Controlled pollination and reproductive strategies in coconut: A framework for farmer-led breeding, seednut production, and in situ conservation

This narrative review recommends an innovative, farmer-friendly controlled-pollination approach for smallholder farmers to produce their own coconut ( Cocos nucifera ) seednuts on farm. Over millennia, these smallholder farmers have created a wide range of coconut diversity and associated traditional knowledge. However, for seednuts produced under natural, open pollination, the male parent identity is not known. Often, less than 10% of the offspring reproduce the desired parental type and traits. This paper summarizes key aspects of coconut’s complex reproductive biology in the context of its conservation and breeding. It outlines how small-scale farmers can contribute to expanding and conserving in situ coconut genetic diversity. In some countries, there are already profitable coconut seednut production companies. However, very few farmers currently sell their seednuts, and these are only available in very limited quantities. Opportunities exist for smallholder farmers to start new profitable seednut businesses, especially in countries where national services release only a few coconut varieties, and where demand for coconut seednuts for replanting is high. Measures are needed to establish farmer-produced quality seednut standards. Empowering smallholders to master pollination techniques could remove a longstanding barrier to coconut improvement. It also emphasizes a broader paradigm shift toward decentralized, farmer-driven conservation and use systems.