CGIAR GENDER Platform working papers

Permanent URI for this collectionhttps://hdl.handle.net/10568/115686

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Women’s collective action and its impact on their resilience in agri-food systems: a rapid evidence review
(Working Paper, 2025-06-30) Booker, Francesca; Duffy, Janine; Nicolini, Giulia; Núñez del Prado Nieto, Isabela; Wagner, Kata; Verma, Benu; Anbacha, Abiyot; Puskur, Ranjitha; Kori, Pooja
This rapid evidence review set out to explore the empirical evidence on how collective action among women has impacted their ability to cope with a shock or stress in the context of agri-food systems. The research question was: What are the differential impacts of women’s collective action on their resilience to climate, environmental, economic, health and/or political shocks and stressors in the context of agri-food systems in low-or middle-income countries? We conducted literature searches using Scopus, Google and organizational websites identifying 33 studies covering 27 low- or middle-income countries for inclusion in the review. The form of women’s collective action most covered in the evidence was related to saving groups and were in rural settings. Using thematic analysis, the authors detailed five groups of impact: (1) access to finance for food security and household costs; (2) access to finance to diversify and enhance livelihoods; (3) peer support and resource sharing; (4) knowledge and skills training; and (5) resilience of the collective action. We also conclude with five broad reflections: (1) challenges around defining and measuring resilience; (2) limits to the financial sustainability of women’s collective action; (3) questions about the longevity of knowledge transfer in women’s collective action; (4) limited insights on moderating factors; and (5) more investigation into the causal pathways through which collective action impacts on women’s resilience. We caution overinterpreting the findings that were based on few types of women’s collective action, scant detail on definitions and measures of resilience, and a bias to observational inquiry. We underline that a lack of intersectional inquiry undermines our ability to understand women beyond typical treatment in research as one homogenous group. A key priority is that future research must use an intersectional lens, exploring how factors like age, ethnicity, and socioeconomic status (as examples) influence access to and benefits from collective action and, in turn, create differential outcomes for women’s resilience.
Enhancing women’s empowerment and climate-adaptive capacities in aquaculture in climate hotspots in Zambia
(Working Paper, 2025-05-30) Mudege, N.N.; Lecoutere, E.; Arhin-Sam, K.; Kihoro, E.; Kakwasha, K.; Manyise, T.
Aquaculture, the farming of aquatic organisms like fish, is crucial for food security, income and employment in sub-Saharan Africa. However, gender inequalities hinder women’s agency and climate-adaptive capacities in this sector. Women often face limited access to productive assets and climate-smart technologies and experience restrictive social norms. These constraints result in gendered divisions of labor, inequitable benefit distribution and disparities in resource access and power within the aquaculture value chain. Climate change affects water quality, fish health and overall production, thereby posing economic challenges to communities that rely on aquaculture and exacerbating gender inequalities. This study explores whether addressing gender constraints in aquaculture can enhance women’s empowerment and climate-adaptive capacities. The study uses a mixed-methods quasi-experimental design and draws on primary data collected in October 2022 in Northern and Luapula provinces, climate change hotspots where gender equality and climate-adaptive capacities are acutely challenged. It examines the extent to which gender-intentional and gender-responsive aquaculture interventions by WorldFish in Zambia that address some of these constraints—such as women’s limited agency and limited access to technology, information and knowledge—are associated with women’s empowerment, better food and nutrition outcomes and enhanced climate-adaptive capacities. The research additionally compares project-level Women's Empowerment in Agriculture Index (pro-WEAI) measures between treatment and control groups. Findings reveal a positive relationship between these interventions and women’s access to aquaculture information, involvement in decision-making, adoption of climate-smart practices, and improved food security. However, a weak negative relationship is noted regarding women’s control over fishpond income. Qualitative insights emphasize the importance of women role models and of cooperatives to improve access to land as well as the challenges of gendered roles in control of resources and in decision-making.
A synthesis of changes in women’s empowerment in two portfolios of agricultural and livestock development projects
(Working Paper, 2025-04) Galiè, Alessandra; Malapit, Hazel J.; Njiru, Nelly; Ferguson, Nathaniel; Omondi, Immaculate A.; Muchiri, Caroline; Lecoutere, Els
The intrinsic and instrumental value of gender equality and women’s empowerment is recognized by Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 5. Evidence on positive changes to women’s empowerment in agriculture and livestock interventions is expanding but is still relatively limited. Portfolios of projects focused on women’s empowerment through agriculture and livestock interventions can provide key insights across approaches and contexts. In this working paper, we synthesize evaluations of the effects of interventions with empowerment objectives from two portfolios of agricultural development projects: the Livestock Vaccine Innovation Fund and the Cultivate Africa’s Future projects. These projects were implemented in 10 African countries and one South Asian country between 2017 and 2023, and funded by Canada’s International Development Research Centre (together with others). The projects used the project-level Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture Index (pro-WEAI) and the Women’s Empowerment in Livestock Index (WELI) tools to measure empowerment. The main objective of this study is to examine whether the agriculture- and livestock-related development projects impacted women’s empowerment at the portfolio level, to draw conclusions for the design and implementation of future project portfolios that aim to enhance gender equality and women’s empowerment. We use both quantitative and qualitative data reported by the projects in the two portfolios. The quantitative analysis synthesizes impact estimates on WELI and pro-WEAI aggregate indices from projects using quasi-experimental or experimental designs, as well as percentage changes in these indices between baseline and endline assessments. The qualitative analysis examines patterns of commonalities or differences in how empowerment is conceptualized, how it evolves over the course of the projects, and how project participants perceive changes in their lived empowerment experience. The quantitative results show mostly null findings, consistent with the emerging empowerment literature that suggests moving the needle on women’s empowerment requires intentional programming and appropriate levels of investment. We find the most promising results are from projects with explicit strategies to influence and transform gender norms. The qualitative findings highlight the importance of capturing local conceptualizations of empowerment to contextualize empowerment and its quantitative assessments. The results show that resource ownership is a key indicator of empowerment for both women and men. Women, however, most value the ability to manage their finances independently while men most value being able to support other family members. Both women and men see the value of groups for their empowerment. Finally, women’s empowerment is tied to men’s support. The results provide much needed information on the most effective approaches to support women’s empowerment, indicating that intentional and transformative approaches are most beneficial. Methodologically, the working paper shows (1) the importance of portfolio projects with shared goals and consistent measurement tools for women’s empowerment, (2) the complexity of combining the goals of research and those of development partners, (3) the value of using both quantitative and qualitative methods, and (4) the need for dedicated financial resources to support systematic impact assessments, meta-analysis and synthesis work.
A review of gender integration in African food-system policies: insights from Nigeria, Tanzania, Egypt and Kenya
(Working Paper, 2025-03) Frimpong-Wiafe, Belinda; Muchiri, Caroline; Mawia, Harriet; Enahoro, Dolapo K.
Ensuring gender equality is a crucial aspect of achieving development goals, particularly in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). Policymaking stands as a key avenue through which governments can actively pursue gender-responsive development. In LMICs—where agriculture often plays a pivotal role in the economy, and rural livelihoods are closely tied to food value chains—the integration of gender in agricultural and food-system policies is paramount. This is particularly true for many African countries. Although many African governments have recognized the importance of gender equality in agricultural and related sectors, gender disparities still persist in these sectors. This study evaluates national policies across various sectors in Nigeria, Tanzania, Egypt and Kenya, considering gender-based distinctions in the needs and priorities of women and men. Employing tools adapted to the broader context of food systems, the analysis of 54 sectoral policy documents reveals an encouraging pattern at first glance—that 89.9 percent of documents integrate gender considerations and perspectives. However, we identify specific gaps in the integration of gender considerations in national policies related to food systems, such as agriculture, livestock, and climate change. This could differentially affect how women and men derive benefits from ongoing or future changes in the countries’ food systems.
Gender integration in food-system policies: an adapted policy assessment framework
(Working Paper, 2025-03-30) Mawia, Harriet; Muchiri, Caroline; Frimpong-Wiafe, Belinda; Enahoro, Dolapo K.
Food systems are complex and include multifaceted processes in food production, aggregation, processing, distribution, consumption and post-consumption disposal of food products. Ensuring gender equality within food systems is important because they connect various domains, such as health and nutrition, climate change, environment, fisheries, livestock and agriculture. This interconnectedness within food systems leads to significant implications for human health, including nutrition and diets, as well as climate and environment-related indicators. Interactions of gender within these domains complicate the equitable derivation and distribution of benefits from agricultural activities by women and men. Therefore, policies governing food systems in low- and middle-income countries need to integrate gender-responsive approaches into their design, implementation and monitoring, recognizing the multifaceted processes of food systems and how gender interacts with these processes. The existing tools and frameworks that assess gender integration within policies about food systems do not extend beyond the scope of agricultural production into other interacting domains. This working paper addresses this gap by developing an enhanced framework for evaluating gender integration in policy documents within and beyond agriculture. The thematic reach of this framework includes agriculture, livestock, fisheries, climate change, health and nutrition, environment, and natural resource management. By leveraging a gender and food-systems framework that deconstructs food-systems functions, and how they impact women and men differently, the framework offers structured guidance for incorporating gender-related considerations within policy documents relating to food systems. The framework also has implications for participatory policy processes—design, implementation and monitoring—that aim to foster gender-equitable benefits from food-systems interventions.
A framework for measuring and tracking the climate resilience of women in agrifood systems
(Working Paper, 2025-02-15) Marimo, Pricilla; Anbacha, Abiyot; Puskur, Ranjitha; Bindu, C. R.; Malhotra, Aayushi; Kori, Pooja
Despite numerous studies that develop, highlight or adapt frameworks on resilience in general, there is a lack of frameworks and tools that measure and track the (climate) resilience of women in agrifood systems. A scoping review of scholarly and grey literature was conducted to assess available resilience frameworks and indicators, adapt relevant components and develop a new framework that is specific to measuring and tracking the resilience of women in agrifood systems. A total of 83 studies were included in the review. Studies that focus on individual resilience are almost non-existent, with most frameworks focusing on household- or community-level resilience. Only three studies were found that explicitly focus on women-centered resilience indicators. However, these studies are based on case studies from Asia or the Middle East, measure resilience at larger scales (household, community and country) and do not necessarily assess climate resilience. A number of studies that highlight gender and resilience aspects exist, but most do not explicitly include climate resilience, focus on agrifood systems, or include a framework or indicators. The proposed framework is anchored around resilience capacities—anticipatory, absorptive, adaptive and transformative. We propose four main indicator categories and indices that correspond to the capacities. The proposed framework and indicators can be adapted for different contexts, offering valuable tools to enhance the understanding, assessment and tracking of the climate resilience of women in agrifood systems. These tools can help in decision-making and the design of effective strategies to strengthen women’s resilience, ensuring they are better equipped to face climate-related challenges.
Can machine-learning models predict gendered labor statistics using mobile phone and geospatial data?
(Working Paper, 2024-12-30) Seymour, Greg; Follett, Lendie; Henderson, Heath; Ferguson, Nathaniel
High-quality data on rural women’s and men’s labor is imperative for tracking progress on gender equality and women’s empowerment, and for evaluating development interventions aimed at these outcomes. Yet, there remains a general lack of sex-disaggregated data on unpaid care and domestic work, earnings, employment and entrepreneurship. Researchers are increasingly looking to digital technologies, such as mobile phones, as an emerging data source with significant potential for closing gender data gaps. In this paper, we attempt to use mobile phone data and machine-learning models to predict gendered labor-market indicators for a large sample of mobile phone users in Ghana. Although our models predict mobile phone subscribers’ sex with reasonable accuracy, they predict women’s and men’s labor-market outcomes only slightly better than random guessing. The models’ mixed results may be partly attributed to noisiness in the data due to disruptions in mobile phone and employment-related behaviors caused by COVID-19. Our results also point to potential methodological limitations in using machine-learning methods and mobile phone data to estimate gendered labor-market indicators, and more generally suggest that we should proceed cautiously when thinking about leveraging digital technologies and machine learning to close data gaps. We conclude the paper with several recommendations for how the methodology might be refined in future work.
Power with: conceptualizing and measuring women’s collective agency
(Working Paper, 2024) Meinzen-Dick, Ruth S.; ElDidi, Hagar; Pereira, Audrey; Heckert, Jessica; Kosec, Katrina; Nchanji, Eileen; Seymour, Greg; Doss, Cheryl
Collective agency, or power with, is fundamental to feminist approaches to empowerment. Yet despite the growth in measures of women’s empowerment in recent years, and the prevalence of group-based approaches to foster empowerment, conceptualization and empirical measurement of collective agency remains a critical gap. This paper attempts to bridge this gap through a literature review, expert opinions and the experience of researchers working with practitioners who are mobilizing women’s groups in four case studies. We develop a conceptual framework based on Kabeer’s (1999, 2002) framework of resources, agency and achievements. We then use that framework for mapping key concepts related to collective agency, including collective efficacy, collective action, collective achievements, and tangible and intangible resources (including social capital). We discuss the importance of considering these key concepts at the individual and at the collective levels. We illustrate potential methods and challenges of operationalizing these concepts through four case study projects in India, Guatemala, Uganda and Nigeria, and discuss the challenges of developing a common instrument to measure collective agency, in theory and in practice. With examples of how key concepts related to collective agency have been operationalized, the conceptual framework offers guidance for moving beyond simplistic notions that forming groups automatically empowers women. It provides a way to study how different types of groups effectively help women achieve individual and collective goals. Combined with individual respondent characteristics, group-level measures can help researchers and practitioners understand how women can exercise voice and agency in different types of groups. The group-level measures also examine how group composition, organizational structures and decision-making processes impact collective agency and effectiveness.
Bridging norms and resources: Enhancing gender equality and adaptive capacities in Bangladesh’s climate-stricken agrifood systems
(Working Paper, 2024-10-15) Akhter, Sadika; Lecoutere, Els; Kihoro, E.; Kamruzzaman, M.; Dey, Durjoy
In the context of changing agrifood systems (AFS) and climate change, it is critical to uncover how gender equality and adaptive capacity within AFS can be simultaneously addressed. This study tests hypotheses derived from a Gendered Food Systems framework and recent frameworks linking climate change and gender equality in AFS. The hypotheses suggest that reducing structural constraints to gender equality in AFS will contribute to women’s empowerment and more gender-equal climate-adaptive capacities and AFS outcomes, such as food and nutrition outcomes. We test these hypotheses by examining the effects of a first intervention, ‘Engaging Communities and Authority to Tackle Oppressions’ (ECATTO), which addressed discriminatory gender norms and attitudes, and a second intervention ‘Strengthening Household Ability to Respond to Development Opportunities’ (SHOUHARDO III), which addressed access to resources and extension services, both implemented in Kishoreganj district, a climate and gender inequality hotspot in Bangladesh. We collected primary gender-disaggregated intrahousehold data among treatment and control populations in March 2023 and used quasi-experimental methods to test the hypotheses. ECATTO proved effective at improving awareness among both women and men about women’s rights and improving positive attitudes toward women’s leadership. It also increased women’s confidence in assuming leadership roles and led to a decrease in incidents of violence in households, as reported by men. However, it did not result in a change in women’s own reported experiences of violence. SHOUHARDO III promoted the adoption of climate-smart farming and livestock practices by women while also reducing intrahousehold disparities in access to resources and services. Both ECATTO and SHOUHARDO III contributed to increasing women’s empowerment in agriculture. Additionally, ECATTO was associated with an increase in women’s dietary diversity. Our study findings confirm some of the hypotheses, indicating that challenging structural barriers to gender inequality associated with discriminatory norms and attitudes, and challenging unequal access to resources and extension services can support women’s empowerment in climate-affected AFS. Enhancing gender-equal access to resources can also support gender-equal climate-adaptive capacities, suggesting a promising avenue to improve gender equality and climate-adaptive capacity simultaneously in AFS. Moreover, challenging discriminatory norms and attitudes has the potential to increase gender equality in nutrition outcomes, which may not be achieved solely by increasing access to resources.
Scoping review on gender-disaggregated data in climate-smart agriculture
(Working Paper, 2024-08-30) Wright, Peter; Deering, Karl; Tasew, Abinet; Smith, Emma; Miruka, Maureen; Mohanraj, Pranati; Swira, Henry
The focus of this scoping review is to understand the extent gender-disaggregated data are available in climate-smart agriculture (CSA) programming, identify gaps in the collection and analysis of this data, and suggest ways to bridge those gaps to reduce gender inequalities that may prevent women and girls from benefiting from CSA programming. The methodology involves a qualitative approach that uses a desk review of selected literature and key informant interviews. To identify relevant literature, CARE used key words to conduct a text search that included peer-reviewed and published literature, gray literature, official data sets and sources and other qualitative evidence. The key informant interviews included a convenience sample of 11 key informants representing multilateral agencies, an international nongovernment organization program, a local nongovernment organization (NGO) program, government programs, a national agricultural research institute, an international research institute, and a private sector program. The key informant interviews were conducted to address several objectives, including assessing gaps in collecting, analyzing, and using disaggregated data for gender, social, economic and demographic intersectional variables in CSA programming; identifying indicators and tools used to measure project outcomes and impacts; and understanding the periodicity of data collection and people involved in such data collection. The CSA framework has three primary objectives: production, resilience and mitigation. Gender equality, social inclusion and other equity-oriented objectives are not included in these three objectives. Gender was retrospectively included as something that should be “mainstreamed” in the pursuit of the three primary objectives. The Food and Agriculture Organization’s (FAO) seminal paper on CSA in 2010 did not address gender, gender equality or equity. As a result, there are no tools, methods or metrics that address gender equality in the paper. The weakness of the CSA framework has become more apparent over time, and the discourse and practice on gender in agriculture has progressed from sensitivity and mainstreaming toward responsiveness and eventually transformation. However, there has been no commitment to specific actions and measurement systems that would track progress, illustrating the lack of expectation and ambition for advancing gender equality within CSA.
Integrating social inclusion perspectives in agricultural food systems research for development: A background paper
(Working Paper, 2024-06-30) Cullen, Beth; Debevec, Liza
This paper: (1) defines social inclusion, (2) summarizes current research about social inclusion in agri-food systems in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs), (3) outlines the relevance of a social inclusion perspective in agricultural and food system research for development, (4) reflects on the complementarity/intersectionality of a social inclusion perspective and a gender perspective, (5) proposes a position for CGIAR on social inclusion, and (6) proposes an approach to key indicators of impact for social inclusion in agri-food systems. This paper draws on relevant peer-reviewed literature and grey literature, including institutional strategies, guidelines, frameworks and toolkits, and donor publications. In addition, the authors conducted 11 interviews with researchers currently working within CGIAR, former CGIAR employees and external development practitioners working in gender and social inclusion and who are familiar with CGIAR’s work. It was important to gather theoretical and academic perspectives, while also grounding the recommendations in the realities of research for development processes. Information from these interviews has informed and helped shape the content and recommendations of this paper.
Youth in international agricultural research for development: A background paper
(Working Paper, 2024-07-30) Thorsen, Dorte; Glover, Dominic; Cabral, Lidia
Youth is recognized as a key demographic in international agricultural and rural development. Although urbanization may absorb some of the youth population, agrifood systems will provide significant employment in the foreseeable future, notably in rural and peri-urban areas (Girard 2023; Dolislager et al. 2021). Young men and women hold large stakes in the future of sustainable agrifood systems, and they are recognized as an important target group for agricultural research for development (AR4D) interventions. How then should the organizations that conduct and implement AR4D projects and programs engage with youth? How should these organizations orient themselves to include youth in the research process and be sensitized to their needs and priorities? How can they conduct research, and design and develop new technologies, in ways that take into account the different needs and capabilities of youth, as well as the social positions from which they act? How can AR4D activities be organized and focused to generate substantial benefits for youth? This paper was commissioned by the CGIAR GENDER Impact Platform Its aim is to inform the Platform’s efforts to support the integration of a youth perspective within the agricultural and food system research-for-development initiatives undertaken by CGIAR and its partners. The objective is to guide the GENDER Platform, CGIAR and its collaborators to conduct research and develop new technologies that advance gender equality, take account of the variation in young people’s experiences, and create opportunities for youth within agricultural and food systems in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). This defines the scope of the paper, which is addressed principally to the 15 CGIAR Research Centers, and their national and international partners, which conduct research and innovation activities that aim to contribute to agricultural and food systems transformation. The paper is also intended to be relevant and useful to other national, international, philanthropic and non-governmental organizations involved in the design, conduct or evaluation of AR4D programs. This paper will assist CGIAR Centers—particularly those affiliated to the One CGIAR framework agreement—to realize their strategic aims and objectives with respect to youth. The paper will also be useful to other AR4D organizations and professionals involved in the design, implementation or evaluation of strategies, projects and programs across the agrifood domain because these programs typically involve or affect youth. A key objective of the One CGIAR Research Strategy to 2030 is to “offer rewarding opportunities to 267 million young people who are not in employment, education, or training (NEETs)” (CGIAR System Organization 2021, 19). This strategy extends the work done during the preceding strategy period, as the former CGIAR Research Programs (CRPs) all framed youth strategies in their second phases (2017–2022).
A review of social inclusion guidelines, methods and tools
(Working Paper, 2024-07-15) Cullen, Beth; Debevec, Liza
The concept of social inclusion—the process of improving the terms of participation in society—is gaining influence. This paper identifies, reviews and curates social inclusion resources for agri-food systems research. The paper analyzes how resources frame social inclusion and assesses the extent they adhere to social inclusion principles. After an introduction to social inclusion and its evolution since the 1970s, we discuss how social inclusion has been mobilised within the agri-food systems research sector and the development landscape. Using a mostly qualitative approach, we classify and analyze a selection of social inclusion guidelines, frameworks, methods and tools. We evaluate this selection based on criteria identified from a review of social inclusion literature, highlight good practices and identify gaps. In conclusion, we offer recommendations to inform the design and use of future AR4D social inclusion resources.
Gender and climate-resilient agriculture: A review of concepts and practical resources in support of gender-transformative change
(Working Paper, 2023-12-30) Nelson, Valerie; Forsythe, L.
To advance the use of gender-transformative approaches in climate-resilient agriculture (CRA), a review of practical resources that could support researchers and practitioners in applying gender and CRA was undertaken. The review consolidates and assesses diverse, practical resources—including research tools, methods and broader guidance—that aim to address gender inequalities/inequities, climate and agriculture, albeit to varying degrees. A conceptual framework was developed to guide the review, which helped to establish the gender dimensions of climate-resilience processes, and then to assess how the practical resources addressed these dimensions. The types of practical resources identified as critically important for climate resilience are as follows: (1) anticipatory, foresight and scenarios; (2) context and enabling environment; (3) causes and patterns of vulnerability and resilience; (4) CRA agricultural innovation systems; (5) CRA practices, technologies, innovations and services; (6) appraisal of specific CRA practices; (7) assessing CRA outcomes of processes and interventions; and (8) transformative change. In total, 44 practical resources were identified, of which 16 were identified as tools/ methods, and 28 as broader guidance documents (such as information notes). The review considers how gender and intersectionality are addressed in each practical resource, and the quality and ethical issues that may arise from using the resource. After mapping the existing resources, the review identified key gaps in the practical resources available. These gaps included: anticipatory and foresight resources, enabling environment to support gender and CRA, and analysis of gender and agricultural research and extension. A range of promising practical resources are identified that could be adapted to support gender-transformative approaches to CRA, from areas such as gender and value-chain analysis, gender-based violence, landscape approaches, migration, gender and social norms, and men and boys’ engagement.
Uncovering the intersection of women’s empowerment and gender equality for climate adaptive capacities in climate hotspots in Zambia
(Working Paper, 2023-12-30) Kihoro, Esther; Lecoutere, Els; Mishra, Avni
Women in agrifood systems in low- and middle-income countries are more likely than men to be adversely affected by climate change. They also have more limited climate-adaptive capacities due to socioeconomic and cultural factors, such as restricted access to resources, information and technology, discriminatory gender norms, and limited decision-making power. This study examines the extent to which women’s empowerment in the household is associated with intrahousehold gender equality for climate-adaptive capacities and practices in places experiencing significant climate change hazards and stressors. It also explores the strength of the association of different dimensions of women’s empowerment with gender equality in climate-adaptive capacities. The study concentrates on the Luapula and Northwestern provinces in Zambia, where women face high climate change risks. The study uses gender-disaggregated intrahousehold data that captures information about access to, and knowledge and adoption of, practices that support climate-adaptive capacities, women’s empowerment and perceived climate change. This data was collected from 199 households headed by a married or partnered couple, and regression analysis was applied to the data to test two hypotheses. The results support the first hypothesis of a positive correlation between women’s empowerment and intrahousehold gender equality to climate-adaptive capacities and, more specifically, access to technical advice on climate-smart agricultural practices. The results also support the second hypothesis that various dimensions of women’s empowerment—attitudes toward violence (norms), intrinsic agency, instrumental agency and collective agency—are associated with intrahousehold gender equality in climate-adaptive capacities in varying ways. The study’s findings highlight the complexity of the relationships between women’s empowerment and gender equality to climate-adaptive capacities in climate change hotspots, and emphasize the need for context-specific analyses and solutions.
Valuing control over income and time use: A field experiment in Rwanda
(Working Paper, 2023-03-23) Hickman, William; Kramer, Berber; Mollerstrom, Johanna; Seymour, Greg
Agricultural development programs often aim to increase women’s incomes and to enhance their control over family resources by offering new work opportunities, but as an unintended negative consequence, these programs may further increase women’s already heavy workloads. By means of a lab-in-the-field experiment in rural Rwanda, we elicit men’s and women’s valuations of control over income, time use, and trade-offs between them. We find that women are willing to sacrifice more household income to increase their control over income than their husbands are. However, the magnitude of respondents’ valuations of control over income is low. On the other hand, both women and men place a high value on time, and this relationship does not vary by gender. Consequently, development programs introducing time-saving practices, technologies, and services may have more positive welfare impacts than programs that primarily increase control over monetary resources.
How do couples in rural Tanzania make decisions? Findings from a novel mixed-methods approach for understanding intrahousehold decision-making
(Working Paper, 2023-12-15) Cole, Steven M.; Ferguson, Nathaniel; Heckert, Jessica; Mwakanyamale, Devis F.; Seymour, Greg; Feleke, S.; Fischer, Gundula; John, Innocensia; Lija, Z.; Nyaa, M.; Zacharia, H.
Fostering gender-transformative change for equality in food systems: A review of methods and strategies at multiple levels
(Working Paper, 2023-11-15) McDougall, C.; Elias, Marlène; Zwanck, D.; Diop, K.; Simao, J.; Galiè, Alessandra; Fischer, Gundula; Jumba, Humphrey; Najjar, Dina
Closing Gender Gaps in Productivity to Advance Gender Equality and Women’s Empowerment
(Working Paper, 2023-04-15) Puskur, R.; Jumba, H.; Reddy, B.; Etale, L.; Ragasa, Catherine; Mishra, A.; Mangheni, Margaret Najjingo; Nchanji, E.; Cole, S.
Addressing Gender Inequalities and Strengthening Women’s Agency for Climate-resilient and Sustainable Food Systems
(Working Paper, 2023-04-15) Bryan, Elizabeth; Alvi, Muzna; Huyer, Sophia; Ringler, Claudia
Climate change affects every aspect of the food system, including all nodes along agrifood value chains from production to consumption, the food environments in which people live, and outcomes, such as diets and livelihoods. Women and men often have specific roles and responsibilities within food systems, yet structural inequalities (formal and informal) limit women’s access to resources, services and agency. These inequalities affect the ways in which women and men experience and are affected by climate change. In addition to gender, other social factors are at play, such as age, education, marital status, and health and economic conditions. To date, most climate change policies, investments, and interventions do not adequately integrate gender. If climate-smart and climate-resilient interventions do not adequately take gender differences into account, they might exacerbate gender inequalities in food systems by, for instance, increasing women’s labor burden and time poverty, reducing their access to and control over income and assets, and reducing their decision-making power. At the same time, women’s contributions are critical to make food systems more resilient to the negative impacts of climate change, given their specialized knowledge, skills and roles in agrifood systems, within the household, at work and at the community level. Increasing the resilience of food systems requires going beyond addressing gendered vulnerabilities to climate change to create an enabling environment that supports gender equality and women’s empowerment, by removing structural barriers and rigid gender norms, and building equal power dynamics, as part of a process of gender -transformative change.

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