related to community seed banks.
RV and YS: development of methodology. XS and GL: field
These are:
research. XS, GL, RV, and YS: data analysis and manuscript. RV:
1. To establish a mechanism for backup and genetic resource review and editing. YS: fundraising. All authors contributed to
sharing between national and local germplasm banks the article and approved the submitted version.
Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems | www.frontiersin.org 12 April 2021 | Volume 5 | Article 630400
Song et al. Community Seed Banks in China
FUNDING the inputs provided by our colleagues from the supporting
institutions involved.
The work on community seed banks has benefitted from the
financial support of Oxfam Hong Kong (Beijing office) and Brot
für die Welt.
SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The Supplementary Material for this article can be found
We acknowledge the valuable collaboration of the members online at: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fsufs.
of the community seed banks included in the study and 2021.630400/full#supplementary-material
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cgspace.cgiar.org/handle/10568/101495 (accessed November 16, 2020). Conflict of Interest: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the
absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a
Vernooy, R., Shrestha, P., and Sthapit, B. (eds.). (2015). Community
potential conflict of interest.
Seed Banks: Origins, Evolution and Prospects. London: Routledge.
doi: 10.4324/9781315886329 Copyright © 2021 Song, Li, Vernooy and Song. This is an open-access article
Vernooy, R., Sthapit, B., Galluzzi, G., and Shrestha, P. (2014). The multiple distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY).
functions and services of community seed banks. Resources 3, 636–656. The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the
doi: 10.3390/resources3040636 original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original
Vernooy, R., Sthapit, B., Otieno, G., Shrestha, P., and Gupta, A. (2017). The roles publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice.
of community seed banks in climate change adaption. Dev. Pract. 27, 316–327. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these
doi: 10.1080/09614524.2017.1294653 terms.
Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems | www.frontiersin.org 14 April 2021 | Volume 5 | Article 630400